REVIEW

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation in Theory and

Practice: An Underexploited Opportunity
Matthew A. Bowker1,2

Abstract techniques; and (3) monitoring. Statistical predictive

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are ubiquitous lichen–bryo- modeling is a useful method for estimating the potential
phyte microbial communities, which are critical structural BSC condition of a rehabilitation site. Various rehabilita-
and functional components of many ecosystems. How- tion techniques attempt to correct, in decreasing order of
ever, BSCs are rarely addressed in the restoration litera- difficulty, active soil erosion (e.g., stabilization techni-
ture. The purposes of this review were to examine the ques), resource deficiencies (e.g., moisture and nutrient
ecological roles BSCs play in succession models, the augmentation), or BSC propagule scarcity (e.g., inoc-
backbone of restoration theory, and to discuss the prac- ulation). Success will probably be contingent on prior
tical aspects of rehabilitating BSCs to disturbed eco- evaluation of site conditions and accurate identification
systems. Most evidence indicates that BSCs facilitate of constraints to BSC reestablishment. Rehabilitation of
succession to later seres, suggesting that assisted recovery BSCs is attainable and may be required in the recovery of
of BSCs could speed up succession. Because BSCs are some ecosystems. The strong influence that BSCs exert
ecosystem engineers in high abiotic stress systems, loss of on ecosystems is an underexploited opportunity for re-
BSCs may be synonymous with crossing degradation storationists to return disturbed ecosystems to a desirable
thresholds. However, assisted recovery of BSCs may trajectory.
allow a transition from a degraded steady state to a more
desired alternative steady state. In practice, BSC rehabili- Key words: aridlands, cryptobiotic soil crusts, cryptogams,
tation has three major components: (1) establishment of degradation thresholds, state-and-transition models,
goals; (2) selection and implementation of rehabilitation succession.

Introduction fertility by N and C fixation (Evans & Ehleringer 1993;

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are communities of diminu- Lange et al. 1994). Consequently, BSCs are used as an
tive but important organisms that may include lichens, indicator of rangeland or soil health (Tongway & Hindley
mosses, liverworts, cyanobacteria, and others, which are 1996; Pellant et al. 2000).
intimately associated with the mineral soil surface, creat- Despite thousands of increasingly international studies
ing a cohesive thin horizontal layer. These communities documenting the important roles of these organisms
are common in ecosystems with high light input at the soil (Belnap & Lange 2003), BSCs are rarely discussed in the
surface, such as the world’s drylands (approximately 40% restoration literature. I examined every article and com-
of terrestrial ecosystems), but occur at least as ephemeral mentary (excluding book reviews, editorials, and introduc-
successional seres in most other terrestrial ecosystems of tions to special issues) in Restoration Ecology from 1996
the world. In stark contrast to physical crusts (Mando et al. to March 2006. During this time, 503 articles were pub-
1994), BSCs enhance soil quality by (1) aggregating soil lished, of which 8 presented data on BSCs or soil bryo-
particles, thereby reducing wind and water erosion (Mazor phyte–lichen communities, constituting less than 2% of
et al. 1996); (2) increasing soil surface temperature (Gold & the total and approximately 5% of the dryland studies.
Bliss 1995); (3) modifying the water run-off infiltration Another seven articles mentioned some form of BSC,
balance, shuttling run-off to run-on zones in some cases with no data presented. Four of the studies with data on
(Kidron & Yair 1997), and increasing infiltration in others BSCs (Lukešová 2001; WallisDeVries & Raemakers 2001;
(Brotherson & Rushforth 1983); and (4) increasing soil Grettarsdottir 2004; Rozé & Lemauviel 2004; Rayfield
et al. 2005) were conducted in mesic environments on mine
tailings, severely eroded land, coastal dunes, and disturbed
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Box 5640, forest, respectively. Only three articles with BSC data were
Flagstaff, AZ 86011, U.S.A. from drylands (Li et al. 2004; Maestre & Cortina 2004;
2
Address correspondence to M. A. Bowker, email [email protected]
Eldridge et al. 2006), despite dryland studies being gener-
Ó 2007 Society for Ecological Restoration International ally well represented (approximately 12% of the total).

MARCH 2007 Restoration Ecology Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 13–23 13

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

Why is this important ecosystem component so rarely

addressed in the restoration literature? Even a recent
book on BSCs devotes only a paragraph to BSC restora-
tion and rehabilitation (Belnap & Lange 2003). One might
argue that this is because restoration and rehabilitation
are moving away from emphasis on particular ecosystem
components and toward emphasis on the whole ecosys-
tem. However, as I argue subsequently, rehabilitation of
BSCs should primarily be undertaken to restore ecosys-
tem function rather than BSCs per se. Perhaps, the most
important reason for the absence of BSCs in restoration
literature is the perception that BSC rehabilitation is unre-
alistic because the best-known property of BSCs is their
slow unassisted recovery from disturbance. Unassisted
recovery times vary due to biotic and abiotic factors and
range from only 6 years for trampling disturbance in cool
deserts with fine soils (Belnap & Eldridge 2003), a century
for late successional lichens in Australia (Eldridge & Ferris
1999), to millennia for General Patton’s tank tracks in
the hottest, driest portions of North America (Belnap & Figure 1. In high abiotic stress ecosystems, BSCs develop as a per-
Warren 1998). Many estimates are linear extrapolations manent feature of the undisturbed system, whereas in low abiotic
based on short-term datasets, which may yield gross over- stress systems, BSCs are an ephemeral successional sere.
estimates (Belnap & Eldridge 2003). Perhaps, these
figures have been discouraging for those who wish to BSCs as a Successional Sere
incorporate BSCs in rehabilitation, but there is evidence
that assisted recovery may reduce this time period to Much of the conceptual backbone of restoration ecology
a scale more manageable in the context of a rehabilitation derives from ecological succession theory. The presence
project (Grettarsdottir et al. 2004; Li et al. 2004). Avail- of lichen–moss microbial communities as an early sere in
able data show that it is possible to restore BSCs and that terrestrial primary succession is widely known (Clements
it may be necessary in at least some cases. 1916; Rayburn et al. 1982; Wynn-Williams 1993; Kurina &
The purposes of this review was to (1) examine the Vitousek 1999; Lukešová 2001) but rarely specifically
roles of BSCs in facilitation of succession and transitions studied in the primary literature (Worley 1973). The uni-
of ecosystems among alternative steady states; (2) review versality of BSCs as early colonizers is not surprising when
available literature on the practical aspects of BSC reha- considering that BSCs may have comprised the earliest
bilitation; and (3) advance a conceptual framework for terrestrial communities in conditions that must have
implementing the rehabilitation of BSCs. closely resembled those during primary succession (Camp-
bell 1979; Watanabe et al. 2000; Prave 2002). Collectively,
BSCs have several life history traits that enhance their
ability to colonize severe environments: (1) wind dispersal
Roles of BSCs in Succession of small propagules (Lewis Smith 1993); (2) desiccation
To examine the potential importance of BSCs for ecologi- tolerance (Oliver et al. 1993); (3) several photoprotective
cal rehabilitation, we need a fundamental distinction pigments (Bowker et al. 2002); (4) N fixation (Evans &
between high and low abiotic stress systems (Grime 1979; Ehleringer 1993); and (5) C fixation (Lange et al. 1994).
Fig. 1). High abiotic stress systems have open canopies BSCs are potentially important in secondary succession,
due to various constraints such as severe resource limita- though this hypothesis has not been extensively studied
tions (e.g., water or nutrients), spatial constraints (e.g., (Booth 1941; Hunt et al. 1979; Ahti & Oksanen 1990). In
shallow rooting depth), or temporal constraints (e.g., short tallgrass prairies, fires may stimulate a pulse in the growth
growing seasons). In a low abiotic stress system, BSCs are and N fixation activity of soil surface cyanobacteria (Eisele
often among the colonizers in primary succession, and sec- et al. 1989). Similarly, in an old field, early N fixation was
ondary succession may provide a window of opportunity primarily attributable to cyanobacteria (Kapustka & Rice
for BSC establishment because light and other resources 1976). Booth (1941) hypothesized that after the cessation
are suddenly more available. These BSCs are eventually of plowing, the soil stabilizing cyanobacterial crusts were
displaced by a closed vascular plant canopy. In contrast, in a prerequisite for later colonizing plants.
high abiotic stress systems, BSCs may also play a role in Three studies that have experimentally examined the net
succession but tend to persist as a permanent component effect of BSCs on later successional vascular plant species
of undisturbed steady states, and their loss or addition (Chapin et al. 1994; Elmarsdottir et al. 2003; Hawkes 2004)
may trigger transitions between steady states. indicate that the effect generally fits Connell and Slatyer’s

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 Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

(1977) facilitation model, wherein the BSC enhances the versy is that plant–BSC interactions are likely to be highly
probability of colonization and survival of members of species specific, dependent on plant traits (such as mucilagi-
later seres. In a severely eroded Icelandic landscape, BSCs nous seeds; Zaady et al. 1997), and physical or chemical
were favorable microsites for vascular plant seedings traits of the organisms dominating the BSC community
(Elmarsdottir et al. 2003). Similarly, at Glacier Bay, a cya- (Serpe et al. 2006).
nobacterially dominated ‘‘black crust’’ decreased germina- Whether or not BSCs are deemed facilitative or inhibi-
tion but enhanced survivorship of later successional spruce tory for later successional vegetation may depend on how
and alder, resulting in net facilitation (Chapin et al. 1994). exhaustively the interaction between plants and BSCs is
In a postfire xeric scrub community of Florida, greenhouse studied. For example, on stabilized dunes, BSCs may in
trials suggested that live BSCs enhanced germination of some cases inhibit plant germination (Mitchell et al.
vascular plants, but in the field, effects of BSCs were vari- 1998), but they also represent the single most important
able and less important than other factors (Hawkes 2004). biotic element maintaining stability without which there
The facilitative interpretation is bolstered by observational would probably be very little plant cover (Danin & Barbour
work in various habitats (Booth 1941; Danin 1978; Danin 1982). Likewise in southern China, BSCs reduced infiltra-
& Barbour 1982; Van de Ancker 1985; Bliss & Gold 1994). tion (an inhibitory effect) but increased soil stability and
Walker and del Moral (2003) asserted that these instances served as an N source for surviving and recolonizing trees
of indirect facilitation are not obligate for later successional (facilitative effects; Uchida et al. 2000; Tateno et al. 2003).
species because plants can colonize barren substrates. Only one study has tracked multiple effects of BSCs on
Walker and del Moral (2003) also suggested that BSCs may vascular plants throughout their life history, and although
sometimes inhibit the establishment of later seres. In Turk- some effects were inhibitory, the net effect of BSCs on
menistan, the expansion of moss-dominated BSCs annual plants was facilitative (DeFalco et al. 2001). BSCs
decreased the socioeconomical value of grazing land by dis- and plants may interact with one another via several dif-
placing forage species (Orlovsky 2004). In general, the ferent pathways, and it is the net effect of the various
research on the effects of BSCs on vascular plant germina- pathways that determines whether BSCs promote or
tion and establishment produces contradictory results, with retard plant colonization (Fig. 2).
BCS acting in facilitative (St. Clair et al. 1984; Eckert et al. Whether or not BSC–plant interactions in succession
1986) or inhibitory (Prasse & Bornkamm 2000; Hawkes & follow Connell and Slatyer’s (1977) facilitation or inhibi-
Menges 2003) roles. One probable source of the contro- tion models, we should be aware of the nature of this

Figure 2. Interactions between BSCs and vascular plants are highly complex. Most past experiments address only one or a few of the many
possible pathways; the net effect of all pathways determines whether the relationship is facilitative or inhibitory. Solid arrow, primarily
positive effects; dotted arrow, primarily negative effects; dashed arrow, effects are variable.

MARCH 2007 Restoration Ecology 15

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

interaction because properly manipulating it could result progress to one of multiple degraded steady states when
in more successful rehabilitation on the ground. For exam- a disturbance occurs. Thresholds are likely to exist along this
ple, under the facilitation scenario, if BSC colonization is degradation pathway such that on one side of a threshold,
assisted, perhaps the rate of succession may increase. a degraded state will return to an alternative steady state or
Under the inhibition model (e.g., Mitchell et al. 1998; predisturbance state with cessation of the disturbance (e.g.,
Orlovsky et al. 2004), perhaps microdisturbances to par- passive restoration) and on the other side of the threshold,
tially disrupt the BSC could be introduced to prevent a degraded ecosystem may not be restorable to the preexist-
BSCs from retarding succession. For example, BSCs were ing ecosystem state and may be shifted to an alternate
strategically removed to shuttle resources to planted trees steady state only with costly and intensive active restoration
in Israel (Shachack et al. 1998; Eldridge et al. 2002). treatments (Aronson et al. 1993; Hobbs & Norton 1996).
Transitions across thresholds require triggers (Briske
et al. 2006). Loss or degradation of BSCs can act as a trigger.
BSCs in State-and-Transition Models Miller (2005) advanced a state-and-transition model for
In high abiotic stress ecosystems (including but not limited aridlands, in which, of seven transitions, loss of BSCs can be
to drylands), BSCs are common features of the ‘‘natural’’ or very important triggers in two (reference state or woody-
‘‘undisturbed’’ state, and their removal or reestablishment dominated state / severely eroded state) and are of lesser
may shift the state of the ecosystem (e.g., loss of soil fertility importance in two more (annualized state or invaded state
and N fixation, Belnap 1995; loss of erosion resistance and / severely eroded state). Similarly, loss of soil cryptogams
microbial activity, Maestre et al. 2005). In these environ- is a component of transitions toward more degraded states
ments, BSCs are usually quite vulnerable to disturbances. In in Eucalypt woodlands (Yates & Hobbs 1997).
some aridlands, passive rehabilitation techniques such as Briske et al. (2006) proposed that thresholds are crossed
livestock exclusion or restriction of off-road vehicles can in the following sequence: structural, species loss, func-
allow the reestablishment of BSCs (Anderson et al. 1982) tional. I propose that loss of BSCs can trigger a transition
and return to a state similar to the preexisting ecosystem across structural and functional thresholds because they
(Anderson et al. 1982). However, in some systems, recovery occupy a unique spatial portion of the landscape (Fig. 3) and
does not occur passively (Belnap & Warren 1998). These contribute strongly to the capture and retention of energy
systems are perhaps better understood using state-and-tran- and materials. Aronson et al. (1993) advanced 18 measur-
sition models (Westoby et al. 1989). In various generalized able vital ecosystem attributes to describe the structure and
state-and-transition models (e.g., Aronson et al. 1993; function of arid ecosystems. BSCs are strong contributors to
Hobbs & Norton 1996), the undisturbed ecosystem may or components of at least 11 of these (Fig. 3; Brotherson &

Figure 3. BSCs are one of the key structural and functional components of high abiotic stress ecosystems. They occupy a unique spatial portion
of the ecosystem: the soil surface between plant canopies. Vital ecosystem attributes (sensu Aronson et al. 1993) influenced by BSCs are
indicated in bold face.

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 Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

Rushforth 1983; Alexander & Calvo 1990; Evans & Ehler- graphs recording the presence of BSCs (Webb et al. 2004),
inger 1993; Lange et al. 1994). Loss or degradation of BSCs and ethnography regarding culturally important taxa
could trigger transition across functional thresholds via sev- (Rieske 1994; Qiu & Gao 1999).
eral mechanisms: lower surface albedo (Karnieli & Tsoar A more practical approach to developing an ultimate
1995), altered water redistribution (Eldridge et al. 2002), target for BSC rehabilitation is establishment of ‘‘potential
decreased fertility (Belnap 1995), increased invasibility by conditions’’ based on extant areas that have experienced
exotics (Serpe et al. 2006), and, most importantly, increased light disturbance regimens or have had time to recover.
soil erosion (Belnap & Gillette 1998). Potential condition as used here is not a strict-sense refer-
Currently, state-and-transition models have not been ence condition but is rather a sustainable condition that is
used in the context of ecosystem rehabilitation via BSC likely to be stable (Andreasen et al. 2001). The condition
reestablishment. The two key questions that need to be of these areas may be closer to what is possible under
addressed are (1) which transitions can be triggered by loss future climate scenarios because they presumably have
or degradation of BSCs? and (2) can reestablishment of responded to climate change in the past century. True
BSCs reverse these same transitions? Li et al. (2004) and relicts are exceedingly rare but can be found in extremely
Grettarsdottir et al. (2004) both recount situations where remote or difficult-to-access areas including mesa tops,
BSCs may have contributed to reversing transitions. When rimmed canyons, and roadless areas. Exclosures can be
functional thresholds have been crossed, positive feedbacks very useful if the history is known but are limited because
reinforce degradation (Briske et al. 2006) and physical they are rarely maintained on long time scales.
rather than biotic processes predominate (Whisenant When no true relicts or exclosures are available, low dis-
1999). This constitutes desertification (Whisenant 1999). turbance ‘‘islands’’ can be located among more highly used
Perhaps assisted recovery of BSCs can be a major tool for landscape. Livestock, the most widespread agents of BSC
reversal of desertification, and state-and-transition models disturbance, tend not to travel long distances from water or
may provide the conceptual framework for this application. high-quality forage and tend to avoid energy expenditures in
traveling in variable topography. Sites that are distant from
water or forage and are difficult to access will often exhibit
Rehabilitation of BSCs lower disturbance. Although these sites generally bear some
Outside the restoration literature, there is a surprisingly disturbance legacy, they are often the only option from
large amount of information relevant to rehabilitation of which to estimate potential BSC conditions. In the situation
BSCs. However, the practice of BSC rehabilitation lacks where no physical sites may be found, expert panels may
a cohesive conceptual framework. I propose that imple- need to be relied on to estimate potential BSC conditions.
mentation of a rehabilitation project incorporating BSCs The simplest means of using potential conditions
involves (1) establishment of rehabilitation goals; (2) involves a space-for-time replacement, whereby a degraded
selection, implementation, and integration of methods; area is compared to a nearby, ecologically similar area that
and (3) monitoring the response of BSC communities. is at or near its potential. This method is useful, particularly
The purposes of this portion of the review were synthesis when the site contains a mosaic of disturbed and undis-
of disparate literature and to discuss the first two compo- turbed microsites (e.g., Belnap 1993), but in some cases,
nents in a single document; monitoring has been recently may ignore the fact that undisturbed systems are naturally
reviewed (Belnap et al. 2001; Rosentreter & Eldridge variable. The natural variability refers to the range of states
2002; Rosentreter et al. 2003). and processes that an undegraded site may reflect (Landres
et al. 1999). To capture the natural variability of potential
conditions, I suggest sampling numerous less degraded sites
Establishment of Rehabilitation Goals for BSCs and statistically modeling the data. Various biotic and abi-
Any rehabilitation effort requires knowledge of less otic data can be used as predictor variables, and spatially
degraded ecosystem states or some other form of bench- explicit input data and subsequent mapping of model out-
mark (Moore et al. 1999). The composition, structure, pat- puts are especially desirable. These input data allow the
tern, heterogeneity, function, dynamics, and resilience of matching of a site of interest to sites in potential condition
these states serve as an ultimate target for restoration and based on ecological similarity (e.g., similar climates and
rehabilitation and as a standard against which to measure soils). Rogers (1972; updated in Eldridge 2003) advanced
success (Hobbs & Norton 1996). According to SER, strict- a spatial model of the presence–absence of Australian
sense ecological restoration is assisted recovery of a lichen-dominated BSCs based on the amount and timing of
degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystem and attempts precipitation and soil characters. Rosentreter and Pellant
to return an ecosystem to its historic trajectory (SER 2004). (unpublished data) created a semiquantitative predictive
In practice, the historic trajectory is nearly impossible to model based on vascular plant community, precipitation,
establish for BSCs because scientists did not give BSCs seri- and soil texture for southern Idaho rangelands that have
ous attention until the latter half of the twentieth century. been used by the Bureau of Land Management for 12
Thus, BSCs are simply not mentioned in historical data years. A qualitative multiscale predictive model was
sources, with a few exceptions such as historical photo- advanced for the Colorado Plateau based on soil texture

MARCH 2007 Restoration Ecology 17

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

and nutrient and moisture availability (Bowker et al. half-buried in a series of lines in a grid pattern, usually
2006a). Bowker et al. (2006b) used precipitation, elevation, spaced 1 m apart. Sometimes, vascular plants are also
and soil type to quantitatively and spatially model the cover planted. A succession of a physical crust, cyanobacteria,
and richness of several crust types in semiarid Utah (Fig. 4). chlorophytes, and finally the mosses gradually colonize,
Quantitative predictive models can be used to calculate forming a cohesive and species-rich BSC. Potentially, sim-
descriptive statistics, e.g., mean and variance, of a para- ilar methods could be applied to any sandy area where
meter (e.g., total lichen cover) to assist comparisons among BSCs and vegetation would naturally stabilize the dunes
the potential and actual condition of rehabilitation sites. (Van de Ancker et al. 1985; Maxwell & McKenna-Neuman
1994; Danin 1996; Danin et al. 1998). The only flaw of this
remarkably successful method is that there must be a con-
Rehabilitation Methods for BSCs siderable economic incentive (such as preventing railroad
The approaches to assisted BSC recovery are creative and burial; Li et al. 2004) to invest the labor resources needed
diverse. They are addressed in widely dispersed literature to execute and maintain it on large scales.
from fields related to restoration (e.g., ecological engi- Danin et al. (1998) recount the introduction of European
neering, reclamation), agriculture, and in the general eco- beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) to stabilize degraded
logical literature. These techniques can be grouped under northern California coastal dunes and reduce the need for
three broad classifications: (1) artificial soil stabilization; dredging dune sand from a harbor. This exotic plant spread
(2) resource augmentation; and (3) inoculation. rapidly, stabilizing the dunes. An unanticipated effect was
the development of a moss-dominated BSC in the under-
Artificial Soil Stabilization Techniques. Artificial stabiliza- story, which further stabilized the dunes. Similarly, trees
tion of the soil surface has successfully resulted in planted near an unstable sandy area resulted in reduced
BSC rehabilitation. There are three primary variations: wind velocity and initiated a succession of shrubs and
polyacrilimide application, coarse litter application (such BSCs, which stabilized the dunes and created a more pro-
as straw), and use of stabilizing vascular plants. Polyacrili- ductive, diverse community (Danin 1978). Planting native
mide application was shown to have either no effect or, in and exotic grasses on highly eroded and unstable soils of
combination with other treatments, a negative effect on Iceland coupled with fertilization often resulted in the for-
chlorophyll fluorescence or nitrogenase activity of trans- mation of BSCs in addition to vascular plant vegetation
planted Collema (Collemataceae) lichens (Davidson et al. (Aradóttir et al. 2000), though another study in Iceland
2002). Therefore, this means of soil stabilization appears found fertilization without seeding to be a more successful
to have little rehabilitation value for lichens; however, treatment (Elmarsdottir et al. 2003) In a postfire rehabilita-
effects on other BSC organisms are unknown. tion project in a sagebrush steppe, Hilty et al. (2003) found
Recent work in an arid region of China has examined that the seeding of bunchgrasses increased the proportion
the straw checkerboard technique for dune stabilization of favorable surfaces for BSC establishment.
and subsequently BSC establishment (Fearnehough et al.
1998; Hu et al. 2002; Li et al. 2004). Straw is vertically Resource Augmentation Techniques. Modification of
nutrients and moisture to promote BSC establishment in
disturbed areas has not been extensively studied. A previ-
ous study used earthen water catchments during India’s
monsoon season to encourage cyanobacterial growth and
render highly alkaline infertile soils suitable for agricul-
ture (Singh 1950). Observational evidence often suggests
that BSC growth is favored in somewhat shaded, cooler,
and wetter microsites (Belnap & Warren 1998; Maestre &
Cortina 2002; Bowker et al. 2005). In contrast, supple-
mental watering negatively affected transplanted lichens
by generating erosion (Davidson et al. 2002). However,
the strongest pattern in this study was the superior perfor-
mance of lichens transplanted to the more mesic and cool
microaspects of small, upraised ridges in the BSC surface.
Similarly, mosses fared better in experimental depres-
sions, particularly when polar oriented (Csotonyi & Addi-
cott 2004). These results suggest that mesic microsites
could potentially favor BSC reestablishment as they can
for vascular plants (Maestre et al. 2001). Possible rehabili-
Figure 4. An example of a spatial model depicting potential cover of tation methods include seeding with fast-growing peren-
one BSC cover type over a large area, based on sampling of several nial plants to create partial shade or creation of artificial
low disturbance sites (after Bowker et al. 2006b). soil microtopography. Some authors (Tongway & Ludwig

18 Restoration Ecology MARCH 2007

 Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

1996; Maestre & Cortina 2004) suggest the use of brush (1994) and Bowler (1999) discussed successful transplanting
piles to generate favorable microsites for vascular plant methods for establishing founder populations of particular
germination. Brush piles would likely favor vascular plants taxa. Cyanobacterial addition had seemingly idiosyncratic
over BSCs, but perhaps this concept could be extended to effects on transplanted Collema lichens, dependent on com-
BSCs by strategically placing smaller amounts of course plex interactions with watering, polyacrilimide, or nutrient
woody debris to create partial shade. additions (Davidson et al. 2002). Despite some encouraging
Addition of P and K together was studied in a full- results, methods such as these are limited because they rely
factorial field experiment, with five additional factors on a ‘‘sacrifice area’’ where inoculum material can be
(Davidson et al. 2002). Phosphorous and K addition had removed. Thus, they are probably only suitable on small
no effect on nitrogenase activity or condition of lichen scales. The great strength of such methods is that BSC
transplants. Fertilization had variable effects on chloro- material can be salvaged from sacrifice areas and stored for
phyll fluorescence of the transplants, contingent on study long periods of time while retaining inoculum potential
site and whether cyanobacteria were also inoculated. (e.g., 12 years for a desert moss; Stark et al. 2004). Depen-
Microtopographical aspect was the most influential vari- dency of recovery time on actual propagule density in inoc-
able in the study. In a laboratory study of the cyanobacte- ulants is currently unstudied.
rium Nostoc flagelliforme, K was found to promote The next logical extension of the BSC inoculation
photosynthetic recovery after desiccation (Qiu & Gao approach is ex situ mass culturing of target BSC organisms
1999). Two recent studies found that Mn, Zn, K, and Mg for reintroduction to field sites. The cyanobacterium
were repeatedly positively correlated with BSC mosses Microcoleus vaginatus (Oscillatoriaceae) was mass cul-
and lichens at multiple spatial scales (Bowker et al. 2005, tured and embedded in alginate pellets (Johansen & St.
2006a). Additional research is necessary to determine the Clair 1993, 1994). The cyanobacteria could survive pelleti-
effects of various fertilization regimens on BSC organisms zation and escape from the pellets in the laboratory and
and on exotic invasive plant species that could potentially measures of crusts abundance and function with applica-
benefit from enhanced resource availability. tion (Buttars et al. 1998), but this result was not supported
Perhaps, the most promising research in fertilization- under field conditions (Buttars et al. 1994). Addition of
based BSC rehabilitation techniques comes from highly cyanobacteria grown on hemp cloth produced short-term
eroded ‘‘deserts’’ of Iceland. There is an approximately promotion of cyanobacterial growth at one of the five sites
95-year history of efforts to slow soil loss and promote (Kubecková et al. 2003). Lichen photobionts were cul-
revegetation, including NPK fertilization. One marked tured and applied in the field to enhance lichen establish-
effect of fertilization was BSC development, which in turn ment (Davidson et al. 2002). It was determined that
stabilized soil and provided safe sites for plant seeds via mycobiont spores limited new lichen starts rather than
soil warming and N fixation. The altered ecosystem facili- photobionts (Davidson et al. 2002).
tates woody vegetation establishment and succession
toward predisturbance states as cool, humid woodlands, Integration of Multiple BSC Rehabilitation Techniques.
heath, and tundra (Aradóttir & Arnalds 2001; Elmarsdottir Selection of a technique that is likely to be effective
et al. 2003; Grettarsdottir et al. 2004). is contingent on site conditions. I present a conceptual
model that may be useful in guiding rehabilitation design
Inoculation-Based Techniques. Inoculation assists BSC because it illustrates the barriers to successful rehabilita-
development by removing propagule dispersal limitations tion in order of difficulty to overcome (Fig. 5). Addressing
and may consist of introduction of crust material from an- a higher level barrier is unlikely to succeed if a lower level
other location or mass-cultured crust organisms. Inoculation barrier still exists on site. Addressing the lowest level bar-
has a history in polluted soil reclamation (e.g., Ashley & rier present may allow recolonization faster than no
Rushforth 1984) and improvement of agricultural lands action; but to speed up recovery further, additional bar-
(Venkataraman 1972; Metting & Rayburn 1983; Rao & riers may need to be removed. The most difficult barrier is
Burns 1990; Rogers & Burns 1994; Falchini et al. 1996). actively eroding soils. This condition may be diagnosed
Cyanobacterial amendments were investigated for their using aggregate stability measures, field observations of
benefits in forested ecosystems, either postfire (increased rills, or evidence of overland flow. A second barrier is
soil fertility and biological activity in a laboratory setting; resource limitation. Nutrient limitations may be occurring
Acea et al. 2001) or as an N source in a tree plantation (no if soils bear CaCO3 and Fe oxides; have been disturbed
effects of a commercial inoculum on plant N; Tiedemann for a long time period, resulting in loss of organic matter
et al. 1980). Experiments of this nature in drylands involve and fine soil particles; or were infertile prior to distur-
the translocation of crushed BSC material, dry (Belnap bance. Despite generally bearing the characteristics of
1993) or in a slurry (St. Clair et al. 1986; Scarlett 1994) ‘‘sun plants’’ (Lange et al. 1994), most BSC organisms
form, to the disturbed area. Both treatments clearly showed appear to benefit from at least some shade and hence
enhanced recovery of BSCs but had far less BSC develop- increased soil moisture; if perennial plant cover is poor, or
ment than undisturbed controls, suggesting a full recovery if soil surface microtopography is lacking, addition of
time much longer than these short duration studies. Scarlett favorable microsites may encourage BSC establishment.

MARCH 2007 Restoration Ecology 19

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

other high abiotic stress systems, loss or addition of BSCs

may induce a transition from one steady state to another
because BSCs contain key functional components that
may not be replicated in the vascular plant community. A
much smaller number of studies suggest that BSCs can
retard succession in certain circumstances and could per-
haps be manipulated with strategic microdisturbances.
Regardless of the role of BSCs in succession, their per-
vasive influence should be viewed as an opportunity to
modify the trajectory of the whole system by focusing
some effort on this ecosystem component.
Appropriate incorporation of BSCs in rehabilitation
requires an estimate of site potential to aid in goal develop-
ment. I suggest statistical predictive modeling whenever
possible to capture the natural variability of potential BSC
conditions. To shift the BSC community toward the poten-
tial conditions, the key is analysis of factors limiting natural
recovery of BSCs. Barriers to recolonization differ in sever-
ity and difficulty of correction. Conceptualizing which bar-
Figure 5. A conceptual model of barriers (denoted vertically in
uppercase letters) to BSC reestablishment. Lower numbered barriers riers must be overcome and in what order they must be
are more difficult to overcome. Entries in ovals represent potential overcome will divert the selection of techniques away from
actions that may help overcome a barrier. activities likely to fail. Despite the large number of perti-
nent studies in development of methodologies, key knowl-
edge gaps remain, which should be studied in the future,
Propagule scarcity may be ascertained if there are large
particularly in resource manipulation.
distances between the rehabilitation site and the intact
crust patches. If all these barriers have been surpassed,
the final barrier is time. As previously mentioned, BSCs
are often slow growing; thus, even successful BSC rehabil- Implications for Practice
itation may take decades to attain potential conditions
under some scenarios. Full recovery time of more than d BSCs, soil cryptogam–lichen microbial communities,
a decade is rather typical of arid lands in general (Allen protect the soil surface from erosion and build soil
1995); thus, this should not be viewed as a deterrent fertility. However, these BSCs are quite susceptible
unique to BSC rehabilitation. Recovery time is partially to surface disturbance and may require decades for
dependent on precipitation, thus will be shorter in rela- full recovery if unassisted.
tively mesic systems (Belnap & Eldridge 2003). d Development or loss of BSCs may trigger transitions
Rehabilitation of BSCs is still in its infancy, and we are between ecosystem states; thus, rehabilitation of BSCs
simply learning how to promote faster recovery of BSCs could potentially be used to rehabilitate damaged eco-
in general or of key taxa within them. When these techno- systems.
logical hurdles are surpassed, we will need to focus on d Rehabilitation involves estimating the potential for
what particular BSC characteristics we would like to reha- BSCs at a particular site to aid in setting goals, choos-
bilitate to best promote recovery of ecosystem functions ing an appropriate technique or combination of tech-
of interest. In support of this consideration, recent niques, and monitoring.
research has shown that different attributes of BSC com- d Inoculation is the best-studied approach to BSC
munities (cover, richness, evenness, spatial clustering) rehabilitation and is frequently successful. However,
affect indicators of ecosytem functions (erosion resistance, it may not be appropriate and effective in all situa-
infiltration, microbial respiration, and nutrient cycling) tions. Artificial soil stabilization may first be needed
differently (Maestre et al. 2005). if active soil erosion is a problem, and resource limi-
tations may need to be addressed with fertilization or
creation of favorable microsites.
Conclusions d Important future research directions in BSC rehabili-
A large number of studies suggest that because BSCs pro- tation include (1) trials of different methods of soil
vide important ecosystem functions, their reestablishment stabilization for nonsandy soils; (2) trials of fertiliza-
is a necessary component of the rehabilitation of numer- tion regimens to promote BSC recovery without also
ous terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. In low abiotic stress promoting exotic plants; (3) trials of different meth-
sites, assisted recovery of ephemeral BSCs may facilitate ods for creating mesic microsites; and (4) effects of
the establishment of later successional species. In arid and propagule density in inoculants.

20 Restoration Ecology MARCH 2007

 Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation

Belnap, J., J. H. Kaltenecker, R. Rosentreter, J. Williams, S. Leonard,

d When these technical problems have been addressed, and D. Eldridge. 2001. Biological soil crusts: ecology and manage-
the effects of particular community properties of ment. BLM Technical Reference 1730–2. United States Bureau of
rehabilitated BCSs on the recovery of ecosystem Land Management, Washington, D. C.
Belnap, J., and O. L. Lange. 2003. Biological soil crusts: structure, func-
functions will become a more important research
tion, and management. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
focus. BSC rehabilitation efforts could potentially be Belnap, J., and S. D. Warren. 1998. Measuring restoration success: a lesson
tailored to recover a specific lost ecosystem process. from Patton’s tank tracks. Ecological Bulletin 79:33.
Bliss, L. C., and W. G. Gold. 1994. The patterning of plant communities
and edaphic factors along a high arctic coastline: implications for
succession. Canadian Journal of Botany 72:1095–1107.
Acknowledgments Booth, W. E. 1941. Algae as pioneers in plant succession and their impor-
Partial funding was provided by NSF-DDIG Award tance in erosion control. American Journal of Botany 22:38–46.
Bowker, M. A., J. Belnap, D. W. Davidson, and H. Goldstein. 2006a. Cor-
DEB=00608277. I thank Drs. Roger Rosentreter, Jayne
relates of biological soil crust abundance: support for a hierarchical
Belnap, George W. Koch, Thomas D. Sisk, David Huffman, conceptual model. Journal of Applied Ecology 43:152–163.
and Nancy C. Johnson for comments on early drafts. Two Bowker, M. A., J. Belnap, D. W. Davidson, and S. L. Phillips. 2005. Evi-
anonymous reviewers and Dr. Brandon Bestelmeyer dence for micronutrient limitation of biological soil crusts: impor-
greatly improved the quality of this work. tance to aridlands restoration. Ecological Applications 15:1941–1951.
Bowker, M. A., J. Belnap, and M. E. Miller. 2006b. Spatial modeling of
biological soil crusts to support rangeland assessment and monitor-
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