ELE 1104

Lecture 4
 Production of Free Charge carriers
•  So far, we have seen that we require “free” charge
carriers in electronics/electronic devices and
derived their motion in electromagnetic fields
•  BUT: how do we release electrons from metals and
semiconductor surfaces?
 Production of Free Charge Carriers
•  Thermionic Emission: Electrons released by heating
material. Electrons gain thermal energy to overcome
restraining forces.
•  Photo electric emission: Bombard material with light rays,
electrons absorb photon energy
•  Secondary emission: Primary bombarded electron knocks
a secondary electron out of surface
•  Field emission: Presence of a very strong electric field at
surface of emitter releases electrons
 Thermionic Emission
•  First observed by Edison
•  Basic principles defined through several
classical experiments by Richardson
•  Experimented on diodes with directly
heated wire filaments
•  Investigated effect of temperature,
environment (gas pressure), applied voltage
and filament material.
•  Findings:
•  Metals – tungsten, molybdenum and
platinum were the only important ones at
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Owen-Willans-
Richardson#ref248081

the time
•  Temperature dependent
•  Dependant on gas in a complex way hence
best environment was a vacuum
 Thermionic Emission
•  Filament heats metal cathode, electrons gain
enough thermal energy to leave metal.
•  Can collect around cathode building up a
negative charge (space charge) or view as
leaving behind a net positive charge, which
attracts them back.
•  We need to replenish emitted electrons and
pull emitted ones to cathode. How?
•  Why do we need a vacuum?

• Supply an external Voltage!

• Electrons collide with air molecules and can get
dispersed

Image source: kasap

 Thermionic Emission

J is current density i.e current per unit area

 Richardson – Dushman Thermionic
emission equation

• 
 Group work. (15 mins!)
•  What happens when the anode voltage becomes more negative?
•  For an efficient thermionic cathode i.e. for biggest current density; what
factors are necessary:
a)  High temperature
b)  Low work function
c)  Low temperature
d)  High work function
•  A certain vacuum tube has a cylindrical cathode which is 4 cm long and
2mm in diameter. Estimate the saturation current given that the tube is
operated at 1600°C. Assume the emission constant is
4 −2 −2
B = 3× 10 Am K
•  Assume the metal has a work function of 2.6 eV. Note! You will need to
convert eV to Joules!
 Photoelectric Emission
•  Occurs when metals are exposed
to EM radiation in optical range
•  Observed by Hertz
•  Cathode is illuminated by
monochromatic light of different
frequencies in a vacuum
•  Vary potential of anode.
•  If the frequency f is greater than a
Image source: Kasap certain critical frequency f0 , a
current is observed even if Anode
potential is 0.
•  When light is incident on cathode, electrons are emitted with enough k.e. to reach
anode. Increasing positive anode voltage increases current until it saturates i.e. all
emitted electrons have been collected
•  If a negative voltage, is applied electrons are repelled and current reduces. There is
a voltage V0 which just reduces the current to zero.
 Photoelectric Emission
• 
 Photoelectric Emission

Source: Kasap, pp 195

Anode current cuts off at a distinct negative voltage, independent of the light intensity, but
dependent on frequency
So there is a maximum velocity with which electrons are emitted, ut changes with frequency
 Photoelectric Emission

•  Define: work function as minimum energy above fermi energy required to remove electron
from metal
 Photoelectric Emission

• So
• Photon energy is hf.
• It must;
• Raise energy of electron to Fermi level
• Overcome the work function
• Impart to the electron some kinetic energy to
move… with a certain velocity to leave the surface

•  Define: work function as minimum energy above fermi energy required to remove electron
from metal
 Work Function of a metal
• 

Source: http://folk.uio.no/ravi/cutn/cmp/thermionic-
workfunction.pdf
 Question
• 
Solution

Work functions of typical metals. Source tipler

 Field and Secondary Emission
Field Emission cold
•  Apply very strong electrostatic fields at metal surface in vacuum
•  Applied Electric field reduces P.E barrier and it can become small that
electrons can easily escape (tunnel) out of metal and into vacuum.

Secondary Emission:
Electrons with certain amount of energy (primary electrons) striking
metal surface lose energy through collision with surface. Some energy is
imparted to electrons inside metal, which can then be emitted, forming
secondary emission current.

Further reading on your own!

 Group work. (10 mins!)
•  Justify the statement that if a photo emissive cell
is to be sensitive to visible light, the work function
of its cathode must not exceed ≈ 3eV. ( The visible
spectrum may be assumed to range from 4,000 to
7000 Angstrom)
 Handout
•  S.O Kasap, Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, 3rd Edition; Chapter 4 (pp. 328 – 337),
Chapter 5
•  Beck and Ahmed, Chapter 6-7