LAB REPORT

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Abstract

This experiment was conducted so as compare the mechanical properties of super stainless steel. The basics on the

operation of universal testing machine were also learnt during this experiment. The Universal Testing Machine can be

used to determine the tensile strengths of many engineering materials. The design of many engineering structures is

based on the tensile properties of the materials used. The stress- strain relationship of various metals can be used to

predict the characteristics of materials when subjected to different types of loadings. From this experiment, stainless

steel has higher tensile and yield strength. This explains the wide applications of stainless steel in many constructions

and other engineering applications that require high strength.

1) INTRODUCTION

For safe design of structural components in bridges, railway lines, marines’ ships, aircrafts, pressure vessels etc, the

tensile properties of materials used should be analyzed. Hence the tensile strength of the materials should meet the

strength requirements of the structural applications. The mechanical properties of the metals determine the kind of

engineering application to be used for. Experiments on tensile tests can be used to predict the tensile properties and they

are conducted by application of axial or longitudinal forces to a specimen with known dimensions. These forces are

applied on the specimen until deformation causes failure. The tensile load and corresponding extensions are then

recorded for calculations and determination of stress- strain relationship of the material specimen. The tensile test

experiment can be used to determine other mechanical characteristics of the specimen like yield strength, percentage

elongation, and ultimate strength among others. The original gauge length 𝐿𝑜 , diameter 𝐷𝑜 or cross-sectional area also

used in calculations hence should be recorded.

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Objectives

➢ To determine the tensile strength, strain and modulus of elasticity of stainless steel, when it is subjected to

uniaxial loading

➢ To Draw graph of the stress - strain, stress – time, load – time, load - extension, and extension – time

relationships in stainless steel

➢ To study the basics of uniaxial tensile testing.

A. Stress- strain relationship

Tensile loading on material causes the material to undergo deformations. The kind of deformation can either be

elastic or plastic deformation. The elastic deformation is characterised by linear relationship between the extension and

applied load. Engineering stress 𝜎 is given by the ratio of load applied to the original cross sectional area, while

engineering strain 𝜀 is given by change in length (extension) ∆𝐿 over the original length L. (G & Barry, 2012)

Hence;

𝑃
𝜎= ……… (1)
𝐴𝑜

∆L
𝜀= ……… (2)
𝐿𝑜

Where,

𝜎 is engineering stress

𝑃 is the applied axial load

𝐴𝑜 is the original cross sectional area

𝜀 is the engineering strain

∆L is the extension

𝐿𝑜 is the original length

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B. Young’s modulus

The engineering stress- strain relationship for elastic deformation is based on Hooke’s law. The gradient on this

curve gives a modulus of elasticity called The Young’s Modulus E.

𝜎
𝐸= ……… (3)
𝜀

Where:

𝐸 is Youngs modulus

𝜎 is engineering stress and 𝜀 is the engineering strain.

In engineering applications of materials/ metals that are subjected to deflections, Young’s modulus is of critical

importance. (Richard Budynas, 2014)

Figure 1: stress- strain relationship under uniaxial loading. Source (Richard Budynas, 2014)

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2) METHODOLOGY

A. Materials and equipments

Universal testing machine, measuring tape, Vernier calipers, Test specimen of stainless steel

Figure 2: Universal Testing Machine

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Figure 3: Measuring tape

Figure 4: Vernier caliper

Figure 5: Test specimen of stainless steel

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B. Introduction

Figure 6: computer control system & printer Figure 7: control cabinet Figure 8: Load frame

Figure 9: Controller

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C. Operating instruction

The diagram of maximum test shown below:

D. Load and Elongation display board

E. Displacement display board

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F. Control mode switch card

G. Testing control mode

: To control the start of the testing;

: To control the stop of the testing;

H. Move control modes

: To control the piston or the beam moves up;

: To control the piston or the beam moves down;

: To stop the movement of the piston or the beam;

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I. General machine introduction
Universal testing machines determine the strength of different material. The machine is mainly used to carry

on various kinds of tension, compression and bending and tests for metallic and non-metallic materials. The tester

adopts load frame with hydraulic oil cylinder at the bottom, electro-hydraulic servo oil source, and imported oil pump.

It is ideal testing equipment for production or research.

It is widely used in the fields of building materials, metallurgy, research & institute. It is also used at colleges &

universities, quality inspection center & commodities inspection department.

J. Technical aspects
1) This machine has ability to give push and pull force of 500KN.

2) Load and deformation enlargement multiple: 1,2,5,10 (4 grades).

3) Deformation measuring mode: Extensometer

4) Compression plate diameter: D = 100mm.

K. Test graph’s mode

1) Load – Deformation

2) Load – Time

3) Load – Displacement

4) Stress – Strain

5) Time – Stress

6) Time – Strain

7) Deformation – Time

8) Displacement - Time

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L. Experimental procedure
1) Measure the specimen and punch marks 70mm up two end points on test specimen.

2) Measure the initial length between the punch marks on the test specimen and measure the initial diameter of the

test specimen and record.

3) Select the mode tensile test in machine software.

4) After break stop the machine from software.

5) Find the mid-point specimen by measure its length.

6) Mark two points on specimen by punch, such that one is 160mm above the mid-point or other 160mm below

mid-point. In this way, the distance b/w these two points will be 320mm, which is the gauge length of specimen.

7) Turn on the computer & come into operation of software state.

8) Select tensile test mode in the software.

9) Find the related tensile test information from M/c software.

10) Press “power on” on the top of control console & press the button “pump on”. At once.

11) Starting hydraulic oil pump power set.

12) In tensile test, the specimen should be clamped from both ends such that both punch marks are free from jaws.

13) Adjust the test load zero & reset peak value.

14) Start the test and note the load and elongation.

15) Keep on increase load or note the increasing elongation until the test specimen suddenly breaks.

16) At breaking stop the machine software.

17) Now take out the two pieces of test specimen.

18) Measure the final diameter and the final length between the punch marks.

19) Draw the graphs between, load-deformation, load-time, load-displacement, stress-strain, time-stress, time-strain,

deformation-time, and displacement-time.

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M. Elongation of test specimen

Figure 10: Elongation of stainless-steel specimen

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N. Initial data of sample

Table 1: Initial dimensions of test specimen

Stainless steel

Initial total length 460 mm

Initial gauge length 320 mm

Initial diameter 19 mm

Initial area 283.39 mm^2

Figure 11: Initial state of specimen

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O. Final data of sample

Table 2: Final dimensions of test specimen

Stainless steel

Final total length 510 mm

Final gauge length 370 mm

Initial diameter 17.31 mm

Final area 235.33 mm^2

Figure 12: Final state of specimen

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P. Calculations and observations

Table 3: Test specimen final observations

Stainless steel

Initial Area 283.53 mm^2

Force 225.04 kN

Initial length 460 mm

Final length 525.015 mm

Change in length 65.015 mm

Strain 0.141337

Stress 793.709 MPa

Young’s modulus 5.62 GPa

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Table 4: Deformation measuring through Extensometer

Stainless steel
sample

Time Load Elongation Displacement Width

(S) (KN) (mm)
0 0 0 0 0
10.032 20.48 2.153 -2.153149 72.23222
50.061 125.7 5.941 -5.941395 443.3393
70.078 163.9 7.609 -7.608871 578.0693
88.1 183.42 9.123 -9.122551 646.9156
100.017 190.04 10.118 -10.11818 670.2641
120 195.98 11.778 -11.77756 691.2143
150.078 205.58 16.44 -16.44002 725.0732
170.072 209.44 21.483 -21.48292 738.6873
188.095 211.72 25.425 -25.42496 746.7288
200.105 213 27.837 -27.83714 751.2432
220.09 214.64 31.447 -31.4473 757.0275
250.042 216.44 36.077 -36.07738 763.376
270.025 217.46 38.732 -38.7324 766.9736
288.062 218.26 40.845 -40.84507 769.795
300.07 218.74 42.14 -42.1402 771.4881
320.052 219.48 44.131 -44.13145 774.098
350.082 220.46 46.754 -46.75409 777.5544
370.066 220.94 48.292 -48.29205 779.2473
388.09 221.42 49.547 -49.54671 780.9403
400.098 221.82 50.372 -50.37235 782.3511
420.083 222.44 51.773 -51.77271 784.5378
450.004 223.12 53.804 -53.80444 786.9361
470.096 223.58 55.067 -55.06718 788.5585
488.035 223.8 56.136 -56.13567 789.3345
500.051 223.62 56.88 -56.88036 788.6996
520.031 224.02 57.666 -57.66553 790.1104
550.065 224.38 58.75 -58.7502 791.3801
570.048 224.6 59.398 -59.39777 792.1561
588.064 224.68 59.924 -59.92391 792.4382
600.078 224.78 60.256 -60.25579 792.7909
620.057 224.92 60.766 -60.76574 793.2847
650.091 224.96 61.429 -61.4295 793.4257
670.076 224.86 61.802 -61.80185 793.0731
688.092 225.04 62.109 -62.10944 793.7078
700.102 224.88 62.547 -62.54654 793.1436
720.086 225.02 62.838 -62.83795 793.6374
750.011 224.92 63.202 -63.2022 793.2847
1000.031 224.82 65.015 -65.01538 792.9319

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Graph 1: Stress-Strain Curve

Graph 2: Stress-Time Curve

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Graph 3: Load-Time curve

Graph 4: Load-Extension curve

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Graph 5: Extension-Time Curve

Q. Errors

In tensile test while load applied the griping was making so much complications for extensometer,
specimen was slipping when load increased. Just because of this gripping issue the Universal testing
machine took a lot of time to perform the tensile test to fracture the specimen. The readings of
extensometer were not precise accurate.

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3) DISCUSSION

The data obtained from the universal testing machine shows the rates of extension in stainless steel sample. From data

on cross- sectional area, length, extension and axial loads, the strains and stress for sample specimen was calculated.

stainless steel reached yield point at stress of 650 MPa. Hence it can be seen that stainless steel has high tensile strength.

When the gradients of stainless steel were calculated, stainless steel had a higher gradient than mild steel, & aluminum.

The gradients of stress- strain curves give the Young’s Modulus, which affect the deflection of material under different

loads. Changes in length indicate the ductility of the material when loaded. There was small amount of necking observed

in stainless steel.

The changes encountered in cross sectional area cannot be influenced by engineering stress- strain relationships; the

changes can only be possible for true stress- strain curves. Normally, true strains are of higher values than those of

engineering strains. This can be explained by the fact that true strains take place in transverse directions of the gauge

length. High values of stress and strains in stainless steel are attributed to strain hardening. Strain hardening or work

hardening in stainless steel occurs at higher values of stress. In the graph, for engineering stress- strain curves, the

curves were not fluctuating due to the super steel efficiency. However, this phenomenon cannot be seen in normal true

stress- strain curves, the curves would reach the highest region of fracture.

Engineering stress and strains were calculated after the extensometers on the Instron machine measured the strain that

was applied on sample specimen. The data on strain was obtained on the cross head after occurred elongation. The

engineering stress was then calculated by dividing the applied load by the original cross- sectional area. For engineering

strains, the changes in length (extensions) were divided by the original length. In calculations of true stress, the load

applied could be divided by the instantaneous area. True strain is calculated by dividing the change in length by the

instantaneous final length.

4) CONCLUSION

Many engineering applications that require high tensile strength normally use stainless steel. This is because of the

crystalline structure of stainless steel that allows it to withstand high axial loads before fracture can occur. This

experiment therefore gives close relationship of tensile strength to the theoretical data.

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5) APPENDIX

A. Terminologies

Engineering strain – it’s calculated by dividing the change in length (extension) by original length.

Engineering stress – it is obtained by dividing the applied axial load by the original cross-sectional area. Engineering

stress-strain curve – is a graph showing the relationship between engineering stress and engineering strains.

Hooke’s law -this law explains the linear relationship observed in the elastic regions of a stress strain curves. The gradient

along this curve give the Young’s modulus.

Modulus of elasticity – also called the Young's modulus, is the ratio of stress to strain and can be calculated on the stress-

strain curves by determining the gradients of the curves.

Necking – this refers to the gradual reduction of the cross-sectional area along the gage length and starts at the tensile

point. It results in formation of cups and cones and is experienced in ductile materials.

Plastic deformation – this phenomenon occurs when the material is loaded beyond the yield point then offloaded.

% Reduction in area – can be determined by dividing the change in cross sectional area over the original area multiplied

by 100% when a tensile test is performed on the specimen.

Tensile strength - refers to the maximum stress that a material can withstand during the tensile tests.

Tensile test - refers to the methods of determining the mechanical properties of material when subjected to uniaxial load.

The results can be used to determine the Young’s modulus, tensile strength, ductility, toughness and ultimate tensile

strength of the materials.

True strain – refers to the ratio of extension to the final instantaneous length of the material

True stress – is the ratio of the applied load over the instantaneous cross- sectional area.

Yield strength – this refers to the amount of stress required to initiate plastic deformation.

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Abstract

Universal testing machine measure the bending strength, stiffness and stress strain properties of materials. Universal

testing machine is used to simulate real life service conditions and to check product quality for products such as beams,

and much more. Universal testing machine is a basic experimental equipment which can test many mechanical

properties of materials such as its stress and strain it is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile,

compression and bending tests on materials, components and structures. But the main disadvantage of universal testing

machine is that the torsional strength of the material cannot be determined. In this paper, we have designed and

manufactured an attachment for the universal testing machine which would enable us to determine the torsional strength

and stiffness of materials.

1) INTRODUCTION

Bend testing determines the ductility or the strength of a material by bending the material over a given radius. Following

the bend, the sample is inspected for cracks on the outer surface. Bend testing provides insight into the modulus of

elasticity and the bending strength or a material. Metallurgical offers three- and four-point bend setups with

interchangeable rollers for a variety of configurations.

Bend tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material. Bend tests are divided into two categories:

ductility tests and strength tests. Bending ductility tests determine the smallest radius around which a specimen can be

bent without cracks forming on the outer surface. These tests are often used to test the ductility of welds. Bending

strength tests offer a means of determining the modulus of elasticity in bending and the bending strength of flat metallic

samples in the form of strip, sheet, or plate.

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Objectives

➢ To perform bending test on a test specimen of a given material having a cross section.

A. Why bend test is important

Once the material resistance to bending and ductility is quantified via the testing curve, physical examination, and

related calculations, the result are compared to applicable material standard and expected material behavior.

Unacceptable results can indicate that a change is necessary in the manufacture process or that improper welding

techniques were used.

Brittle materials, including ceramics, are tested by flexure test (Transverse beam test, bending test).

There are two standard flexure test methods:

• 3-point Flexure Test

• 4-point Flexure Test

• Flexure strength calculation

1. 3-Point Flexure Test

In this test a specimen with round, rectangular or flat cross-section is placed on two parallel supporting pins. The

loading force is applied in the middle by means loading pin.

The supporting and loading pins are mounted in a way, allowing their free rotation about:

• Axis parallel to the pin axis

• Axis parallel to the specimen axis

This configuration provides uniform loading of the

specimen and prevents friction between the

specimen and the supporting pins.

Figure 13: Three-point loading system

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2. 4-Point Flexure Test

In this test the loading force is applied by means of two loading pins with a distance between them equal

to a half of the distance between the supporting pins

Figure 14: Four-point loading system

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2) METHODOLOGY

A. Materials and equipments

Universal testing machine, measuring tape, Vernier calipers, Test specimen of Mild steel (d2)

Figure 15: Test specimen of stainless steel

B. Experimental procedure
1) Measure all the dimensions of the test specimen. i.e. length, width, height with the help of Vernier caliper if

the test specimen is flat, and length and diameter if the test specimen is cylinder.

2) Install upper bending plate on the bottom of the lower crosshead.

3) Adjust the test specimen in the lower crosshead of UTM.

4) Lower seat is fixed with plug.

5) Turn on the computer & come into operation of software state.

6) Select the bending test mode in the software.

7) Find the related bending test information from m/c software.

8) Press “Power On” on the top of control console & press the button “pump on”. At once.

9) Starting hydraulic oil pump power set.

10) Adjust the test load to zero & re-set the pack value.

11) Start the test or note the load & bending deformation.

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12) Gradually keep the increasing the load or note the increasing bending deformation initial the failing of

specimen.

13) At failing of specimen by software or remove the failed specimen.

14) Draw the graph between, Load-deformation, Load-displacement, Load-time, Stress-strain, Time-stress,

Deformation-time and Displacement-time.

15) Repeat the experiment for various test specimens having different dimensions.

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C. Bend of test specimen

Figure 16: Flexural strength of mild steel (d2) specimen

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D. Initial data of sample

Table 5: Initial dimensions of test specimen

Stainless steel

Initial total length 310 mm

Initial gauge length 68 mm

Initial diameter 19 mm

Initial area 283.39 mm^2

Initial angle 0 degree

Figure 17: Initial state of specimen

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E. Final data of sample

Table 6: Final dimensions of test specimen

Mild steel (d2)

Final total length 510 mm

Final angle 39 degree

Final diameter 19 mm

Final area 283.39 mm^2

Figure 18: Final state of specimen

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F. Calculations and observations

Table 7: Test specimen final observations

Mild steel (d2)

Initial Area 283.53 mm^2

Force 15.04 kN

Initial length 310 mm

Bend angle 39 Degree

Internal energy 885.518 joule

Young’s modulus 304 GPa

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Table 8: Deformation measuring through Extensometer

Stainless steel
sample

Time Load Elongation Displacement Width

(S) (KN) (mm)
0 0 0 0 0
9.06 0 0 0 0
9.503 0.04 0.486 0.4856727 0.1410785
12.445 0.1 0.688 0.68880363 0.3526964
16.926 0.1 0.874 0.8742108 0.3526964
20.964 0.4 1.02 1,019913 1.410785
24.896 1.2 1.287 1.287032 4.232357
28.939 1.82 1.619 1.618909 6.419074
32.976 2.26 1.959 1.95888 7.970938
36.925 3.04 2.55 2.549782 10.72197
40.965 4.28 3.23 3.229723 15.09541
44.895 3.28 3.885 3.885381 11.56844
48.935 0.14 4.557 4.557229 0.4937749
52.996 0.98 5.464 5.463818 3.456424
56.924 5.36 6.775 6.775134 18.90453
58.996 7.54 7.463 7.46317 26.59331
62.948 10.22 8.774 8.774486 36.04557
66.893 11.52 10.11 10.11009 40.63062
70.936 12.24 11.438 11.43759 43.17004
74.972 12.7 12.781 12.78129 44.79243
78.795 13.06 14.052 14.05213 46.06215
82.946 13.34 15.444 15.44439 47.0497
86.983 13.58 16.796 16.79618 47.89616
90.915 13.8 18.116 18.11559 48.6721
94.958 13.98 19.443 19.4431 49.30696
100.997 14.2 21.467 21.46673 50.08289
104.923 14.5 24.114 24.11465 51.14097
108.965 14.72 27.505 27.50526 51.9169
112.895 14.86 30.775 30.77546 52.41068
116.936 14.96 34.094 34.09422 52.7638
120.9 15.02 37.43 37.43727 52.97499
124.958 15.04 40.805 40.8046 53.04553
128.995 15.02 44.188 44.18812 52.97499
132.927 15 47.458 47.458331 52.90445
136.969 14.94 50.785 50.78517 52.69293
140.901 14.86 54.055 54.05537 52.41068
144.937 14.76 57.439 57.43888 52.05798
148.98 14.64 60.822 60.82241 51.63475
157.73 14.32 68.124 68.12369 50.50612

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Table 9: Graph observations

Graph 6: Stress-Strain Curve

Graph 7: Stress-Time Curve

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Graph 8: Load-Extension Curve

Graph 9: Extension-Time Curve

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Graph 10: Load-Time Curve

Graph 11: Load-Displacement Curve

G. Error

Not found

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3) Discussion

The data obtained from the universal testing machine shows the rates of Bend in Mild steel (d2) sample. From

data on cross- sectional area, length, and axial loads, the strains and stress for sample specimen was calculated.

specimen reached yield point at stress of 30 MPa.

The changes encountered in cross sectional area cannot be influenced by engineering stress- strain

relationships; the changes can only be possible for true stress- strain curves. Normally, true strains are of higher

values than those of engineering strains. This can be explained by the fact that true strains take place in

transverse directions of the gauge length.

Engineering stress and strains were calculated after the extensometers on the Universal testing machine

measured the strain that was applied on sample specimen. The data on strain was obtained on the cross head

after occurred displacement in angle. The engineering stress was then calculated by dividing the applied load

by the original cross- sectional area.

6) CONCLUSION

Many engineering applications that require high bending strength normally use Mild steel (d2).

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