Industrial Training Report on

Operation of Electrical Equipments

Done at
BSES
Najafgarh, New Delhi

Submitted in partially fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
By

Seema Singh (1709731910)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

(B.Tech ECE - Accredited by NBA),
Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida.
(Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow)

june-july, 2019

I
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the industrial training report entitled “Operation of Electrical
Equipments”done at “BSES, New Delhi “submitted by me, for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering to Galgotias College of
Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical
University, Lucknow is a record of bonafide work carried out at between 14-Jun-19 and 24-Jul-
19.

Place : Greater Noida

Date : Signature of the Candidate

The report is satisfactory/unsatisfactory

Signature of the Faculty Coordinator

&
Approved by

Head of the Department

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to express our gratitude to our beloved Chairman Shri. Suneel
Galgotia and CEO Shri. Dhruv Galgotia for proving necessary facilities to carry out and finish
the project successfully. We are grateful to our Director Dr. V.K. Dwivedi for his support and
encouragement.

Our specials thank goes to Dr. Lakshmanan. M, Head of the Department,Electronics and
Communication Engineering, for providing an environment that encouraged us in working
towards our goal and supported in completion of our project. This project gave us an opportunity
to apply creative and critical thinking skills.

We would like to present our deep sense of gratitude to our project guide, Dr.Lakshmanan. M,
Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering who has always been
a source of motivation and firm support for carrying out the project. The supervision and support
that he gave truly helped in the progression of the project. His cooperation is much indeed
appreciated. We are highly obliged to him for his valuable advices and moral support during
research period.

Finally, our greatest and special gratitude goes to our family for their love and support.

Place: Greater Noida Seema Singh

Date:

III
PROJECT COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

IV
Chapter Content Page No.
No.
Declaration II

Acknowledgement III
Completion Certificate IV
List of Figures V
Weekly Training Schedule VI
Chapters VII
References VIII

1. Introduction

1.1History of electricity in Delhi XI

1.2 About BSES XI

1.2.1 BSES Rajdhani Power Limited XIII

1.2.2 BSES Yamuna power limited (BYPL) XIV

1.3 Operations and maintenance of XV

Transmission and distribution system

V
2. Substation Grids
2.1 Single line diagram of 220/66/11kv15 XV

2.2 Transformer XVIII

2.2.1 Working and principle XVIII

2.3 Construction and parts XIX

2.3.1 Core XIX

2.3.2 Winding XIX

2.3 Transformer Tank XX

2.4 Conservator Tank XXI

2.4.1Function of conservator XXI

2.4.2 Construction of Conservator Tank XXII

2.4.3 Atmoseal Type Conservator XXIII

2.4.4 Diaphragm Sealed Conservator XXIV

2.5 Explosion Vent XXV

2.6 Magnetic Oil Level Gauge (MOG) XXVI

2.6.1 Construction of Magnetic Oil Gauge XXVI

2.7 Breather XXVII

2.7.1 Silica Gel Breather of Transformer XXVII

2.7.2 Construction of Silica Gel Breather XXVIII

2.8 Oil Temperature Indicator XXIX

2.8.1 Bushing Metal parts and Arcing Horns XXIX

2.8.2 Bushing Metal Part XXX

2.9 Tap Changer XXXV

2.9.1 Tap Changer Switch XXXV

2.9.2 On-load tap changer XXXV

VI
 2.10 Transformer Oil XXXVI

2.11 Temperature Indicator of Transformer XXXVII

2.11.1 Types of Temperature Indicator XXXVII

2.11.2 Construction of Temperature XXXVIII

2.12 Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI XXXIX

2.12.1 Operating Principle of OTI XXXIX

2.13 Winding Temperature Indicator or WTI XXXIX

Transmission and Distribution System

3.1 Electric power Transmission XL

3.1.1 Primary electric power transmission XL

3.1.2 Secondary electric power transmission XLI

3.2 Primary electric power distribution XLI

3.3 Secondary electric power distribution XLI

3.3.1 Radial XLI

3.3.2 Parallel Feeders XLII

3.3.3 Ring Main XLII

3.3.4Meshed System XLIII

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

4.1 Introduction to VCB XLV

4.2 Vacuums as an Interruption Medium XLVI

4.2.1 Dielectric Strength of Vacuum XLVI

4.2.2 Low Arc Energy in Vacuum XLVI

4.2.3 Simple Driving Mechanism XLVI

4.2.4 Rapid Arc Quenching XLVI

VII
MICROPROCESSOR-8085
5.1 Microprocessor based over current relays XLVIII

5.2 8085 Architecture LII

5.3 Pin diagram of 8085 microprocessor LIII

Conclusion and References

6.1 Conclusion LVI

6.2 References LVII

VIII
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Figure Title Page No.
FIG 2.1 Single line diagram of 220/66/11kv XVII
FIG 2.2 Flux in Transformer Core XVIII
FIG 2.3 Parts of a Transformer XX
FIG 2.4 Conservator Tank XXI
FIG 2.5 Working of Conversation Tank XXII
FIG 2.6 Atmosel type conservator XXIII
FIG 2.7 Diaphragm sealed conservator XXIV
FIG 2.8 Discharge hood XXV
FIG 2.9 Breather Components XXVIII
FIG 2.10 Bushing Metal parts and Arcing Horns XXIX
FIG 2.11 Bushing Metal parts XXX
FIG 2.12 Item Code: M12-HV XXXI
FIG 2.13 Item Code: M-20 XXXII
FIG 2.14 Brass Transformer Metal Part XXXIII
FIG 2.15 LV Metal Part XXXIII
FIG 2.16 Tap Changer XXIV
FIG 2.17 NO Load Tap Changer XXV
FIG 2.18 Winding Temperature Indicator XXXIX
FIG 3.1 SLD of T&D system XL
FIG 3.2 Parallel feeder system XLII
FIG 3.3 Ring Main feeder system XLIII
FIG 3.4 Meshed System XLIV
FIG 4.1 Vacuum Circuit Breaker XLV
FIG 4.2 Vacuum Interrupter XLVII
FIG 5.1 Blocks diagram of 8085 LII
FIG 5.2 40 pin diagram LIII

IX
 WEEKLY TRAINING MODULE

NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE

DATE DAY COMPLETED DATE DAY COMPLETED
History of electricity in Delhi Working and principle of Transformers
14-Jun-19 Friday 21-Jun-19 Friday
About BSES Construction and parts
15-Jun-19 Saturday 22-Jun-19 Saturday
Week OFF Week OFF

2nd Week
1st Week

16-Jun-19 Sunday 23-Jun-19 Sunday

BSES Yamuna power limited (BYPL) Winding
17-Jun-19 Monday 24-Jun-19 Monday
Operations and maintenance Transformer Tank
18-Jun-19 Tuesday 25-Jun-19 Tuesday
Single line diagram of 220/66/11kv Conservator Tank
19-Jun-19 Wednesday 26-Jun-19 Wednesday
History of electricity in Delhi Working and principle of Transformers
20-Jun-19 Thursday 27-Jun-19 Thursday

NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE

DATE DAY COMPLETED DATE DAY COMPLETED
Function of conservator tank Transformer Oil
28-Jun-19 Friday 05-Jul-19 Friday
Construction of Conservator Tank Temperature Indicator of Transformer
29-Jun-19 Saturday 06-Jul-19 Saturday
Week OFF Week OFF
3rd Week

4th Week

30-Jun-19 Sunday 07-Jul-19 Sunday

Diaphragm Sealed Conservator Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI
01-Jul-19 Monday 08-Jul-19 Monday
Explosion Vent Winding Temperature Indicator or WTI
02-Jul-19 Tuesday 09-Jul-19 Tuesday
Magnetic Oil Level Gauge (MOG) 2 Construction of Temperature
03-Jul-19 Wednesday 10-Jul-19 Wednesday
Function of conservator tank Transformer Oil
04-Jul-19 Thursday 11-Jul-19 Thursday

NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE NAME OF THE TOPIC / MODULE

DATE DAY COMPLETED DATE DAY COMPLETED
Electric power Transmission Vacuum Circuit Breaker
12-Jul-19 Friday 19-Jul-19 Friday
Primary electric power transmission Vacuums as an Interruption Medium
13-Jul-19 Saturday 20-Jul-19 Saturday
Week OFF Week OFF
5th Week

6th Week

14-Jul-19 Sunday 21-Jul-19 Sunday

Microprocessor based over current relays
Primary electric power distribution 8085 Architecture
15-Jul-19 Monday 22-Jul-19 Monday
Secondary electric power distribution Pin diagram of 8085 microprocessor
16-Jul-19 Tuesday 23-Jul-19 Tuesday
Meshed System Conclusion
17-Jul-19 Wednesday 24-Jul-19 Wednesday
Electric power Transmission
18-Jul-19 Thursday

X
 Chapter 1
COMPANY PROFILE

1.1 History of Electricity in Delhi:

The history of electricity in Delhi dates back to 1905 when M/s John Flemming
Company was awarded the license as per Indian Electricity Act, 1903, for
generation and distribution of power in Delhi. Electricity those days was a luxury
and the privilege of the high ranking British officials and a few rich people. It was
a rare and costly commodity with a perception of being dangerous. Infect even
rich Indian accepted this at a much later stage. M/s John Fleming Company was
replaced by the Delhi Tramway and Lighting Company, which was subsequently
renamed as Delhi Electricity Supply & Traction Company. In 1939, The Delhi
Central Electric Power Authority (DCEPA) was formed to run the services. In
1951, the DCEPA was taken over by the Delhi State Electricity Board, constituted
under Indian Electricity (Supply) Act 1948. In 1958, Delhi Electricity Supply
Undertaking came into existence and was once again converted to Delhi Vidyut
Board in 1997.
1.2 About BSES:
BSES Limited is India's premier utility engaged in the generation, transmission and
distribution of electricity. Formerly, known as Bombay Suburban Electric Supply
Limited, it was incorporated on 1st October 1929, for the distribution of electricity
in the suburbs of Mumbai, with a pioneering mission to make available
uninterrupted, reliable, and quality power to customers and provide value added
services for the development of the power and infrastructure sectors. BSES caters
to the needs of 2.07 million consumers over an area of 384 sq. km. with a
maximum system demand of approximately 1198 MVA. With 7 decades in the
field of power distribution, the Electricity Supply Division of BSES has achieved
the distinction of operating its distribution network with 99.98% on-line reliability
and has a distribution loss of only 29.9%. BSES was amongst the first utilities in
India to adopt computerization in 1967 to meet theincreasing workload and to

XI
improve services to its customers. With a view to optimally utilize trained
manpower and expertise in the field of power, the company commenced
contracting activities in 1966 by undertaking turnkey electrical contracts, thermal,
hydro and gasturbine installations and commissioning contracts, transmission line
projects etc. BSES set up its own 500 MW Thermal Power Plant and the first 2 x
250 MW units of Dahanu Power Station were synchronized and began commercial
operation during 1995- 1996. A dedicated 220 kV double circuit transmission line
network with three 220 / 33 kV receiving stations have been installed to evacuate
the power to the distribution area of the Company. This demonstrates BSES‟ in-
house capabilities ranging from engineering, operation & maintenance of power
plants and transmission and distribution systems. BSES through international
competitive bidding acquired an equity stake of 51% in three of the four
Distribution Companies of Orissa. At present, BSES along with its subsidiaries
provide electricity to more than 2.7 million consumers in an area covering about
1,23,000 sq. km with an estimated population of 34 million. In July 2002, Delhi
Vidyut Board unbundled into five successor entities – the three distribution
companies, a transmission and a holding company. Two of the three distribution
companies have been handed over to BSES, and 0020one to TATA POWER. As a
part of its active support to the privatization process, BSES has recently acquired
an equity stake of 51% in two of the three Distribution Companies of Delhi after
unbundling and privatization of the erstwhile Delhi Vidyut Board. The two
distribution companies, BSES Rajdhani Power Limited covering South and West
areas and BSES Yamuna Power Limited covering Central and East regions provide
electricity to around 22 lakhs consumers spread across an area of 960 sq kms
(approx). BSES became part of the Reliance Group on January 18, 2003. BSES
will be renamed „Reliance Energy‟ to reflect the change in ownership, and to
leverage brand equity of Reliance. The new name „Reliance Energy‟ will directly
communicate association with the internationally respected Reliance Group, and
reflect the larger dimension of BSES‟ future plans. So presently BSES deals with
mainly distribution sector in the country

XII
1.2.1 BSES Delhi
Following the privatization of Delhi‟s power sector and unbundling of the Delhi
Vidyut Board in July 2002, the business of power distribution was transferred to
BSES Yamuna Power Limited (BYPL) and BSES Rajdhani Power Limited
(BRPL). These two of the three successor entities distribute electricity to 22.6
lakh customers in two thirds of Delhi. The Company acquired assets, liabilities,
proceedings and personnel of the Delhi Vidyut Board as per the terms and
conditions contained in the Transfer Scheme.

1.2.2 BSES Rajdhani Power Limited (BRPL)

BRPL distributes power to an area spread over 750 sq. km with a population
density of 1360 per sq.km. Its‟ over 12.2 lakh customers are spread 19 districts
across South and West areas including
a. Alaknanda
b. Kanpur
c. Vasant Kunj,
d. Saket
e. Nehru Place
f. Nizamuddin
g. Sarita Vihar
h. Hauz Khas
i. R K Puram
j. Janakpuri
k. Najafgargh
l. Nangloi
m. Mundka
n. Punjabi Bagh
o. Tagore Garden
p. Vikas Puri
q. Palam

XIII
 Since taking over distribution, BSES‟ singular mission has been to provide
reliable and quality electricity supply. BSES has invested over Rs 3500 crore on
upgrading and augmenting the infrastructure which has resulted in a record
reduction of AT&C losses. From a high of 63. % AT&C losses in BYPL area the
losses have come down to 29.8% a record reduction around 33%.Similarly, in
BRPL area AT&C losses have been reduced from 52.% to27.% - a record
reduction of 29%.
1.2.3 BSES Yamuna Power Limited (BYPL)
BYPL distributes power to an area spread over 200 sq kms with a population
density of 4230 per sq km. Its 10.4lakh customers are spread over 14 districts
across Central and East areas including
a. Chandni Chowk
b. Daryagan
c. Paharganj
d. Shankar Road
e. Patel Nagar
1.3 Locations OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANACE OF
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1.4
a. GT road
b. Karkardooma
c. Krishna Nagar
d. Laxmi Nagar
e. Mayur Vihar
f. Yamuna Vihar
g. Nand Nagri
h. Karawal Nagar

XIV
 CHAPTER -2

SUBSTATION GRID

2.1 single line diagram of 220/66/11kv

The single line diagram is the blueprint for electric system analysis. It is the first step in
preparing a critical response plan, allowing you to become thoroughly familier with the
electrical distribution system layout design in your facility.wheather you have a new or
existing facility , the single line diagram is the vital roadmap for all further testing,sevice
and maintainance activites as such ,the single line diagram is like a balane sheet for your
facility and provides a snapshot of your facility at a moment in time . it needs to changes
to ensure that your systems are adequatedly protected.an effective single line diagram
will clearly show how the main components of the electric system are connected
,including redundant equipment and available spares it shows a correct power distribution
path from the incoming powersource to each downstream load – including the rating and
sizes of each piece of electrical equipment ,there circuit conductor ,and their protective
devices.in many process facilities ,loads are continually added or removed in small
increments . the net effect is not always seen until some part of the system become
overloaded or exhibits other problems many times circuit are added without appropriate
modification of the standard settings on the associated upstream cicuit breakers the
protective devices you use must be coordinated with their time/current curves and with
each other . the single line diagram provides the roadmap to enable proper design of
equipment , redundancy , and protective. To meet this requirements. Vertiv can conduct a
comprehensives site survey to develop the single line diagrams for your facility or to
update existing diagrams .the survey includes:

a. Have an inventory of equipment

b. Verify existence of as built drawings and that they are adequately available
c. Verify process is in place that ensures the as built drawings are maintained in a
current condition
d. Confirm load are connected to emergency / stand by feeders
e. Verify potential single points of failure
f. Make a report that outlines the findings by site along with recommended actions

XV
 Benefits
a. Help identify fault locations and simplifies troubleshooting
b. Identify potential sources of electrical energy during LOTO procedure
c. Ensure safety of personnel
d. Stay compliant with NFPA 70E requirements

Scope

a. Safe ,reliable operation of facilityTo give you an accurate pictures of yours

electrical system , the single line diagram information normally includes:
b. Incoming line (voltage and size)
c. Incoming main fuses,potheads ,cutouts ,switches and main /tie breakers
d. Power transformer(rating winding connection and grounding means)
e. Feeders breakers and fuse switches
f. Relay (function ,use and type)
g. Current and potential transformer (size ,type ,ratio)
h. Control transformer
i. All main cables and wiresrun with their associated isolated switches and
potheads(size and length of run)
j. All substation, including integral relays and main panels and the exact nature of
the load in each feeder and on each sub station
k. Critical equipment voltages and size (ups,battery ,generator, power distribution
,transfer switch ,computer room air conditioning)

They are as follows in the single line diagram:

a. Lighting arrestors
b. CVT
c. Wave trap
d. Isolators with earth switch
e. Circuit breakers
f. Bus
g. Potential transformer with a bus bar isolator
h. Isolator
i. Current transformer
j. A capacitor bank attached to the bus

Shown in the fig is the single line diagram (SLD).220kv sub station najafghar.
The 220kv supply is incoming from four circuits two from bawana and two
from bamnoli .also one circuit of 66kv is coming from jaffarpur grid. The

XVI
 substation has four transformer output and the 66kv coming from jaffarpur grid
.two capacitor banks of 20 MVATR are also kept on this bus.
now the stepdown 66kv supply to send to nangloi , nangloi water works
jaffarpur -2,two circuits to bodhela and two circuits to G-5 ppk -2 grid .a third
capacitor bank is also connected to this bus.the 66kv is further steppeddown to
11kv by means of 3 transformers 66/11kv with ratings of 20MVA each .and
then this 11kv supply is given to najafghar, chawla, kakrola,nangoli
,deenpur,anaj mandi areas and local transformers.Also these guys are very
concerned about the single line diagram charts that‟s why they thajve kept mos
pank beside the chart to keep the lizards and insects aways from the chat which
will help keep it clean . shown the the single line diagram in figure no

Fig.2.1 Single line diagram of 220/66/11kv

2.2 Transformer
Transformer is a static electrical device that transfer is a electrical energy between two or
more circuits.A varying current in one coilof the transformer produces a varying

XVII
magnetic flux,which,inturn,induces a varying electromotive force across a second coil
wound around a same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between the two
coils,without a metallic connection between the two circuits.Faraday law of induction
discovered in1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing in
magnetic flux encircled by the coil.
Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing the alternative voltages in electrical
power applications,and for coupling the stages of single processing circuit.
Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885,transformer have
become essential for the transmission,distribution,and utilization of alternating current
electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is countered in electronic and
electrical power application. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimeter in volume , to units weighting hundreds of tons used to inter connect the
power grid.

2.2.1 Working Principle

It is based on Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction, according to which if one coil

is connected to a source of alternating voltage, and alternating flux is set up in the
laminated core, most of which is linked up with the other coil, it produces a mutually
induced emf.
If the second circuit is closed, current flows in it. So electric energy is transferred from
the first coil to the second coil without any physical contact between the two windings,
but completely by magnetic fields.

Fig. 2.2 Flux in Transformer Core

The working of all the transformers are based on the same principle it is the way they are
constructed which may differ, the difference comes due some reasons like, according to
the rating, according to the windings(phases) and even the area where they are designed
to be used.

XVIII
2.3 Construction and parts

The basic construction for all the transformers are the same, no matter of what the rating
it is or how many supply outputs it has, so we are going to discuss the construction of
transformer from a Maintenance point of view and specifically the number of parts it
comprises, so the various parts of a Distribution Transformer are: -

a. Core and Winding

b. Transformer Tank Conservator Tank
c. Radiators
d. Oil level Indicator
e. Explosion Vent
f. Magnetic Oil Level Indicator
g. Breather
h. Temperature Indicator
i. Bushing, Metal parts and Arcing Horns
j. Insulating Oil

2.3.1 Core :
Core of a transformer is made up of CRGO (cold rolled grain oriented) silicon steel with
laminated sheets of thickness 0.28mm to 0. 30mm.The core of the transformer should be
made very carefully as it is the part which transfer the flux from one circuit to another.
Amorphous core is also in use but not so popular at present.

2.3.2 Winding:
Inside the transformer there is a three-phase winding (or single) coiled up on the core, the
general arrangement for the winding is that the LT winding is placed over the core and is
made up of thick wire, to withstand the current, and the HT winding is placed over the
LT winding and is made up of this wire. These conductors are generally made of
insulated copper/aluminum paper cover or enameled for making coils, lead or terminals.
The material used for covering conductors is generally electric grade.

XIX
 Fig2.3 Parts of a Transformer

2.3 Transformer Tank

The transformer tank provides containment for its:-
i. Core
ii. Winding
iii. Dielectric fluid

XX
The tank have gasket joints on the top for taking out the core and the winding and some
vents for putting in transformer oil whenever needed, also it supports the radiators.

2.4 Conservator Tank

Conservator tank is mounted on the top of the main tank to ensure
few things:-
i. Allow expansion and contraction of oil due to change in temperature of oil.
ii. Ensure total submerging of winding and core with oil for its cooling.
iii. Oil level in conservator at any given time should be upto the level according to
the ambient temperature, temperature marking is there in oil level indicator.

Fig. 2.4 Conservator Tank

This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the

transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of transformer is
to provide adequate space for expansion of oil inside the transformer.

2.4.1 Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer

Whentransformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the volume of oil inside
transformer increases .A conservator tank of transformer provides adequate space to this
expanded transformer oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.

XXI
2.4.2 Construction of Conservator Tank

This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One large inspection

cover is provided on either side of the container to facilitate maintenance and cleaning

inside of the conservator.

Conservator pipe, i.e. pipe comes from main transformer tank, is projected inside the

conservator from bottom portion. Head of the conservator pipe inside the conservator is

provided with a cap. This pipe is projected as well as provided with a cap because this

design prevent oil sludge andsediment to enter into main tank from conservator.

Generally silica gel breather fixing pipe enters into the conservator from top. If it enters

from bottom, it should be projected well above the level of oil inside the conservator.This

arrangementensure that oil does not enter thesilicagelbreathereventhighestoperationlevel.

Fig. 2.5 Working of Conversation Tank

When volume of transformer insulating oil increases due to load and ambient
temperature, the vacant space above the oil level inside the conservator is partially
occupied by the expanded oil. Consequently, corresponding quantity of air of that space
is pushed away through breather. On other hand, when load of transformer decreases, the
transformer is switched off and when the ambient temperature decreases, the oil inside
the transformer contracts. This causes outside air to enter in the conservator tank
oftransformer through silica gel breather.

XXII
2.4.3 Atmoseal Type Conservator
In this type conservator of transformer, an air cell made of NBR material is fitted inside
the conservator reservoir. The silica gel breather is connected at the top of this air cell.
The oil level in the power transformer rises and falls according to this air cell deflated
and inflated. When the air cell gets deflated the air inside the air cell comes out via
breather and on the other hand if the cell is inflated the outside air comes in through
breather.
This arrangement prevents direct contact of oil with air, thereby reduces ageing affect of
oil.

Fig. 2.6 ATMOSEL TYPE COSERVATOR

The space available outside the cell in conservator tank is totally filled by oil. Air vents

are provided on the top of the conservator for venting accumulated air outside the air cell.

The pressure inside the air cell must be maintained 1.0 PSI.

XXIII
2.4.4 Diaphragm Sealed Conservator

Here diaphragm is used as a barrier between transformer oil and atmospheric air. In this

case the conservator of transformer is made of tow semicircular halves as shown below

FIG 2.7 DIAPHRAM SEALED CONSERVATOR

The diphram is held between the the two halves and bolted. As oil expands it pushes up
the diaphragm. The position of the diaphragm is indicated by the oil level indicator i.e.
magnetic oil gauge (Here MOG is not shown in the figure above) as the rod of this MOG
is connected to the diaphragm. When the oil level falls down in the conservator, the
diaphragm deflects and the atmospheric air fills the vacant place. This air is sucked
through silica gel breather which is connected to the top middle of conservator tank of
transformer. (Here silica gel breather is not
shown in the figure above)
This type of conservator has one advantage over air cell conservator. If gas is pressurized
to a high level, it gets dissolved in oil. Over a period of time the amount of gas in oil
reaches the saturation point. If at this stage, the load of transformer is suddenly dropped
or the ambient temperature falls severely, the pressure falls, oil becomes supersaturated
and the gas bubbles will be evolved. If there is a pimp connected in the cooling circuit, it
will help generating bubbles. These bubbles may cause insulation failure in the region of

XXIV
strong fields. (Here silica gel breather, MOG, Drain Valves, Air Pockets, Conservator to
main tank connections are not shown in the figure above.)

2.5 Explosion Vent

It is mounted on the top of the body of the transformer to one end, and as the name
suggests it is used to release the internal pressure caused at the time any fault. It is
provided with an aluminum diaphragm (thickness 0.4 mm 0.5 mm) at the top which
breaks and relieves the tank pressure.
An explosionvent or rupturepanel is a safety device to protect equipment or buildings
against excessive internal, explosion-incurred pressures, by means of pressure relief. An
explosion vent will relieve pressure from the instant its opening (or activation)
pressure pstat has been exceeded.
Several explosion vent panels can be installed on the same process vessel to be protected.
Explosion vents are available in the versionsself-destructive, non-self-re-closing and re-
usable, self-re-closing.
Explosion vents in service
Explosion vent construction must balance the contradictory requirements "low inertia"
and "high strength". Inertia negatively affects an explosion vent's efficiency. High
strength is required to endure the considerable forces that move the vent's venting
element in order to open the venting orifice. Unintended disintegration must not cause
disintegrating parts turning into a missile.

Fig 2.8 DISCHARGE HOOD

Discharge hood with explosion relief panels and fracture clip releases

The evaluation of an explosion vent's efficiency and its range of application are subject to
rules. See National Fire Protection Association68, EN 14797.
During normal venting, the explosion is freely discharged, allowing flames to exit the
process being protected. When the protected vessel or pipe is located indoors, ducts are

XXV
generally used to safely convey the explosion outside the building. However, ductwork
has disadvantages and may result in decreased venting efficiency. Flameless venting, in
combination with explosion vents, can extinguish the flame from the vented explosion
without the use of expensive ducting, limitations to equipment location, or more costly
explosion protection.

2.6 Magnetic Oil Level Gauge (MOG)

It is provided in the conservator to view the changes of oil level.It consist of float moves
up and down due to change in oil level inside the conservator. MOG also incorporates a
mercury switch to actuate an alarm in the event of oil level dropping due to leakage or
even in case of theft.
A Magnetic Oil level Gauge (MOG) is a device used to indicate the position of
transformerinsulating oil level in conservator of a transformer. This is a mechanical device. A
MOG in
transformer consists of three main parts:

a. One float

b. Bevel gear arrangement

c. An indicating dial

2.6.1 Construction of Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG

Let‟s explain the construction of magnetic oil gauge (MOG) from its dial parts. The dial
of this device has a scale from empty to full. It has some intermediate divisions such as
1/4, 1/1, 3/4.The prescribed oil level at either 30oC or 35oC ambient temperature may
also be indicated on the dial. A mercury switch and bevel gear are fixed with the pointer.
When the pointer rotates, the alignment of mercury switch also changes according to the
angle of rotation of the pointer.One ball type or drum type float is attached with a
sufficiently long float arm. One unit of bevel gear is fitted on the other side of the float
arm. Other unit of the bevel gear is magnetically coupled with pointer and mercury
switch arrangement. The bevel gear arrangement is positioned inside the conservator tank
of transformer and dial, pointer and mercury switch are positioned outside the
conservator tank.

2.8.2Working Principle of Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG

All oil-immersed distribution and electrical transformers are provided with expansion
vessel which is known as conservator of transformer. This vessel takes care of oil
expansion due to temperature rise. When transformer insulating oil is expanded, the oil
level in the conservator tank goes up

XXVI
Again when oil volume is reduced due to fall in oil temperature, the oil level in the
conservator goes down. But it is essential to maintain a minimum oil level in the
conservator tank of transformer even at lowest possible temperature.

All large electrical power transformers are therefore provided with a magnetic oil level
indicator or magnetic oil gauge. In conventional conservator tank, a light weight hollow
ball or drum floats on the transformer insulating oil. The float arm is attached with bevel
gear as we already explained during the discussion on the construction of magnetic oil
gauge. Naturally, the position of the float goes up and down depending upon the oil level
in the conservator and consequently the alignment of float arm changes. Consequently,
the bevel gear rotates.

This movement of bevel gear is transmitted to the pointer outside the conservator, as this
pointer is magnetically coupled with the bevel gear. The pointer of magnetic oil level
indicator is also incorporated with a mercury switch. So it is neednot say, when oil level
in the conservator goes up and down, the pointer moves on the MOG dial to indicate the
actual level of transformer insulating oil in conservator tank.

As the alignment of mercury switch changes along with the pointer, this switch closes
and

actuates an audible alarm when pointer reaches near empty position on the dial of
magnetic oilgauge. This event alerts us for topping up oil in electrical power transformer.

2.7 Breather

Breather is mounted on the conservator tank with silica gel in the container and an oil cap
at the bottom of the container. It ensures that the air entering the conservator is dry and
no dirt particles are going in.
It is of dark blue color in active stage and turns pink after absorbing moisture. Silica gel
has a great capacity to absorb moisture up to 10% of its own weight and can also be used
again after drying. Size of silica Gel is also very important and it should be 7 to 9 mm.

2.7.1 Silica Gel Breather of Transformer

Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the transformer

insulating oil increases, consequently the volume of the oil is increased. As the volume of

the oil is increased, the air above the oil level in conservator will come out. Again at low

XXVII
oil temperature; the volume of the oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to

be decreased which again causes air to enter into conservator tank.

The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture can be

mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air moisture should be

resisted during entering of the air into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful

for transformer insulation.

2.7.2 Construction of Silica Gel Breather

The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of design. It is nothing

but a pot of silica gel through which, air passes during breathing of transformer. The

silica gel is a very good absorber of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient, it

may dry down air to a dew point of below -40oC. A well maintained silica gel breather

will generally operate with a dew point of -35oC as long as a large enough quantity of gel

has been used. The picture shows a silica gel breather of transformer.

2.7.3 Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing moisture. When air passes
through these crystals in the breather; the moisture of the air is absorbed by them.
Therefore, the air reaches to the conservator is quite dry, the dust particles in the air get
trapped by the oil in the oil seal cup. The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier between
silica gel crystal and air when there is no flow of air through silica gel breather. The color
of silica gel crystal is dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes pink.
When there is sufficient difference between the air inside the conservator and the outside
air, the oil level in two components of the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just
reaches the rim of the inverted cup, the air then moves from high pressure compartment
to the low pressure compartment of the oil seal. Both of these happen when the oil acts as
core filter and removes the dust from the outside airdust from the outside air

XXVIII
 Fig. 2.9 Breather Components

2.8 Oil Temperature Indicator

In oil filled transformers, Oil temperature indicator is provided to note maximum
temperature rise in a day and temperature at any point of time of top transformer oil. Red
needle indicates max temperature rise in a day. Black needle indicates temperature any
point of time of the transformer oil.

2.8.1 Bushing Metal parts and Arcing Horns

Bushing is an insulating structure on the body of the transformer on which the supply
lines are connected and is used to insulate the transformers metal body from the
incoming/outgoing supply lines. Arcing Horn is provided to prevent transformer from
lightening by diverting lightening stroke to Earth without damaging core coil assembly.

FIG 2.10 Bushing Metal parts and Arcing Horns

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2.8.2 Bushing Metal Part
Being a customer oriented organization; we are deeply engaged in offering a wide array
ofBushing Metal Part.
Features:
a. High strength
b. Precisely designed
c. Corrosion resistance
Additional Information:

a. Item Code: M12-LV

Fig 2.11 Bushing Metal parts (ITEM CODE: M12-LV)

HV Bushing Metal Part

In line with clients' diverse requirements, we are involved in providing an optimum
quality range of HV Bushing Metal Part.

Features:

a. Sturdiness
b. Excellent strength
c. Easy to install

Additional Information:

a. Item Code: M12-HV

XXX
 Fig 2.12 Item Code: M12-HV

Transformer LV Metal Part

Aimed at prosperous growth in this domain, we are instrumental in offering an excellent

quality range of Transformer LV Metal Part.

Specifications:

a. Material: Free Cutting Brass.

b. Rode Size: 12mm.
c. Weight: 420 grams.
d. Forging Fitting.
e. Extruded Rod.
f. Machine Brass Washer

Features:

a. Anti-corrosive
b. Flawless finish
c. Precisely designed

Additional Information:

a. Item Code: M-20

XXXI
 Fig 2.13 Item Code: M-20

Brass Transformer Metal Part

We are ranked amongst the most trusted firms deeply engaged in offering a wide range
ofBrass Transformer Metal Part.

Specifications:

a. Material: Free Cutting Brass.

b. Rode Size: 12mm.
c. Weight: 420 grams.
d. Forging Fitting.
e. Extruded Rod.
f. Machine Brass Washer

Features:

a. Fine finish
b. Corrosion-resistance
c. High durability

XXXII
 Fig 2.14 Brass Transformer Metal Part.
LV Metal Part

Specifications :

a. Material: Free Cutting Brass.

b. Rode Size: 12mm.
c. Weight: 420 grams.
d. Forging Fitting.
e. Extruded Rod.
f. Machine Brass Washer

Fig 2.15 LV METAL PART

LV Metal Part
Features :

a. Rugged Construction.

XXXIII
 b. Enhanced Service Life.
c. Impeccable Quality.
d. Durable.

 Specifications :

a. Material: Free Cutting Brass.

b. Rode Size: 12mm.
c. Weight: 420 grams.
d. Forging Fitting.

2.9 Tap Changer

Fig 2.16 TAP CHANGER

A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for variable turn ratios to be
selected in discrete steps. And with this mechanism obtain this variable turn ratio by
connecting to a number of access points known as taps along either the primary or
secondary winding.
Tap changers exist in two primary types,[1] no load tap changers (NLTC) which must be
de-energized before the turn ratio is adjusted and on load tap changers (OLTC) which
may adjust their turn ratio during operation. The tap selection on any tap changer may be
made via an automatic system, as is often the case for OLTC, or a manual tap changer,
which is more common for NLTC. Automatic tap changers can be placed on a lower or
higher voltage winding, but for high-power generation and transmission applications,

XXXIV
automatic tap changers are often placed on the higher voltage (lower current) transformer
winding for easy access and to minimize the current load during operation.
2.9.1 Tap Changer Switch
The tap changer on the transformer is provided to maintain the system voltage within the
prescribed limits for better quality of electrical power. The tap settings must be changed
only when the transformer is DE energized, though On Load Tap Changer(OLTC) are
also present but are mostly used in PTR‟s in grid.

Tap changingNo-load tap changer

No-load tap changer (NLTC), also known as Off-circuit tap changer (OCTC) or De-
energized tap changer (DETC), is a tap changer utilized in situations in which a
transformer's turn ratio does not require frequent changing and it is permissible to de-
energize the transformer system. This type of transformer is frequently employed in low
power, low voltage transformers in which the tap point often may take the form of a
transformer connection terminal, requiring
the input line to be disconnected by hand and connected to the new terminal.
Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing may be assisted by means of
a rotary or slider switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage distribution-type transformers in
which the system includes a no load tap changer on the primary winding to accommodate
transmission system variations within a narrow band around the nominal rating. In such
systems, the tap changer will often be set just once, at the time of installation, although it
may be changed later to accommodate a long-term change in the system voltage profile.

Fig. 2.17 NO Load Tap Changer

2.9.2 On-load tap changer

On-load tap changer (OLTC), also known as On-circuit tap changer (OCTC), is a tap
changer in applications where a supply interruption during a tap change is unacceptable,

XXXV
the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive and complex on load tap changing
mechanism. On load tap changers may be generally classified as either mechanical,
electronically assisted, or fully electronic. These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at
centre "Rated" tap and sixteen to increase and decrease the turn ratio) and allow for ±10%
variation[3] (each step providing 0.625% variation) from the nominal transformer rating
which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage regulation of the output.

Mechanical On load tap changer (OLTC), also known as under-load tap changer
(ULTC) design, changing back and forth between tap positions 2 and 3
Tap changers typically use numerous tap selector switches which may not be switched
under load, broken into even and odd banks, and switch between the banks with a heavy-
duty diverterswitch which can switch between them under load. The result operates like
a dual-clutchtransmission, with the tap selector switches taking the place of the gearbox
and the diverter switch taking the place of the clutch.
2.10 Transformer Oil
Insulating oils are obtained by suitably selecting and refining crude petroleum which
exists at various places in the Earth. Classification of crudes
a. Paraffin
b. Naphthene
c. Olefins
d. Aromatics

Naphthenic crudes are prefered for the manufacturing of insulating oils.In order to obtain
insulating oil, crude oil is refined by distillation, chemical refin ing,and sweeting of oil
(to remove Sulphur). Insulating oil used in transformers is also known as Hydro Carbon
Mineral oil. Transformer oil is used for two purposes
1. Insulation
2. Cooling
The insulating oil used for Transformers should meet the following requirements

i. Provide a high electric strength.

ii. Permit good transfer of heat.
iii.  Have low specific gravity In oil of low specific gravity, particles which
have become suspended in the oil willsettle down on the bottom of the
tank more readily and at a faster rate, a property aiding the oil to retain its
homogeneity.
iv. Have a low viscosity Oil with low viscosity. Having greater fluidity, will cool
Transformers at a much better rate.
v. Have low pour point Oil with low pour point will cease to flow only at low
temperatures.

XXXVI
2.11 Temperature Indicator of Transformer
These are generally precision instruments. A temperature indicator of power

transformeris specially designed for protection of transformer in addition to its

temperature indication and cooling control features. That means, this device performs

three functions.

a. These instruments indicate instantaneous temperature of oil and windings of

transformer.

b. These also record maximum temperature rise of oil and windings.

c. These instruments operate high temperature alarm at a predetermined value of

allowable temperature limit.

d. Temperature indicators of transformer can also trip the circuit breakers associated

with the power transformer when the temperature of oil or winding reaches a

predetermined limit.

e. These devices also control the cooling system of transformer. Switch on the

cooling equipment when the winding attains a preset high temperature and switch

it off when the temperature drops by an established differential.

2.11.1 Types of Temperature Indicator of Transformer

There are mainly two types of temperature indicators used in transformer. Principally
both of the instruments are the same but, one is used for oil temperature and the other is
used for winding

temperature. There is another type of temperature indicator often used in power

transformer, which is little bit different principally and this is remote temperature
indicator.

The types of temperature indicator of transformer are-

a. Oil temperature indicator (OTI)

XXXVII
 b. Winding temperature indicator (WTI)
c. Remote temperature indicator (RTI)

2.11.2 Construction of Temperature Indicator of Transformer

These indicators are provided with a sensing bulb. This sensing bulb is placed in a pocket
on the roof of transformer tank. The pocket is filled with transformer oil. The bulb is
connected to the instrument housing by means of flexible connecting tubing consisting of
two capillary tubes. One capillary tube is connected to the operating bellow of the
instrument and other to a compensating bellow. Compensating bellow compensates
variation of ambient temperature. The pointer is fixed with a steel carriage on which
normally four mercury switches are mounted. The make and break temperature of these
mercury switches can be adjusted separately. One mercury switch is use to operate
cooling fans, one mercury switch is used to switch on oil pumps, one mercury switch is
for high temperature alarm and last switch is used to inter trip the transformer in
extremely high temperature condition.

In addition to these the dial of oil temperature indicator is also provided with dummy
pointer which is pushed by main pointer when temperature rises. When main pointer
moves back due to decreasing temperature, the dummy pointer stays at maximum
temperature position of the mainpointer. This indicates maximum temperature rise of
transformer during a preset period of time.

XXXVIII
2.12 Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI
This device is used to measure the top oil temperature. An oil temperature indicator or
OTI is also used for protection of transformer.

2.12.1 Operating Principle of Oil Temperature Indicator

This device measures top oil temperature with the help of sensing bulb immersed in the
pocket by using liquid expansion in the bulb through a capillary line to operating
mechanism. A link and lever mechanism amplifies this movement to the disc carrying
pointer and mercury switches. When volume of the liquid in operating mechanism
changes, the bellow attached to end of capillary tube expands and contracts. This
movement of bellow is transmitted to the pointer in temperature indicator of transformer
through a lever linkage mechanism.

2.13 Winding Temperature Indicator or WTI

This device measures the LV and HV winding temperature. A winding temperature
indicator or WTI is also used as protection of transformer.

Fig 2.21 WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

XXXIX
 Chapter -3

Transmission and Distribution System

In a Transmission and Distribution system both the terms, transmission and distribution
can be defined separately and in general terms, Electric power Transmission is the
movement of bulk of electrical energy from a generating station to an electrical
substation, this is very different from the wiring present between the electrical substations
and the consumers, which is typically known as electric power distribution.

A vast network of transmission system has been created so that power generated at one
station may be fed to grid and may be distributed over large areas and number of states.
The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-phase circuits
with transforming and switching substations at the various junctions. The parts of a
transmission and distribution network maybe grouped as given below.

Fig 3.1 : SLD of T&D System

3.1 Electric power Transmission:

Several generating stations can be inter connected. The main advantages are:
i. Reduction in the number of spare plants, can be used as one station can assist the
other at the time of emergency.
ii. During light loads one station or some generators can be shut off, thus affecting
operational economy.
3.1.1 Primary electric power transmission:
High voltages of the order of 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV are used for
transmitting power by 3 phases 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations
usually at the out skirts of major distribution centre or city.

XL
3.1.2 Secondary electric power transmission:
The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for
secondary transmission.
3.2 Primary electric power distribution:
The transmission lines terminate at large main substations from which the power is
distributed to small secondary substations located throughout the load area. The voltage
may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.
3.3 Secondary electric power distribution:
This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over the
rural areas. From these sources connections to individual customers are provided. The
circuit used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which either 3 phases
440 V or single phase 220 V supply to the consumers is provided.
Although every part can be explained thoroughly in the above given description, but a
DISCOM like BSES is more inclined towards providing uninterrupted electricity supply
to
their customers which are on the secondary distribution, they also provide HT
supply(11kV) to some consumers but most consumes 220V. So to deal with the consumer
on the lower most part of the distribution and try to provide it with 24x7 electricity
supply certain distribution feeder systems are been used according to the place and
consumer.
Let‟s take a look at the four most common distribution feeder systems applied
nowadays. There are few other variations, but we will stick to the basic ones.
a. Radial
b. Parallel Feeders
c. Ring Main
d. Meshed System

3.3.1 Radial
Many distribution systems operate using a radial feeder system. A typical
radial feeder system is shown schematically in Figure. Radial feeders are
the simplest and least expensive, both to construct and for their protection
system.This advantage however is offset by the difficulty of maintaining supply
in the event of a fault occurring in the feeder.
“A fault would result in the loss of supply to a number of customers until the
fault is located and cleared. The next level of reliability is given by “parallel
feeder”

XLI
3.3.2 Parallel Feeders
A greater level of reliability at a higher cost is achieved with a parallel feeder.
A typical parallel feeder system is shown schematically in Figure.
In the event of line fault only one set of feeder cables will be affected, thus
allowing the remaining parallel feeder to continue to supply the load. To
improve the reliability factor it may be possible to have the separate sets of
cables follow different routes. In this case the capital cost is double that of a
radial feeder but there is a greater reliability factor for the line. This may be
justified if the load is higher, more customers are being supplied, or there are
loads such as hospitals which require high levels of reliability .
“parallel feeder are more common in urban areas or for feeders to large single
customers , where load shedding in an emergency may be popssible.

FIG 3.2 PARALLEL FEEDER SYSTEM

3.3.3 Ring Main

A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel arrangement can be
achieved by using ring main feeders. This usually results from the growth of
load supplied by a parallel feeder where the cabling has been installed along

XLII
different routes. These aremost common in urban and industrial environments.
The start and finish ends of the ring are at the same location, power is delivered
by both pathways of the ring into substations located around the ring.

If a fault occurs on a feeder cable at any point around the ring the faulty section
may be isolated by the operation of the protecting circuit breakers, and at the
same time maintaining supply to all substations on the ring .

Fig:3.3 Ring Main feeder system

3.3.4 Meshed System

In transmission and sub-transmission systems, usually parallel, ring or
interconnected(mesh) systems are used. This ensures that alternative supply can
be made to customers in the event of failure of a transmission line or element.
The general rule is that where large loads or numbers of customers are involved,
then some form of standby, in the form of deliberate redundancy, is built into
the network design, through the use of parallel, meshed or ring type feeders.

XLIII
 Fig:3.4 Meshed System

As discussed above the 4 most common types of distribution system that we use to
provide the electricity to the consumers (depending upon their area and the type of
consumer), and though they are very reliable in terms of maintaining the supply there are
some equipment that are very important and are an essential part of any distribution
system and as the title of this project report shows operation and maintenance of these
equipment will be the major part of discussion ahead in this report. There are many
equipment that are there in a distribution system but we are only going to discuss the
most common and the most important ones, which are:-

a. Distribution Transformer(DT)
b. Ring Main Units(RMU)
c. Cables
d. Air/Vacuum Circuit Breakers(A/VCB)

All the equipment mentioned above are going to be discussed in detail separately in
next chapters.

XLIV
 CHAPTER 4

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

1.1 Introduction to VCB :-

Circuit breakers are most important protective devices. They are used to make or
break the circuit. They can be operated manually or automatically with the help
of C.T, P.T and relays to disconnect any faulty circuit. Circuit breakers consist of
fixed contact, moving contact, extinguishing chamber, roller, insulation, breather
etc. The moving contact with the help of rollers is responsible for closing and
opening of circuit. They are inside the extinguishing chamber.

Fig. 4.1 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

A vacuum circuit breaker is a kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place
in vacuum medium. The operation of switching on and closing of current carrying
contacts and interrelated arc interruption takes place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker
which is called vacuum interrupter.

The Vacuum interrupter technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still, it
is a developing technology. As time goes on, the size of the vacuum interrupter has
reduced from its early 1960‟s size due to different technical developments in this field of
engineering.

1.2 Vacuum as an Interruption Medium

The performance of a circuit breaker mainly depends upon the dielectric medium used for
arc quenching. Another major advantage of this technology, is that vacuum switchgear is

XLV
nearly maintenance free. Now we will discuss one the different features of this
technology, which makes it so popular.

4.2.1 Dielectric Strength of Vacuum

For a given contact gap, vacuum provides, about eight times more dielectric strength than
air and four times more dielectric strength than SF6 gas at one bar. As the dielectric
strength is so high, the contact gap of vacuum circuit breaker can be maintained very
small. In this small contact gap, arc quenching is safely possible due to high dielectric
strength and also vacuum has the fast recovery strength after full arc interruption to its
full dielectric value at current zero. This makes, vacuum switchgear, most suitable for
capacitor switching.

4.2.2 Low Arc Energy in Vacuum

The energy dissipated during arc in vacuum is about one tenth of that of oil and one
fourth of that of SF6 gas. Law energy dissipation mainly due to low interruption time
(due to small contact gap) and small arc length (this is also due to small contact gap).

Because of this low arc energy dissipation, vacuum switchgear has negligible contact
erosion and this gives it nearly maintenance free life span. It is also to be noted that, for
breaking certain current, the energy required by vacuum circuit breaker is minimum
compared to air circuit breaker and oil circuit breaker.

4.2.3 Simple Driving Mechanism

In SF6, oil and air circuit breaker, movement of contacts is highly resisted by highly
compressed medium of arc quenching chamber. But in vacuum switchgear, there is no
medium, and also movement of contacts is quit less due to its small contacts gap, hence
driving energy required is much smaller, in this circuit breaker. That is why simple
spring-spring operating mechanism is sufficient for this switchgear system, no need of
hydraulic and pneumatic mechanism. Simpler driving mechanism gives a high
mechanical life of vacuum switchgear.

4.2.4 Rapid Arc Quenching

During opening of contacts in current carrying condition, metal vapor is produced
between the contacts, and this metal vapor provides a path through which electric current
continuous to flow until the next current zero. This phenomenon is also known a vacuum
arc.

This arc is extinguished near the current zero and the conductive metal vapor is re-
condensed on the contact surface in a matter of micro seconds. It has been observed that,

XLVI
only 1% of the vapor is re-condensed on arc chamber‟s side wall, and 99% of vapor re-
condensed on the contact surface from where it was vaporized. From above discussion, it
is almost clear that, the dielectric strength of vacuum switchgear recovers very fast and
contact erosion is almost negligible.

It has been observed that, up to 10 KA, the arc remains diffused. It takes the form of
vapor discharge and covers the entire contact surface. But above 10 KA, the diffused arc
is concentrated at central point of the contact surface due to its own magnetic field. Due
to this phenomenon, the center of the contacts over heated.

This problem can be solved by providing specially designed contact surface so that, the
arc can travel throughout the surface area, instead of being stationary at certain point.
Different manufacturers use different contact surface designs to achieve this travelling of
arc due to its own magnetic field. This causes minimum and uniform contact erosion.

Fig. 4.2 Vacuum Interrupter

XLVII
 Chapter 05

MICROPROCESSOR-8085

5. BASED OVER CURRENT RELAYS FOR THEPROTECTIONS

OF SUBTRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LINES
With the developments in large scale integrated technology, Sophisticated and fast
microprocessors are coming up.their applications to the problems of protective relaying
schemes are of current interest to power system engineers. With the growing complexity
of modern power networks . fast ,accurate and reliable protective schemes are becoming
necessary. Microprocessor based protective schemes can easily fullfil these requirements
at competitive price. These schemes offer attractive compactness and flexibility. They
reduce the number and types of relaying units.

Electromecanical relays were used in the beginning for protection in power systems.
These had several drawbacks such as high burden on instrument transformer , high
operating time, contact problems , frequent maintenance etc.solid state relays which
avoid most of these disadvantages are gradually replacing electromagnetic relay .static
relays have also been increasingly used in recent years because of their inherent
advantages of compactness, lower burden, less maintenance,sensitivity and high speed .
though successfully used, these suffer from a number of disadvantages such as
inflexibility , duplication of specification efforts, inadaptability to changing
system.condition, complexity and cost. Software schemes avoid most of these
disadvantages .programmable equipment can respond fast and can be used to implement
complex threshold characteristics at lowcost.they can also be self checking in nature
thereby requiring less maintenance and providing greater reliability.

So digital relaying implementation was first proposed in 1969 {1} and a large number of
researchers turned their attention towards the use of digital computers in power system
protection and particularly for transmission line protection as described in . with the
advent of the microprocessor based protection scheme is especially preferred for
transmission line protection scheme is especially preffered for transmission line since
several types of threshold characteristics can be implemented with the same hardware
or with a minimum change in hardware. Theequipment is also self checking in
nature.this chapter presents the design , development and testing of a prototype

XLVIII
microprocessor based over current relay for the protection of subtransmission
lines.distribution lines and large industrial motors and equipments.

5.1 MICROPROCESSOR BASED OVER CURRENT RELAYS

Overcurrent relays are used for the protection of distribution circuits {18} owned and
operated by utilities and customers. Many subtranmission lines are also protected by
relays of this type .distribution circuits are sometimes interconnected to form loops
{251}.in these situations ,the overcurrent relays alone cannot protected the circuits
effectively. Ability to detect the direction of “power flow”along with the ability to detect
current exceeding a threshold is generally used for protection of loop circuits. Many
shapes of times over current characteristics are available in directional over current
relays.

The proposed scheme deals with the development of a microprocessor based protection
scheme for subtranmission and distribution lines, large industrial motors and
equipments. The microprocessor simulates the relaying signalsfor test purposed
hardware, a test procedure for overcurrent and reverse power relays are presented in
details. Typical test results of various routine tests conducted on a single phase
overcurrent and reverse power relays are presented.8085 is pronounced as "eighty-
eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977
using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration −

a. 8-bit data bus

b. 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
c. A 16-bit program counter
d. A 16-bit stack pointer
e. Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
f. Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 Microprocessor – Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units −

XLIX
Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE
operations. It is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition,
Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each
register can hold 8-bit data.These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their
pairing combination is like B-C, D-E & H-L.

Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to
be executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being
executed, so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next
instruction that is going to be executed.

Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented by
2 during push & pop operations.

Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical
operations.

Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending
upon the result stored in the accumulator.

These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

a. Sign (S)
b. Zero (Z)
c. Auxiliary Carry (AC)
d. Parity (P)
e. Carry (C)

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Its bit position is shown in the following table −

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY

Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the
Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in the
Instruction register.

Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations.
Following are the timing and control signals, which control external and internal circuits
−

a. Control Signals: READY, RD‟, WR‟, ALE

b. Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M‟
c. DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA
d. RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT
Interrupt control
INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, As the name suggests it controls the interrupts
during a process. When a microprocessor is executing a main program and whenever an
interrupt occurs, the microprocessor shifts the control from the main program to process
the incoming request. After the request is completed, the control goes back to the main
program.

There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessorTRAP:

Serial Input/output control
It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial
input data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the address
buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O

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chips are connected to these buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data with the
memory and I/O chips.

Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the
location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the
data & Address I/O devices.

5.2 8085 Architecture

We have tried to depict the architecture of 8085 with this following image–

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 FIG 5.1 BLOCKS DIAGRAM OF 8085
5.3 Pin diagram of 8085 microprocessor
Pin diagram of 8085 microprocessor is as given below:

FIG 5.2. 40 PIN DIAGRAM

1.Address Bus and Data Bus:The address bus is a group of sixteen lines i.e A0-A15.
The address bus is unidirectional, i.e., bits flow in one direction from the microprocessor
unit to the peripheral devices and uses the high order address bus.
2. Control and Status Signals:
i. ALE – It is an Address Latch Enable signal. It goes high during first T state of a
machine cycle and enables the lower 8-bits of the address, if its value is 1
otherwise data bus is activated.
ii. IO/M’ – It is a status signal which determines whether the address is for input-
output or memory. When it is high(1) the address on the address bus is for input-
output devices. When it is low(0) the address on the address bus is for the
memory.
iii. SO, S1 – These are status signals. They distinguish the various types of
operations such as halt, reading, instruction fetching or writing.

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 IO/M’ S1 S0 DATA BUS STATUS

0 1 1 Opcode fetch

0 1 0 Memory read

0 0 1 Memory write

1 1 0 I/O read

1 0 1 I/O write

1 1 1 Interrupt acknowledge

0 0 0 Halt

a. RD’ – It is a signal to control READ operation. When it is low the selected

memory or input-output device is read.
b. WR’ – It is a signal to control WRITE operation. When it goes low the data on
the data bus is written into the selected memory or I/O location.
c. READY – It senses whether a peripheral is ready to transfer data or not. If
READY is high(1) the peripheral is ready. If it is low(0) the microprocessor waits
till it goes high. It is useful for interfacing low speed devices.
3. Power Supply and Clock Frequency:
a. Vcc – +5v power supply
b. Vss – Ground Reference
c. XI, X2 – A crystal is connected at these two pins. The frequency is internally
divided by two, therefore, to operate a system at 3MHZ the crystal should have
frequency of 6MHZ.
d. CLK (OUT) – This signal can be used as the system clock for other devices.
4 Interrupts and Peripheral Initiated Signals:
The 8085 has five interrupt signals that can be used to interrupt a program
execution.
a. INTR
b. RST 7.5
c. RST 6.5

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 d. RST 5.5
e. TRAP
The microprocessor acknowledges Interrupt Request by INTA‟ signal. In addition to
Interrupts, there are three externally initiated signals namely RESET, HOLD and
READY. To respond to HOLD request, it has one signal called HLDA.
a. INTR – It is an interrupt request signal.
b. INTA’ – It is an interrupt acknowledgment sent by the microprocessor after INTR is
received.
5. Reset Signals:
a. RESET IN’ – When the signal on this pin is low(0), the program-counter is set to
zero, the buses are restated and the microprocessor unit is reset.
b. RESET OUT – This signal indicates that the MPU is being reset. The signal can
be used to reset other devices.
6. DMA Signals:
a. HOLD – It indicates that another device is requesting the use of the address and data
bus. Having received HOLD request the microprocessor relinquishes the use of
the buses as soon as the current machine cycle is completed. Internal processing
may continue. After the removal of the HOLD signal the processor regains the
bus.
b. HLDA – It is a signal which indicates that the hold request has been received
after the removal of a HOLD request, the HLDA goes low.
7.Serial I/O Ports:
Serial transmission in 8085 is implemented by the two signals,
a. SID and SOD – SID is a data line for serial input where as SOD is a data line for
serial output.

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 CHAPTER 06

Conclusion and References

6.1 Conclusion:

The Practical Training Report which is a part of syllabus in an engineering course plays a
vital role in developing personality and mental approach of an engineering student
towards a problem. In my training period I learnt about how actually a transformer is
maintained, what parts of it are essential from a maintenance point of view, how some
things are replaced or reused, all these things and how to manage these things a
manufacturing plant
JTEKT Gurgaon plant is a prominent manufacturing facility operating twenty-four hours
requiring uninterrupted power supply round the clock. The electrical power supply is the
backbone of the any manufacturing plant without which there will be zero production and
loss of money and valuable time.

The main responsibility of an Electrical engineer in such a big plant is to keep the
electrical system online without any faults. This can be achieved only by proper
maintenance and sound knowledge of the working of the electrical equipment present
there. If in any case the electrical supply fails there will be a huge loss of manpower and
money. So, to avoid that the area where the supply is being compromised electricity
should be supplied with an auxiliary supply source, the technical term for this is back
feeding. I also came to know about the Circuit Breaker , CT, PT in secondary distribution
to be precise, how the connections are being made, at what point in distribution they are
used, their different types, their construction and their ratings.
The time by which this report was almost going to be over I knew one thing for sure that
the operation and maintenance department is one of the most, if not the most,
hardworking department in the company, and let that be of a distribution system and we
are looking at one the most tough jobs. I learnt a lot in these 4 months and I‟m glad that I
was a part of it.

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6.2 References

a. [1] john j. kumm, mark S .weber, E.O. Schweitzer , III , daqing Hou ,
b. “philosophies for testing protective relays.”, 48th annual Georgia tech protective
relaying conference, Atlanta, Georgia, may 4-6,1994.
c. [2] Lewis J. Blackburn and Thomas J.Domain “protective relaying principles and
applications”, third edition,2007.
d. [3] Sachdev, M.S. “advanced microprocessor based protection and
communication” .IEEE tutorial course.1997.
e. [4] Brad. Hendenson, “protective relay setting management in the modern
f. World;cigre conference 2008
g. [5] guzman A., s. zocholl, G.benmouyal, and H.J Altuve, “performance analysis
of traditional and improved transformer differential protective relays” , SEL
technical papers 2002.
h. [6] mohindar S.and Sachdev V. “understanding microprocessor based technology
applied to relaying,”power system relaying committee 2004.

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