Title: To Design Multilevel inverter Using Arduino as

Microcontroller

Submitted By

Group No.
Name of Student Registration Numbers
Muhammad Junaid 15ABELT0641
Wajahat Iqbal 15ABELT0651
Rasheed Ullah 15ABELT0672

Supervisor

Engr. Asma Israr

Lecturer

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ABBOTTABAD

August,2019

I
 Abstract
Title
(To Design Multilevel inverter Using Arduino as Microcontroller)

Submitted By

Name of Student Registration Numbers

Muhammad Junaid 15ABELT0642
Wajahat Iqbal 15ABELT0651
Rasheed Ullah 15ABELT0672
A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Sc. Electronic Engineering

Thesis Supervisor:

Engr. Asma Israr

Lecturer at Electronic Department

UET Peshawar, Abbottabad campus

Head of Department Signature: ____________________________________

External Examiner Signature: _____________________________________

Thesis Supervisor Signature: _____________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS

August,2019

II
 Abstract

Abstract

It is hard to connect a single power semiconductor switch directly to medium voltage grids (2.3,

3.3, 4.16, or 6.9 kV). For these reasons, a new family of multilevel inverters has emerged as the

solution for working with higher voltage levels. Multilevel inverters have received more attention in

industrial application, such as motor drives, static VAR compensators and renewable energy systems,

etc. Primarily multilevel inverters are known to have output voltages with more than two levels. As a

result, the inverter output voltages have reduced harmonic distortions and high quality of waveforms.

Additionally, the devices are confined to fraction of dc-link voltage. These characteristics make

multilevel inverter to adopt for high-power and high-voltage applications. A good number of

multilevel inverter topologies have been proposed during the last two decades. Contemporary research

has engaged novel converter topologies and unique modulation schemes. Moreover, four major

multilevel inverter structures have been reported in the literature these are as follows: cascaded

H-bridges inverter (CHB) with separate dc sources, diode clamped (neutral clamped), and flying

capacitors (capacitor clamped), P2 Multilevel inverters. Although different multilevel inverter exists,

Cascade Multilevel Inverter (CMI) is one of the productive topology from multilevel family. In reality,

on comparing with other multilevel based topologies, CMI feature a high modularity degree because

each inverter can be seen as a module with similar circuit topology, control structure, and modulation.

Therefore, in the case of a fault in one of these modules, it is possible to replace it quickly and easily.

Moreover, with an appropriated control strategy, it is possible to bypass the faulty module without

stopping the load, bringing an almost continuous overall availability. All this features make CMI an

outstanding power converter. However, one of the greatest limitations of CMI is utilization of separate

DC source for each H-Bridge cell. This not only increases cost but also affects the reliability of the

system. This is the key motivation for this dissertation. In the present work, we have investigated

different CMI based topologies with separate and single DC sources and finally proposed a new CMI

based configuration with single dc source by using three-phase transformers. The proposed CMI based

inverter presented in this thesis is well defined with logical and mathematical approach. Additionally

to illustrate the merits, it is compared with traditional multilevel inverters. The feasibility of proposed
III
 Abstract

inverter is demonstrated with different illustrations and confirmed by experimental results. The

proposed CMI is well suited for grid / photovoltaic and FACTS systems. To elevate the application of

proposed CMI a Line filter (LF) and toroid filter (TD) design is demonstrated. In this case, the goal is

to inject, in parallel with the load, compensation current to get a sinusoidal source current. The

proposed model is verified through proteous simulation.

Key words: cascaded H-bridge，SPWM，CMI，topologies，techniques

IV
 Innovation Points

After working on different techniques of multilevel inverter following innovations

were being made with respect to already existing inverters.

I. Normally for Fifteen level inverter we use seven bridges but in this project
we make it from only one bridge.
II. Instead of using IC’s for each MOSFET we use ARDUINO as
microcontroller and now we will be able to make any level with same
setting just with slight changes in our program.
III. As the maximum frequency which ARDUINO can produce is 980HZ, we
made changes in built in files and increase it to 8KHZ.
IV. Number of MOSFETS was reduced to only four from twenty-eight.

V
 List of abbreviations

List of Abbreviations
The following table describes the significance of various abbreviations and acronyms
used throughout the thesis.

Abbreviation Meaning
CMI Cascaded multilevel inverter
PWM Pulse width modulation
TD Toroid Filter
LF Line filter
SPWM Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
MI Multilevel inverter
SMPS Switch-mode power supply
DC Direct current
AC Alternating current
AH ampere-hour
TWI two-wire interface
SPI Serial Peripheral Interface

VI
 List of figures
Figure1.1 Sine wave………………………….…………………………………………….14
Figure1.2 Modified sine wave……………………………………………………………….15
Figure1.3 Flow chart of distribution of tasks in the project…………………………………18
Figure1.4 Basic design……………………………………………………………….………19
Figure1.5 Advance design…………………………..…………………………..…..…….….21
Figure 2.1 Cascaded H bridge multilevel inverter………………………………………...…23
Figure 2.2 Diode clamped multilevel inverter…………………………………….……..…..25
Figure 2.3 Flying capacitor multilevel inverter…………………………………..…..……..26
Figure 2.4 Modulation Techniques………………………………………………………….27
Figure 2.5 Application of different techniques for Multilevel inverter topology………..….28
Figure 2.6 Comparison between fundamental and high switching frequencies…………….28
Figure 2.7 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation…………………………………………..…30
Figure 3.1 MATLAB simulation for three level…………………………………………....31
Figure 3.2 Output Waveform three level……………………………………………….…..32
Figure 3.3 Seven level simulation diagram…………………………………………..…….32
Figure 3.4 Output waveform seven level…………………………………………..…….…33
Figure 3.5 Simulation diagram of eleven level…………………………………………….33
Figure 3.6 Output waveform of eleven level…………………………………………….…34
Figure 3.7 Simulation diagram of fifteen level…………………………………………….34
Figure 3.8 PCB layout fifteen level…………………………………………………..…….35
Figure 3.9 Output waveform of fifteen level………………………………………….……35
Figure 4.1 Theoretical model of Inverter…………………………………………………...39
Figure 4.2 IBT-2 H-bridge module…………………………………………..……….…….40
Figure 4.3 Inputs ports of ARDUINO……………………………..…………..…………...41
Figure 4.4 Step up transformer………………………………….…………..……….……..42
Figure 4.5 ARDUINO UNO …………………………………………………..….……….43
Figure 4.6 Toroid coil……….……………….………………………………..…..…………45
Figure 4.7 Line filter……………………….…………………………………....…………..46
Figure 4.8 Mathematical Calculation of inverter……………………………………………47
Figure 4.8 Hardware of Inverter……………………………………………….……………47
Figure 6.1 Comparison of Three inverter……………………………………….…………..53
Figure 6.2 Comparison of three inverters based on load inductor……………….…………54

VII
 List of figures

Figure 6.3 THD of the output………………………………………………………………54

VIII
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..III
Innovation Point………………………………………………………………….V
List of Abbreviation……………………………………………………………...VI
Table of contents………………………………………………………………….IX
List of figures……………………………………………………………………..VII
Chapter#1………………………… …………………………………………..……1
Introduction and Background………………………………………………………1

1.1 Input and Output……………………………………………………………...1

1.1.1 Input Voltage (Level-3)………………………………………..…………….….1

1.1.2 Output Waveform (Level-3) ……………………………………………….…….1

1.1.2.1 Square wave (Level-4)…………………………………………………………….2

1.1.2.2 Sine Wave………………………………………………………………………….2

1.1.2.3 Modified Sine Wave………………………………………………………………..3

1.3 Output frequency…………………………………………………………………………3

1.4 Output Voltage………………………………………………………………..…………….4

1.5 Output power……………………………………………………………………….……….4

1.6 Batteries……………………………………………………………………………..………4

1.6.1 Series Configuration……………………………………………………………..4

1.6.2 Parallel Configuration………………………………………………………….…………...4

1.6.2.1 The Road Map Of The project……………………………………………………5

1.7 Circuit description…………………………………………………………………………...6

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 Table of Contents

1.7.1 Basic Design…………………………………………………………………..……6

1.7.2 Advanced Design…………………………………………………………………..7

1.9 Difficulties……………………………………………………………………………….………9

Chapter#2

2.1 Multilevel inverter topologies…………………………………………………...……...…...10

2.1.1 Cascaded Multilevel H-bridge Inverters…………………….………………………….10

2.1.1.1 Advantage of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverter…………………………………11

2.1.1.2 Disadvantage Of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverter……………………………..11

2.1.2 Diode clamped multilevel inverter……………………………………………………………11

2.1.2.1 Advantage of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter………………………………….12

2.1.2.2 Disadvantage of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter……………………………….12

2.1.3 Flying Capacitor Multi level inverter…………………………………………………………12

2.1.3.1 Advantage of flying capacitor of Multi level inverter……………………………….13

2.1.3.1 Disadvantage of flying capacitor of Multilevel inverter…………………………….13

2.2 Modulation Techniques………………………………………………………………………….13

2.2.1 Space Vector PWM……………………………………………………………………16

2.2.2. Selective Harmonic Elimination……………………………………………………….16

2.2.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation……………………………………………………16

2.3 Summary………………………………………………………………………………………….17

Chapter#3 Simulation and Output Waveform…………………………………………………..18

3.1 Three Level Inverter…………………………………………………………………………….18

3.1.1 Matlab Simulation for Three Level………………………………………………….18

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 Table of Contents

3.1.2 Output Waveform…………………………………………………………………..19

3.2 Seven Level Inverter………………………………………………………………………….19

3.2.1 Simulation Diagram………………………………………………………………..19

3.2.2 Output Waveform………………………………………………………………….20

3.3 Eleven Level Inverter…………………………………………………………………….….20

3.3.1 Simulation Diagram……………………………………………………………….20

3.3.2 Output waveform………………………………………………………..…………20

3.4 Fifteen Level Inverter………………………………………………………………………….21

3.4.1 Simulation Diagram………………………………………………………………….21

3.4.2 PCB layout…………………………………………………………………….…….22

3.4.3 Output Waveform…………………………………………………………………..22

3.4.4 ARDUINO CODE………………………………………………………………….22

Chapter#4

4.1 Selection of Techniques for Multilevel Inverter……………………………………………….39

4.2 Theoretical Model………………………………………………………………………………39

4.3 Parts of Project…………………………………………………………………………………40

4.3.1IBT-2 H-bridge………………………………………………………………………40

4.3.1.1 Key Parameters……………………………………………………………………40

4.3.2 Step Up transformer………………………………………………………………….42

4.3.3 ARDUINO UNO.……………………………………………………………………43

4.3.3.1 Technical specifications………………………………………………………….43

4.3.3.2 Pins………………………………………………………………………………….44

XI
 Table of Contents

4.3.3.2.1 General Pins Functions……………………………………………………………44

4.3.3.2.2 Specific Pins function………………………………………………………………45

4.3.4 Toroid coil……………………………………………………………………………..45

4.3.5 Line filter………………………………………………………………………………46

4.4 Mathematical Calculation And formula used…….……………..………………………………..46

4.5 Final Hardware…………………………………………….……………………………………..47

Chapter#5 Applications

5.1 Why Multilevel Inverters?................................................................................................ ............49

5.2 DC power source……………………………………………………………………………..49

5.3 Uninterruptible power supplies……………………………………………………………….49

5.4 Electric Motor speed…………………………………………………………………………..49

5.5 In refrigeration compressor……………………………………………………………………50

5.6 Power grid……………………………………………………………………………………50

5.6.1 Grid tied inverter…………………………………………………………………50

5.6.2 Synchronverters…………………………………………………………………..50

5.7 Solar…………………………………………………………………………………………….50

5.8 Induction heating………………………………………………………………………………51

5.9 HVDC power transmission…………………………………………………………………….51

5.10 Electrical Shock Weapons……………………………………………………………………..51

5.11 Miscellaneous…………………………………………………………………………………51

Chapter#6 Conclusion and future work

6.1 Performance comparison…………………………………………………………………..40

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 Table of Contents

6.2 Conclusion ………………….……………………………………………………………………………41

6.3 Future work……………………………………………………………………………………………….42

Refrences………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………..43

XIII
 1 Introduction and Background

Introduction and Background

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current to

Alternating current. The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling
depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a
rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion
process.

1 Input and output

Input voltage
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power source capable of
supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage depends on
the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:

 12 V DC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a rechargeable
12 V lead acid batteries or automotive electrical outlet.
 24, 36 and 48 V DC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
 200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
 300 to 450 V DC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid systems.
 Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a high-voltage direct current power
transmission system.

Output Waveform
An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, pulse width modulated
wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design. Common types of inverters produce square
waves or quasi-square waves. One measure of the purity of a sine wave is the total harmonic
distortion (THD). A 50% duty cycle square wave is equivalent to a sine wave with 48% THD Technical
standards for commercial power distribution grids require less than 3% THD in the wave shape at the
customer's point of connection. IEEE Standard 519 recommends less than 5% THD for systems
connecting to a power grid.

There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source,
the first of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to
AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-frequency transformer to
create the output voltage.

1
 1 Introduction and Background

1.2.1 Square Wave

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is best suited to
low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square wave output can produce "humming"
when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable for sensitive electronics

Fig: 1.1

1.2.2 Sine wave

A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to as a sine
wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of much less distortion than
the modified sine wave (three step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine
wave inverter. Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter" do not
produce a smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output than the square wave (two step) and
modified sine wave (three step) inverters. However, this is not critical for most electronics as they deal
with the output quite well.

Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable
because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave AC power source. The
standard electric utility provides a sine wave, typically with minor imperfections but sometimes with
significant distortion.

Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more complex and have
significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or square wave (one step)
types of the same power handling. Switch-mode power supply (SMPS) devices, such as personal
computers or DVD players, function on modified sine wave power. AC motors directly operated on
non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may have different speed-torque characteristics, or may
produce more audible noise than when running on sinusoidal power.

Fig:1.2

2
 1 Introduction and Background

1.2.3 Modified sine wave

The modified sine wave output of such an inverter is the sum of two square waves one of which is phase
shifted 90 degrees relative to the other. The result is three level waveform with equal intervals of zero
volts; peak positive volts; zero volts; peak negative volts and then zero volts. This sequence is repeated.
The resultant wave very roughly resembles the shape of a sine wave. Most inexpensive consumer power
inverters produce a modified sine wave rather than a pure sine wave.

The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters resembles a square wave but
with a pause during the polarity reversal. Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero
voltages. If the waveform is chosen to have its peak values for half of the cycle time, the peak voltage
to RMS voltage ratio is the same as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively regulated, or
the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output up to the DC bus
voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variations. By changing the pulse width, the harmonic
spectrum can be changed. The lowest THD for a three-step modified sine wave is 30% when the pulses
are at 130 degrees width of each electrical cycle. This is slightly lower than for a square wave.

The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining a constant
frequency with a technique called pulse width modulation (PWM). The generated gate pulses are given
to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern to obtain the desired output. Harmonic
spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation frequency. It can be
shown that the minimum distortion of a three-level waveform is reached when the pulses extend over
130 degrees of the waveform, but the resulting voltage will still have about 30% THD, higher than
commercial standards for grid-connected power sources. When operating induction motors, voltage
harmonics are usually not of concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces
additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.

Fig 1.3

Output frequency
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard power line
frequency, 50 or 60 hertz

3
 1 Introduction and Background

If the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the
frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.

Output voltage
The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the same as the grid line voltage,
typically 120 or 240 VAC at the distribution level, even when there are changes in the load that the
inverter is driving. This allows the inverter to power numerous devices designed for standard line
power.

Some inverters also allow selectable or continuously variable output voltages.

Output power
A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or kilowatts. This describes
the power that will be available to the device the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the power that will
be needed from the DC source. Smaller popular consumer and commercial devices designed to mimic
line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts.

Not all inverter applications are solely or primarily concerned with power delivery; in some cases the
frequency and or waveform properties are used by the follow-on circuit or device.

Batteries
The runtime of an inverter powered by batteries is dependent on the battery power and the amount of
power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment using the inverter
increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime of an inverter, additional batteries
can be added to the inverter.

When attempting to add more batteries to an inverter, there are two basic options for installation:

1.6.1 Series configuration

If the goal is to increase the overall voltage of the inverter, one can daisy chain batteries in a
series configuration. In a series configuration, if a single battery dies, the other batteries will
not be able to power the load.

1.6.2 Parallel configuration

If the goal is to increase capacity and prolong the runtime of the inverter, batteries can be
connected in parallel. This increases the overall ampere-hour (Ah) rating of the battery set.
If a single battery is discharged though, the other batteries will then discharge through it. This
can lead to rapid discharge of the entire pack, or even an over-current and possible fire. To
avoid this, large paralleled batteries may be connected via diodes or intelligent monitoring
with automatic switching to isolate an under-voltage battery from the others.
4
 1 Introduction and Background

1.6.1 The Road Map of the Project

Main domain

Theory
Enhancement Schematic
model
Design Software
First
Lower THD

Further
Hardware work
Small size

Design
Second Modeling Analysis Prototype Model
Improveme
nt

Design
Third Modeling Analysis
Finalization

Design
Fourth Modeling Implementation

Prototype Model Applications

Electric Motor and speed Refrigeration

Solar Electroshock weapons
control compressors

Figure 1-1 Flow chart of distribution of tasks in the Project.

5
 1 Introduction and Background

Features of the Project

Salient features which improve the scope of the work are:

I. Getting fifteen levels by using a single bridge, this actually needs 7 bridges.
II. Only four MOSFETS are used in place of twenty eight.
III. Size of inverter is decreased.
IV. Cost is lower.
V. Lower THD.

Circuit description
1.7.1 Basic design
In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the center tap of the
primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC
source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The
alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating
current (AC) in the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring
supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts
and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the
electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly
back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once
used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers
and tattoo machines.

As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types
of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Certain ratings,
especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR). SCRs provide large power handling
capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be controlled over a variable firing range.

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces
a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform
that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are
represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as
the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics
that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

6
 1 Introduction and Background

Fourier analysis can be used to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic
distortion (THD) is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the

fundamental voltage:

Fig 1.5

1.7.2 Advanced designs

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs.
Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending on the
way that the inverter is intended to be used.

Based on the basic H-bridge topology, there are two different fundamental control strategies called
basic frequency-variable bridge converter and PWM control.[13] Here, in the left image of H-bridge
circuit, the top left switch is named as "S1", and others are named as "S2, S3, S4" in counterclockwise
order.

For the basic frequency-variable bridge converter, the switches can be operated at the same frequency
as the AC in the electric grid(60 Hz in the U.S.). However, it is the rate at which the switches open and
close that determines the AC frequency. When S1 and S4 are on and the other two are off, the load is
provided with positive voltage and vice versa. We could control the on-off states of the switches to
adjust the AC magnitude and phase. We could also control the switches to eliminate certain harmonics.
This includes controlling the switches to create notches, or 0-state regions, in the output waveform or
adding the outputs of two or more converters in parallel that are phase shifted in respect to one another.

7
 1 Introduction and Background

Another method that can be used is PWM. Unlike the basic frequency-variable bridge converter, in the
PWM controlling strategy, only two switches S3, S4 can operate at the frequency of the AC side or at
any low frequency. The other two would switch much faster (typically 100 KHz) to create square
voltages of the same magnitude but for different time duration, which behaves like a voltage with
changing magnitude in a larger time-scale.

These two strategies create different harmonics. For the first one, through Fourier Analysis, the
magnitude of harmonics would be 4/(pi*k) (k is the order of harmonics). So the majority of the
harmonics energy is concentrated in the lower order harmonics. Meanwhile, for the PWM strategy, the
energy of the harmonics lies in higher-frequencies because of the fast switching. Their different
characteristics of harmonics lead to different THD and harmonics elimination requirements. Similar to
"THD", the conception "waveform quality" represents the level of distortion caused by harmonics. The
waveform quality of AC produced directly by H-bridge mentioned above would be not as good as we
want.

Fig 1.6

Goals and Milestones Achieved

The following milestones in the prescribed research are completed.

 Small size

8
 1 Introduction and Background

 Lower cost
 Low THD
 Least components
 15 level with using single H-Bridge

Difficulties
Number of difficulties was face during our work and we tried our best to overcome these in order
to achieve our goal.
I. For getting 15 levels we need different batteries, most of them were not available in
market.
II. As we were using ARDUINO as microcontroller, which was not able to give high
frequency up to 80KHZ.
III. How will we get 220 volts AC from 12 volts DC, As H-Bridge gives the same output
voltage which we give at its input.
For these we were able to find respective solutions and still need further improvement in future.
I. We kept input voltage constant and change the level with ARDUINO program.
II. We make changes in the register of ARDUINO software and increase its frequency to
8KHZ.
III. We design a transfer with turn ratio 18.

9
 2 Second Chapter

Second Chapter
In this chapter we compare different topologies and techniques used for multilevel
inverter, their advantages and disadvantages.

Multilevel Inverter Topologies

There are several topologies of multilevel inverters available. The difference lies in the mechanism of
switching and the source of input voltage to the multilevel inverters. Three most commonly used
multilevel inverter topologies are:

 Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverters

 Diode Clamped multilevel inverters

 Flying Capacitor multilevel inverters

2.1.1 Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverters

This inverter uses several H-bridge inverters connected in series to provide a sinusoidal output voltage.
Each cell contains one H-bridge and the output voltage generated by this multilevel inverter is
actually the sum of all the voltages generated by each cell i.e. if there are k cells in a H-bridge
multilevel inverter then number of output voltage levels will be 2k+1. This type of inverter has
advantage over the other two as it requires less number of components as compared to the other two
types of inverters and so its overall weight and price is also less.

Fig: 2.1
In single phase inverter, each phase is connected to single dc source. Each level generates three
voltages which are positive, negative and zero. This can be obtained by connecting the AC source with

10
 2 Second Chapter

the DC output and then using different combinations of the four switches. The inverter will remain ON
when two switches with the opposite positions will remain ON. It will turn OFF when all the inverters
switch ON or OFF. To minimize the total harmonic distortion, switching angles are defined and
implemented. The calculations for the measurement of switching angle will remain the same. This
inventor can be categorized further into the following types:

 5 levels cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverter

 9 levels cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverter

In 5 level cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverters, Two H Bridge Inverters are cascaded. It has 5 levels
of output and uses 8 switching devices to control whereas in 9 level cascaded H Bridge Multilevel
Inverters, Four H Bridge Invertors are cascaded. It has 9 output levels and use and use 16 switching
devices.

2.1.1.1 Advantages of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverters

I. Output voltages levels are doubled the number of sources
II. Manufacturing can be done easily and quickly
III. Packaging and Layout is modularized.
IV. Easily controllable with a transformer.
V. Cheap

2.1.1.2 Disadvantages of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverters

I. Every H Bridge needs a separate dc source.
II. Limited applications due to large number of sources.

2.1.2 Diode clamped multilevel inverter

Diode clamped multilevel inverters use clamping diodes in order to limit the voltage
stress of power devices. It was first proposed in 1981 by Nabae, Takashi and Akagi
and it is also known as neutral point converter. A k level diode clamped inverter needs
(2k – 2) switching devices, (k – 1) input voltage source and (k – 1) (k – 2) diodes in
order to operate. Vdc is the voltage present across each diode and the switch. Single
phase diode clamped multilevel inverter is shown in the figure below

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 2 Second Chapter

Fig: 2.2

2.1.2.1 Advantages of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverters

I. Capacitance of the capacitors used is low.
II. Back to back inverters can be used.
III. Capacitors are pre charged.
IV. At fundamental frequency, efficiency is high.

2.1.2.2 Disadvantages of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverters

I. Clamping diodes are increased with the increase of each level.
II. Dc level will discharge when control and monitoring are not precise.

2.1.3 Flying Capacitor Multilevel inverter

The configuration of this inverter topology is quite similar to previous one except the difference that
here flying capacitors is used in order to limit the voltage instead of diodes. The input DC voltages are
divided by the capacitors here. The voltage over each capacitor and each switch is Vdc. A k level
flying capacitor inverter with (2k – 2) switches will use (k – 1) number of capacitors in order to
operate. Figure below shows a five level flying capacitor multilevel inverter.

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 2 Second Chapter

Fig 2.3
If we compare above figures, it shows that the number of switches, main diodes and DC-bus capacitors
are same in both the cases. The only difference between the two topologies is that the previous one uses
clamping diodes in order to limit the voltage while this topology uses flying capacitors for this purpose,
and as capacitors are incapable of blocking the reverse voltage, which diodes do, the number of
switches also increases. Voltage on each capacitor is differing from the next as it has a ladder structure.
Voltage difference between two back to back capacitors determines the voltage in the output frame.

2.1.3.1Advantages of Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverters

Static var generation is the best application of Capacitor Clamped Multilevel Inverters.

I. For balancing capacitors’ voltage levels, phase redundancies are available.

II. We can control reactive and real power flow.

2.1.3.2Disadvantages of Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverters

I. Voltage control is difficult for all the capacitors.

II. Complex startup.
III. Switching efficiency is poor.
IV. Capacitors are expansive than diodes.

2.2 Modulation Techniques

Modulation is the process of switching the power electronic device in a power converter from one
state to another. All modulations are aimed at generating a stepped waveform that best approximates
an arbitrary reference signal with adjustable amplitude, frequency and phase fundamental component

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 2 Second Chapter

that is usually sinusoidal in steady state. Each topology has different switching configuration to
achieve commanded output voltage. Modulation strategies are responsible for synthesizing reference
control signals and for keeping all voltage sources balanced. The requirements of multilevel
modulation algorithm are as follows

 Voltage quality should be good

 Modular design
 Simultaneous switching of multiple voltage levels is not allowed.
 Switching frequency of power devices should be minimized.
 Power modules should share the load equally.
 Control algorithm should be simple.
 Implementation cost should be low.

Fig: 2.4; Classification of modulation techniques

However, this complexity can be used to improve the modulation technique, such as, minimizing the
switching frequency, reducing the common-mode voltage or balancing the DC link voltages (Poh
Chiang et al 2005). The modulation methods used in multilevel inverters can be classified according
to switching frequency (Jose Rodriguez et al 2002) as shown in Figure 2.4. Methods that work with
high switching frequencies have many commutations for the power semiconductors in one cycle of
the fundamental output voltage. A very popular method in industrial applications is the classic
carrier-based Sinusoidal PWM that uses the phase shifting technique to reduce the harmonics in the
load voltage (Ilhami Colak & Ersan Kabalci 2013). Another interesting alternative is the SVM

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 2 Second Chapter

strategy, which has been Phase Shifted Carriers Level Shifted Carriers (PD, POD, APOD) Multilevel
Modulation Techniques High Switching Frequency Fundamental Switching Frequency Space Vector
Control Selective Harmonic Elimination Space Vector PWM Sinusoidal PWM used in three level
inverters (Amit Kumar Gupta & Ashwin Khambadkone 2007).

Fig 2.5: Applicability of different techniques for Multilevel inverter topology

Fig 2.6: Comparison between fundamental and High switching frequencies

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 2 Second Chapter

2.2.1 Space Vector PWM

Each multilevel inverter has several switching states which generate different voltage vectors and can
be used to modulate the reference (Govindaraju & Baskaran 2010). In SVM, the reference signal is
generated from its closest signals. Some vectors have redundant switching states, meaning that they
can be generated by more than one switching state. This feature is used to balance the capacitor
voltages (Govindaraju & Baskaran 2010, Amit Kumar Gupta & Ashwin Khambadkone 2007).
Multilevel SVM must manage this behavior to optimize the search for the modulating vectors and
apply an appropriate switching sequence (Wenxi Yao et al 2008). A conceptually different control
method for multilevel converters, based on the space-vector theory, has been introduced, which is
called space vector control.

2.2.2 Selective Harmonic Elimination

The popular selective harmonic elimination method is also called fundamental switching frequency
method which is based on the harmonic elimination theory. The multilevel fundamental switching
scheme inherently provides the opportunity to eliminate certain lower order harmonics by varying the
times at which certain switches are turned ON and turned OFF. A staircase output voltage waveform is
generated by switching ON and OFF the switching devices in the multilevel inverters once during one
fundamental cycle. This diminishes the switching losses in the devices. In this method, each switch is
turned ON and turned OFF once in a switching cycle and switching angles are usually chosen based
on specific harmonic elimination or minimization of THD in the output voltage. Two ways to
eliminate lower order harmonics are;

i) By increasing the switching frequency of SPWM and SVM in case of two level
inverters or in multicarrier based phase shift modulation for multilevel inverters.
ii) By computing the switching angles using SHE techniques.

2.2.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

Sinusoidal PWM method is also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic, sub oscillation method,
Carrier Based Pulse Width Modulation (CB-PWM) is very popular in industrial applications
(Mohamed Dahidah & Vassilios Agelidis 2008). The SPWM scheme is illustrated in Figure 2.7

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 2 Second Chapter

Fig 2.7: sinusoidal pulse width modulation

In this, Vc is the peak value of the triangular carrier wave and Vr is the reference, or modulating
signal. For realizing SPWM, a high frequency triangular carrier wave is compared with a sinusoidal
reference of the desired frequency. The intersection of sinusoidal reference and triangular waves
determines the switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse. Operating with constant
frequency of carrier signal concentrates on voltage harmonics around switching frequency (which is
of double the carrier frequency) and multiples of switching frequency. Carrier based modulation for
more than two level inverters require more carrier signals. For NL -level inverter, minimum (NL -1)
carrier signals are needed. Each carrier signal is responsible for a pair of switches. Every leg has two
switches, one switch is controlled directly by the comparator signal and the other is controlled by its
inverting signal. Multiple carrier signals in multilevel inverters create various possibilities of mutual
locations of those signals.

2.3 Summary
In this chapter, operation of half bridge and full bridge inverters with their advantages and
disadvantages are discussed. Detailed analysis of various multilevel inverters such as diode clamped,
flying capacitor and cascaded H-bridge with their concepts are presented. Modulation techniques such
as space vector PWM, selective harmonic elimination and sinusoidal PWM are presented.
Investigation on their applicability for the different topologies is also discussed.

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Simulations and output Waveforms

We start the simulations from very basic of two level inverter and kept on moving up to fifteen level
using MATLAB software. At first we use PWM technique and then moved towards SPWM and at last
compare both of them.

3.1 Three level inverter

By three levels we actually means that voltage is been divided into three stages which are 0, +V dc and
–Vdc.

S1 S2 S3 S4 OUTPUT
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 +Vdc
0 0 1 1 -Vdc

3.1.1 MATLAB simulation for three Levels

Fig 3.1

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3.1.2 OUTPUT Waveform

Fig 3.2

3.2 Seven Level inverter

By seven levels we means that voltage is divided into seven different ranges as 0, +Vdc/4, Vdc/2 ,
+Vdc, -Vdc, -Vdc/2, -Vdc/4.
3.2.1 Simulation Diagram

Fig 3.3

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3.2.2 OUTPUT Waveform

Fig 3.4

3.3 Eleven Level inverter

By eleven level we means that DC voltage is divided into eleven different stages which are 0,
+Vdc/8, +Vdc/6, +Vdc/4, +Vdc/2, +Vdc, -Vdc/8,-Vdc/6, -Vdc/4, -Vdc/2, Vdc.

3.3.1 Simulation Diagram

Fig 3.5

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 4 Fourth Chapter

3.3.2 OUTPUT Waveform

Fig 3.6

After getting into thirteen levels we move towards proteus software for further simulations.
Because it’s become so difficult for us to manage that many bridges.

3.4 Fifteen level inverter

By fifteen level we means that DC voltage is divided intofifteen different stages which are 0,
Vdc/12,Vdc/10, +Vdc/8, +Vdc/6, +Vdc/4, +Vdc/2, +Vdc, -Vdc/12,-Vdc/10, -Vdc/8,-Vdc/6,
-Vdc/4, -Vdc/2, Vdc.

3.4.1 Simulation Diagram

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 4 Fourth Chapter

3.4.2 PCB layout

Fig 3.8
3.4.3 OUTPUT Waveform

Fig 3.9

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 4 Fourth Chapter

3.4.4 ARDUINO code

int stab1[]={0,78,148,206,242,254,242,206,148,78,0,78,148,206,242,254,242,206,148,78};
//int stab2[]={0,104,190,243,254,254,243,190,104,0,0,104,190,243,254,254,243,190,104,0};
//int
stab2[]={0,50,104,190,230,245,250,255,250,245,230,190,104,50,0,50,104,190,230,245,250,
255,250,245,230,190,104,50,0};
int
stab2[]={0,36,72,108,144,180,216,255,216,180,144,108,72,36,0,36,72,108,144,180,216,255,
216,180,144,108,72,36};
//int
stab2[]={0,30,80,130,180,220,240,255,240,220,180,130,80,30,0,0,30,80,130,180,220,240,25
5,240,220,180,130,80,30,0};
void setup() {
Serial.begin(115200);
pinMode(5,OUTPUT);
pinMode(6,OUTPUT);
pinMode(10,OUTPUT);// Set pin 10's PWM frequency to 31 Hz (31250/1024 = 31)
//The divisors available on pins 5, 6, 9 and 10 are: 1, 8, 64,256, and 1024.
//Note that the base frequency for pins 5 and 6 is 62500 Hz
unsigned int ds=8;
setPwmFrequency(5, ds);
setPwmFrequency(6, ds);
pinMode(2, INPUT_PULLUP);
analogWrite(5,0);
analogWrite(6,0);
}
unsigned int duty1=0;
long tr=0;
boolean nf=0;
boolean ng=0;
void loop() {
int uiui=0;

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 4 Fourth Chapter

while(1)
{
analogWrite(5,0);
for(uiui=0;uiui<14;uiui++)
{
analogWrite(6,stab2[uiui]);delayMicroseconds(800);//delay(2);
}
analogWrite(6,0);
for(uiui=14;uiui<28;uiui++)
{
analogWrite(5,stab2[uiui]);delayMicroseconds(800);//delay(2);
}
}

}
void setPwmFrequency(int pin, int divisor) {
byte mode;
if(pin == 5 || pin == 6 || pin == 9 || pin == 10) {
switch(divisor) {
case 1: mode = 0x01; break;
case 8: mode = 0x02; break;
case 64: mode = 0x03; break;
case 256: mode = 0x04; break;
case 1024: mode = 0x05; break;
default: return;
}
if(pin == 5 || pin == 6) {
TCCR0B = TCCR0B & 0b11111000 | mode;
} else {
TCCR1B = TCCR1B & 0b11111000 | mode;

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 4 Fourth Chapter

}
} else if(pin == 3 || pin == 11) {
switch(divisor) {
case 1: mode = 0x01; break;
case 8: mode = 0x02; break;
case 32: mode = 0x03; break;
case 64: mode = 0x04; break;
case 128: mode = 0x05; break;
case 256: mode = 0x06; break;
case 1024: mode = 0x07; break;
default: return;
}
TCCR2B = TCCR2B & 0b11111000 | mode;
}
}
void blink() {
nf=nf^1;
if(ng)
{
tr=millis();
ng=0;
}

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 4 Fourth Chapter

Fourth Chapter

4.1 Selection of Technique for Multilevel Inverter

SPWM technique and H-bridge topology is used for the design of multilevel inverter. The term
SPWM stands for “Sinusoidal pulse width modulation” is a technique of pulse width
modulation used in inverters. An inverter generates an output of AC voltage from an input of DC
with the help of switching circuits to reproduce a sine wave by generating one or more square pulses
of voltage per half cycle. By using this technique HD will be low and will have low harmonics on
output. As a result of which THD will be low.

4.2 Theoretical Model

Fig:4.1

4.3 Parts of project

Following objects are used in our project

I. Battery (12volts)
II. H-Bridge (43amps)[IBT_2]
III. Transformer with ratio=18

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 4 Fourth Chapter

IV. Toroid filter

V. Line filter
VI. ARDUINO UNO
VII. Capacitors
VIII. Resistors

4.3.1 IBT_2 H-bridge

The IBT-2 H-bridge module from wingxin is an inexpensive, high power motor driver based on
two BTS7960 chips and is readily available from various eBay vendors.

Fig 4.2

4.3.1.1 Key parameters

I. Input voltage : 6V-27V
II. Maximum Current : 43A
III. Input level : 3.3V-5V

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 4 Fourth Chapter

The following Fritzing diagram illustrates the wiring. B+ and B- at the top of the diagram represent
the power supply for the motor. A 5k or 10k potentiometer is used to control the speed.

Fig 4.3

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 4 Fourth Chapter

4.3.2 Step up transformer

A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary) voltage is
called a step-up transformer. The step-up transformer decreases the output current for keeping the
input and output power of the system equal.

Fig 4.4

• Transformers “step up” or “step down” voltage according to the ratios of primary to secondary
wire turns.

• A transformer designed to increase the voltage from primary to secondary is called a step-up
transformer. A transformer designed to reduce the voltage from primary to secondary is called
a step-down transformer.

• The transformation ratio of a transformer will be equal to the square root of its primary to
secondary inductance (L) ratio.

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 4 Fourth Chapter

A transformer that has more turns in the secondary than in the primary is called a step-up
transformer because it increases voltage. Although the voltage increases in a step-up transformer, the
current is reduced proportionately. ... In other words, power equals voltage times current.

4.3.3 ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip ATmega328P
microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog
input/output pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards and other circuits.

Fig 4.5

4.3.3.1 Technical specifications

 Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P

 Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
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 4 Fourth Chapter

 Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts

 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g

4.3.3.2 Pins

4.3.3.2.1 General pin functions

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the LED is on,
when the pin is low, it's off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply
voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied with
power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the
board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage
the board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select
the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or
3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board

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4.3.3.2.2 Special pin function

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive 20 mA as recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected
by default) of 20-50k ohm. A maximum of 40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin
to avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through
A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure
from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin
and the analogReference() function.[7]
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL serial chip.
 External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (pulse-width modulation): 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit PWM output with the
analogWrite() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support
SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication
using the Wire library.

4.3.4 Toroid coil

The toroid is a useful device used in everything from tape heads to tokamaks. For a solenoid of
radius r = m with N = turns, the turn density is n=N/(2πr)= turns/m.Find the radius of the
wire coil or winding in meters. Refer to the manufacturer's specification regarding
the winding or measure it with a micrometer from the center of the wire coil to the outer section of
the coil. Call this value "r." Find the area of the winding using the

formula A = pi * r^2 where pi is 3.1415.

Fig 4.6
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 4 Fourth Chapter

A toroid is used as an inductor in electronic circuits, especially at low frequencies where

comparatively large inductances are necessary.

4.3.5 Line filter

A line filter is the kind of electronic filter that is placed between electronic equipment and
a line external to it, to attenuate conducted radio frequencies -- RFI, also known as electromagnetic
interference (EMI) -- between the line and the equipment.
We use ir5a173 8kk as our line filter.

Fig 4.6

4.5 Mathematical calculations and formula used

For calculating THD

As the turn ratio of transformer is constant and also the input voltage, so we are controlling output
voltage by changing input voltage
𝑉 = 𝐷 ∗ 𝑣𝑖𝑛
Where D= duty V=i/p voltage and v=output voltage

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 4 Fourth Chapter

Fig 4.7

4.6 Final Hardware

Fig 4.8

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 4 Fourth Chapter

Fig 4.8(b)

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Applications

In this chapter we will study different applications in which multilevel inverters are
playing their role.

5.1 Why Multi-level Inverters?

The need of multilevel converter is to give a high output power from medium voltage source. The
multi-level inverter consists of several switches.

 Higher voltage can be generated using the devices of lower rating.

 Increased number of voltage levels produces better voltage waveform.
 Switching frequency can be reduced for the PWM operation.

5.2 DC power source usage

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity.
The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for
mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

5.3 Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power
when mains power is not available. When mains power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC
power to recharge the batteries.

5.4 Electric motor speed control

Inverter circuits designed to produce a variable output voltage range are often used within motor
speed controllers. The DC power for the inverter section can be derived from a normal AC wall outlet
or some other source. Control and feedback circuitry is used to adjust the final output of the inverter
section which will ultimately determine the speed of the motor operating under its mechanical load.
Motor speed control needs are numerous and include things like: industrial motor driven equipment,
electric vehicles, rail transport systems, and power tools. (See related: variable-frequency drive )
Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero voltages as per the patterns given in the
switching Table. The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in accordance with the developed

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pattern and thus the output is obtained.

5.5 In refrigeration compressors

An inverter can be used to control the speed of the compressor motor to drive variable refrigerant
flow in a refrigeration or air conditioning system to regulate system performance. Such installations
are known as inverter compressors. Traditional methods of refrigeration regulation use single-speed
compressors switched on and off periodically; inverter-equipped systems have a variable-frequency
drive that control the speed of the motor and thus the compressor and cooling output. The
variable-frequency AC from the inverter drives a brushless or induction motor, the speed of which is
proportional to the frequency of the AC it is fed, so the compressor can be run at variable
speeds—eliminating compressor stop-start cycles increases efficiency. A microcontroller typically
monitors the temperature in the space to be cooled, and adjusts the speed of the compressor to
maintain the desired temperature. The additional electronics and system hardware add cost to the
equipment, but can result in substantial savings in operating costs.

5.6 Power grid

5.6.1 Grid-tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power distribution system.[12] They
transfer synchronously with the line and have as little harmonic content as possible. They also need a
means of detecting the presence of utility power for safety reasons, so as not to continue to dangerously
feed power to the grid during a power outage.

5.6.2 Synchronverters are inverters that are designed to simulate a rotating generator, and can be used
to help stabilize grids. They can be designed to react faster than normal generators to changes in grid
frequency, and can give conventional generators a chance to respond to very sudden changes in demand
or production.

Large inverters, rated at several hundred megawatts, are used to deliver power from high voltage direct
current transmission systems to alternating current distribution systems.

5.7 Solar
A solar inverter is a balance of system (BOS) component of a photovoltaic system and can be used for
both grid-connected and off-grid systems. Solar inverters have special functions adapted for use
with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point
tracking and anti-islanding protection. Solar micro-inverters differ from conventional inverters, as an

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individual micro-inverter is attached to each solar panel. This can improve the overall efficiency of
the system. The output from several micro-inverters is then combined and often fed to the electrical
grid.

5.8 Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do
this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high
frequency AC power. Due to the reduction in the number of DC sources employed, the structure
becomes more reliable and the output voltage has higher resolution due to an increase in the number of
steps so that the reference sinusoidal voltage can be better achieved. This configuration has recently
become very popular in AC power supply and adjustable speed drive applications. This new inverter
can avoid extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitors.

There are three kinds of level shifted modulation techniques, namely:

I. Phase Opposition Disposition (POD)

II. Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition (APOD)
III. Phase Disposition (PD)

5.9 HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to
another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power
back to AC. The inverter must be synchronized with grid frequency and phase and minimize harmonic
generation.

5.10 Electroshock weapons

Electroshock weapons and Tasers have a DC/AC inverter to generate several tens of thousands of V
AC out of a small 9 V DC battery. First the 9 V DC is converted to 400–2000 V AC with a compact
high frequency transformer, which is then rectified and temporarily stored in a high voltage capacitor
until a pre-set threshold voltage is reached. When the threshold (set by way of an air gap or TRIAC) is
reached, the capacitor dumps its entire load into a pulse transformer which then steps it up to its final
output voltage of 20–60 kV. A variant of the principle is also used in electronic flash and bug zappers,
though they rely on a capacitor-based voltage multiplier to achieve their high voltage.

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5.11 Miscellaneous
Typical applications for power inverters include:

 Portable consumer devices that allow the user to connect a battery, or set of batteries, to the
device to produce AC power to run various electrical items such as lights, televisions, kitchen
appliances, and power tools.
 Use in power generation systems such as electric utility companies or solar generating systems to
convert DC power to AC power.
 Use within any larger electronic system where engineering need exists for deriving an AC source
from a DC source.

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Conclusion and Future work

6.1 Performance comparison

There are many other considerations, which will be taken in account while choosing an inverter.
Based on those constraints, these three inverters are compared and tabulated as in Table 6.1

Fig 6.1: Comparison of three inverters

Hybrid multilevel inverter shows better performance in THD but the size and cost of the inverter are
high; when compared to the other inverters. Therefore, choosing the particular inverter is completely
dependent on the user requirements. If the user requires an inverter with less THD and has low cost
and size then hybrid multilevel inverter should be an ideal choice. If the no. of components used and
the design level are the major constraint of the user, then either a single H-bridge or BPWM inverter
can serve better.

Here, these three inverters are compared based on the obtained THD values. Firstly, the inductor
load which is connected to these inverters is varied in order to get around 10% of THD in the output
current. Based upon the chosen inductor values, these three inverters are compared as shown in Figure
6.2.

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Figure 6.2 Comparison of three inverters based on load inductor value

Then, the load value of all the inverters is kept constant to compare the THD of the output current of
the three inverters. The chosen value of the load is R= 5Ω and L= 10mH. This comparison is depicted
in the Figure 6.3.

Fig 6.3

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6.2 Conclusion

In this thesis, three types of inverters are simulated and analyzed based upon their performance. A
single H-bridge inverter is simulated using proteous software and gating pulses for the switches are
generated based on the desired output waveform of the inverter. Then, with the same inverter topology,
Bipolar Pulse Width Modulation (BPWM) technique is used to control the operation of the switches in
the inverter. A hybrid multilevel cascaded H-bridge inverter is also designed by connecting two
H-bridge inverters in series. One of them has a DC source and the other one has a capacitor as its
source. PWM technique is used to create the gating pulses for the auxiliary inverter. The capacitor
voltage regulation method is proposed to control the voltage across the capacitor at the desired value.
The FFT Analysis is performed to calculate the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the inverters’
output voltage and current. While analyzing the performance of all the three inverters, hybrid
multilevel cascaded H-bridge inverter shows better performance in terms of THD, cost and size of the
inverter. In terms of no. of components used and design level, hybrid multilevel inverter is not better
than the other two inverters. Therefore, based upon the requirements of the user, the respective
inverter is selected.

6.3 Future work

A lot of hard work was performed to enhance the level and hence reduce the THD of inverter.
The latest work on multilevel inverter is to extend the level and reduce its THD and to make
output waveform approximately sinusoidal. The proposed work can be extended in different
directions.

I. THD can be further reduced

II. Number of components can be reduced.
III. Levels can be increased

42
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