MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON
BITE SOURCE FOR ELINT SYSTEM

Submitted by

B.RAVI TEJA. ( 16VE1A0461)

G.HARSHA. (16VE1A0475)

N.VRUSHANK RAJ. (16VE1A0492)

Under the guidance of

P.SYDULU
DEPUTY MANAGER(AFS), BEL, Hyderabad.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us great pleasure in expressing our deep sense of gratitude to the deputy
manager P.SUDULU who with his valuable contribution and motivation helped us
throughout various phases of work. And his constant interest in our mini project inspired
us from time to time.

We are also grateful to our team with whose overall coordination, this mini
project has been successful.
History of BEL:

Bharat Electronics Limited is a Government of India company under the ministry of

Defense established in 1954 . In the next few decades , it developed to become a global
giant with nine factories , and few regional offices in India . It primarily manufactures
advanced electronic products for Indian Armed Forces . BEL is one of the eight public
sector units (PSUs). It is one of the PSUs have even earned the government’s esteemed
Navratna status.

In 1954, in a newly independent India, the need was utmost to develop indigenous
industry. The dream of a self-reliant India gave birth to many Public Sector Undertakings.
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was one such dream, which has come a long way since
then with the far-sighted vision of its pioneers, the dedication and hard work of its
employees, support and faith of its customers and the Government of India. The
Government’s clarion call for ‘Make in India’ resonates with what BEL has been
successfully doing for over 6 decades.

From humble beginnings in 1954, when BEL was set up in association with CSF, France
(now, Thales), to manufacture basic communication equipment, BEL now produces a
wide range of state-of-the-art equipment in fields such as Defense Communication,
Radars, Naval Systems, C4I Systems, Weapon Systems, Homeland Security, Telecom &
Broadcast Systems, Electronic Warfare, Tank Electronics, Electro Optics, Professional
Electronic Components and Solar Photovoltaic Systems, BEL also provides turnkey
system solutions. Civilian products from BEL include Electronic Voting Machines, Tablet
PC, solar-powered traffic signal systems and Access Control Systems. Starting from a
single Unit in Jalahalli, Bangalore, BEL has established its presence across the country by
setting up eight other Units – in Ghaziabad, Pune, Machilipatnam, Panchkula, Kotdwara,
Navi Mumbai, Chennai and Hyderabad. Each Unit has a specific product mix and
customer focus. BEL has also set up a wide network of offices and service centers
countrywide as well as two overseas offices – at New York and Singapore.

BEL was established to meet the specialized electronic equipment requirements of the
Indian Defense Services. While this continues to be its prime focus, the Company has a
significant presence in the civilian market, too. BEL exports some of its products and
services to a number of countries as well. BEL has been laying great emphasis on
Research and Development right from the early years. It has also been able to
successfully partner as production agency with many DRDO labs. From a meager
turnover of Rs.2 lakhs in 1956-57, BEL has grown manifold to record a turnover of
Rs.7,510 crores (provisional) in 2015-16.
BEL is not only a successful business story but also an organization which cares for
people and society. Even before the term ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ gained
currency, BEL has undertaken innumerable CSR activities and continues to do them
with a lot of passion and commitment. BEL has set up educational institutions, including
a special school for the mentally challenged. It has also set up hospitals, fine arts clubs
and sports facilities. These and other welfare initiatives ensure a good quality of life for
employees and their dependents. Some of these facilities also serve the local community.
BEL is currently concentrating on promoting education, sanitation, health care, rural
development, employment and enhancing vocational skills, while ensuring environmental
sustainability.

'Clean and green' is true of every Unit of BEL. Concern for the environment is visible in
the profuse greenery in all the Units. Afforestation, effluent treatment, used water
recycling, generation and use of bio gas, rainwater harvesting, green buildings, setting up
and using wind energy and solar energy power plants, to name a few, are some of the
activities in this direction.

Awards galore have come BEL’s way, recognizing its emphasis on excellence. Recent
accolades include India Today PSU Awards for ‘Best Global Presence Award’, ‘Eco
Friendly Award’ and ‘Best R&D Innovation Award; Digital India PSE of the Year Award;
Standing Conference of Public Enterprises (SCOPE) Meritorious Award (Gold Trophy)
for HR Excellence for Best Practices in Human Resource Management; Mentor Graphics
Silicon India Leadership Award for ‘Best VLSI/Embedded Design in Defense/Aerospace
Sector’; International Aerospace Award for ‘Innovation’; SAP Award for Customer
Excellence; SODET Gold Award for ‘Technology Innovation’; Government of Karnataka
‘State Export Excellence Award’ in the Electronics & Communications (excluding IT/BT
& ITES sector) Medium/Large Industries sector; and Raksha Mantri’s Awards for
Excellence.

BEL offers the following products: ELINT / COMINT / SIGINT PRODUCTS:

1.COMINT FOR SHIPBORNE PLATFORM: This is a Communication Intelligence

(COMINT) System in V/UHF frequency range. It is designed to provide strategic and
tactical information by intercepting and exploiting hostile voice and data transmissions in
the V/UHF range. It performs search, acquisition, monitoring, analysis, and digital
recording of communication signals in the V/UHF frequency band. The DF section is
configured with state-of-the-art Scan DF receiver designed to gather, process andproduce
COMINT information for generating real-time picture.
 FEATURES: COMINT FOR SHIPBORNE PLATFORM VHF/UHF wide band receiver
Perform scanning, interception, analysis and direction finding Supports playback and
recording of simultaneous channels. Supports AM, FM, CW, LSB, USB, FSK and PSK
High speed search Interception of Burst & FH Transmission Analysis of Digital
Transmissions

2.Surveillance & Jamming COM-EW System: This is a V/UHF communication

electronic warfare (EW) system capable of carrying out ESM as well as ECM functions.
The system works in a cluster of three mobile sensor stations, which can operate either
independently as stand-alone units or in form of a direction finder network (cluster) to
identify location of the transmitters. The system is designed to gather process and
produce COMINT information for creating in real time tactical situation picture within
the system surveillance area. The system provides a continuous and dynamic flow of
COMINT derived intelligence data in real time to the supported units and relevant
intelligence to higher military echelons.

FEATURES: Surveillance & Jamming COM-EW System Communication EW System

works in Standalone & Integrated mode High DOA Accuracy Quick LF information High
Speed scan Secured point –to- point communication Broadcasts the LF information
Jamming of single or multi frequencies Detection & Jamming of FF, FH and Burst
signals Database for storage & retrieval of system status Mission Management & Report
Generation

3.Direction Finding System: This is state-of-the-art direction finding and intelligence

gathering system designed to gather, process and produce COMINT information for
creating real-time picture. The DF
system provides a continuous and dynamic flow of COMINT derived intelligence data in
real-time. The DF system is designed to operate in the battlefield, where the modern
frequency agile transmitters do not allow an operator to listen. The DF system is able to
support a wide range of operations from low intensity conflict or peace support
operations to full-scale war.

FEATURES:

Direction Finding System Communication EW System works in Standalone & Integrated

mode High DF Accuracy Finds LF information very quickly in integrated mode Secured
point –to- point communication in integrated mode of operation Broadcasts the LF
information to the Foot Soldier High speed scan Detection of FF, FH and Burst signals
Location Fixing on Raster Maps Database for storage & retrieval of system status
Mission Management & Report Generation

4.Microwave Monitoring System The Microwave Monitoring System is a wide band

system for interception, monitoring, recording and analysis of microwave signals in the
frequency range of 100 MHz to 18 GHz. The system is capable of demodulation,
De-multiplexing, decoding for voice and data like VFT, Fax & modem data. Microwave
signals are intercepted using suitable antenna with a positioner and high sensitivity fast
scan receiver. Carrier analysis is performed on the IF signal and to classify signal as
COM/NON-COM and FDM/TDM. The digital demodulator/ de-multiplexer is capable of
handling IF (70MHz or 21.4MHz) as well as Base Band signals.

The system has the capability to demodulate various digital modulations like FSK, PSK,
QAM etc. The demodulated signals are further FEC decoded, descrambled and
demultiplexed. A separate digital voice and data recording unit is provided to record the
DE multiplexed voice graded signals simultaneously. The system has the capability to
analyze the voice graded modem fax signals, extract the signal parameters, identify the
protocol/ demodulate and reconstruct the message intelligence. The functionality of the
system is fully software controlled.

FEATURES: Microwave Monitoring System Interception, monitoring and analysis of

wide band signals in 100 MHz-18 GHz frequency range Filtering of unwanted signals
based on search, analysis, and sector of arrival of data Scanning of signals at frequency of
interest to collect necessary statistical information for known signals Analysis and
extraction of intelligence (speech, data) for multiplexed signals Decoding and
reconstruction of voice, fax, VFT, Modem data Report generation of intercepted signal
and demultiplexed channel information Complete system performance check with Built
in test facility Display: Spectrum, time domain, water fall, constellation, Eye-diagram,
Raster scan etc. Application software with user friendly GUI for the integrated system
with database storage facility

5.COMINT & Communication Jamming System: This is a communication EW System in

the frequency range of VHF and UHF Bands and capable of carrying out ESM as well as
ECM functions. It is capable of doing many functions simultaneously like search,
Monitoring, Data decoding, Recording & replay of demodulated signal in V/UHF bands.
System is equipped with state of the art highly sensitive and very fast search receiver.
System has ECM functionality with all the mode of communication jamming facility.
System can also intercept and jam the cell phones in GSM and extended GSM band.
FEATURES: COMINT & Communication Jamming System Light vehicle based
communication jamming system Performs Search, detection, monitoring, recording,
analysis and jamming Detection and jamming of FF, FH and burst signals High
Sensitivity and High Dynamic range Signal Classification / Analysis / Data Decoding as
per CCITT standards Integrated digital audio recording & play back on hard disc
Complete band search, interception and jamming of GSM Replay of recorded messages

6.Satellite Interception System :

TACTICAL SATELLITE INTERCEPTION SYSTEMS Integrated on high mobility

platforms for quick deployment in tactical scenarios. Interception of L band GMPCS
satellite targets, localization of the targets and monitoring of the calls and data.
Integration with a strategic system for complementary utilizations.

STATIC (STRATEGIC) SATELLITE INTERCEPTION SYSTEMS Satellite Interception

System Tailor made solutions for VSAT and telephony signals interception, monitoring
and content analysis. Turnkey solutions for the complete process of establishing strategic
system including site survey, establishment of the front end, preparation of the
infrastructure, integration of the RF and back-end system. Comprehensive technical
support for system exploitation, including support for technical analysis of signals.

7.Wideband Signal Processing And Analysis System: The role of USPS is to intercept,
monitor and record adversaries point to point communication through Radio Relay and
PSTN links. Intercepted information (Voice/Fax, Data etc.) is available for content
analysis for intelligence gathering. The system, with it is compact form factor plays
multiple role of wide band receiver, universal demodulator, flexible base-band processing
system and storage. The inbuilt comprehensive signal analysis features provides insight
into the formats of intercepted signals.

FEATURES: Wideband Signal Processing And Analysis System

Input: RF - frequency range: 40 KHz to 3 GHz Base-Band in HDB3 format.

Demodulation: BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK, 8PSK, 2FSK, 4FSK, MSK, 16QAM
Comprehensive Signal Analysis Tool: Automatic modulation recognition tool Automatic
frame analysis tool for detecting Scramblers, Overhead bits, Multiplexing structures etc.
Descrambling: Real time self synchronized and additive
FEC: With preloaded library Demultiplexing: Multi-layer (up to tertiary level) Handing
of standard and non standard frame structures. MMI: Flexibly programmable formatsw
through user friendly GUI Recording: Simultaneous Storage of upto 120 Voice grade
channels in the system hard disk. Displays: Spectrum, Constellation, Eye diagram,
Waterfall and Raster scan displays for visual identification of signal parameters and
signal quality.

8.Mobile Ground based ELINT System The system is designed with state of the art
digital receiver and DF technology to search, intercept, measure, monitor, analyze,
identify and locate detectable Radar emitters within the required frequency spectrum to
provide information necessary for strategic and tactical operations. The system is
configured as an Integrated ELINT and Wide-open ESM System and consists of three
Receiving Stations (RS) and one Control Station (CS). One of the RS Stations will also
have a back up CS facility. In addition a Repeater Radio link is also provided to extend
the range of one of the Receiving Stations from the Control Station.

FEATURES: Warning capability of pulsed and continuous wave signals. High sensitivity
and DF accuracy. Tactical information, with high probability of Intercept, accurate
identification and tracking of targets. Intelligence gathering capabilities, performing

BEL, Hyderabad unit established in 1985 manufactures EW equipment . It is a

technology driven Multi-product Company. It designs products which are ISO
9001/9002/AS9100 certified. It also follows environmental accreditation to ISO 14000. It
has 74:26-Governement:Private equity.
Abstract:

Radio Detection And Ranging

Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, velocity,
of the objects. The radar is used to detect the aircrafts, guided missiles, spacecrafts, etc. It
consists of transmitting and receiving antenna. The radar operates by radiating
electromagnetic energy and it will detect the echo which is the reflection returned from
the target.
The basic parameters of RADAR System are:
1.Frequency
2.Pulse Width (PW)
3.Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI)
4.Direction
The RADAR is basically used to detect the targets in warfare. Electronic Warfare (EW)
is actually started by the introduction of RADAR. In order to safeguard our air crafts, we
need to jam the radars. To jam the RADAR, we need to know the RADAR parameters.
To know the parameters, we use the ELINT systems.
ELINT:
Electronic Intelligence
It is the electronic intelligence. It is the information gathered by the electronics sensors.
The data gathered by ELINT is generally classified. ELINT System calculates the
RADAR parameters like Frequency, PW,PRI,Direction,etc.

The electronic impulses at certain frequencies are radiated by the RADAR. These will
bounce back if they hit any object. The receiver will calculate the size, height, speed,
direction, location of the object. All these parameters are required to jam a RADAR.

Since the processes of producing RADAR is difficult and costly, we use BITE source.
The BITE source is similar to RADAR. Our BITE source for ELINT is capable of
generating RADAR signal frequencies 5GHz, 8GHz, 12GHz, 16GHz.
BITE
Built In Test Equipment
The bite source is used to produce the RADAR for ELINT in LAB. The BITE is capable
of producing
1.Stable RADAR signal
2.Staggered RADAR signal (up to stagger level 3)
3.Jitter RADAR signal (up to 10%)
Classification of Electronic Warfare systems:

To understand these systems we should know about the knowledge of radars

system.
Basic Radar Systems

Principle of Operation:

Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. The term "radio"
refers to the use of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the so-called radio wave
portion of the spectrum, which covers a wide range from 104 km to 1 cm.

Radar systems typically use wavelengths on the order of 10 cm, corresponding to

frequencies of about 3 GHz. The detection and ranging part of the acronym is
accomplished by timing the delay between transmission of a pulse of radio energy and its
subsequent return. If the time delay is Dt, then the range may be determined by the

simple formula:

cDt
𝑅=
2

where c = 3 x 108 m/s, the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves propagate.
The factor of two in the formula comes from the observation that the radar pulse
must travel to the target and back before detection, or twice the range.

A radar pulse train is a type of amplitude modulation of the radar frequency

carrier wave, similar to how carrier waves are modulated in communication systems.
In this case, the information signal is quite simple: a single pulse repeated at
 regular intervals. The common radar carrier modulation, known as the pulse train is
shown below.

The common parameters of radar as defined by referring to Figure 1.

Figure2.

PW = pulse width. PW has units of time and is commonly expressed in ms. PW is

the duration of the pulse.

RT = rest time. RT is the interval between pulses. It is measured in ms. PRT = pulse
repetition time. PRT has units of time and is commonly expressed in ms. PRT is the
interval between the start of one pulse and the start of another. PRT is also equal to the
sum,

PRT = PW+RT.

PRF = pulse repetition frequency.

PRF has units of time-1 and is commonly expressed in Hz (1 Hz = 1/s) or as pulses per
second (pps). PRF is the number of pulses transmitted per second and is equal to the
inverse of PRT. RF = radio frequency. RF has units of time-1 or Hz and is commonly
expressed in GHz or MHz’s RF is the frequency of the carrier wave which is being
modulated to form the pulse train.
 MECHANIZATION:

A practical radar system requires seven basic components as illustrated below:

Figure 3

1.Transmitter. The transmitter creates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it to form
the pulse train. The transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high power level to
provide adequate range. The source of the carrier wave could be a Klystron, Traveling
Wave Tube (TWT) or Magnetron. Each has its own characteristics and limitations.

2. Receiver. The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted and
provides amplification of the returned signal. In order to provide the greatest range, the
receiver must be very sensitive without introducing excessive noise. The ability to
discern a received signal from background noise depends on the signal-to-noise ratio
(S/N).

The background noise is specified by an average value, called the noise-equivalent-

power (NEP). This directly equates the noise to a detected power level so that it may be
compared to the return. Using these definitions, the criterion for successful detection of a
target is

Pr > (S/N) NEP,

where Pr is the power of the return signal. Since this is a significant quantity in
determining radar system performance, it is given a unique designation, Smin, and is
called the Minimum Signal for Detection.

Smin = (S/N) NEP

Since Smin, expressed in Watts, is usually a small number, it has proven useful to define
the decibel equivalent, Minimum Discernible Signal (MDS).

MDS = 10 Log (Smin/1mW)

When using decibels, the quantity inside the brackets of the logarithm must be a number
without units. I the definition of MDS, this number is the fraction Smin /1mW. As a
reminder, we use the special notation dBm for the units of MDS, where the "m" stands
for 1mW. This is shorthand for decibels referenced to 1mW, which is sometimes written
as dB//1mW.

In the receiver, S/N sets a threshold for detection which determines what will be
displayed and what will not. In theory, if S/N = 1, then only returns with power equal to
or greater than the background noise will be displayed. However, the noise is a statistical
process and varies randomly. The NEP is just the average value of the noise. There will
be times when the noise exceeds the threshold that is set by the receiver. Since this will
be displayed and appear to be a legitimate target, it is called a false alarm. If the SNR is
set too high, then there will be few false alarms, but some actual targets may not be
displayed known as a miss). If SNR is set too low, then there will be many false alarms,
or a high false alarm rate (FAR).

Some receivers monitor the background and constantly adjust the SNR to maintain a
constant false alarm rate, and therefore all called CFAR receivers.
 Some Common Receiver Features are :

1.) Pulse Integration. The receiver takes an average return strength over many pulses.
Random events like noise will not occur in every pulse and therefore, when averaged,
will have a reduced effect as compared to actual targets that will be in every pulse.

2.) Sensitivity Time Control (STC). This feature reduces the impact of returns from
sea state. It reduces the minimum SNR of the receiver for a short duration immediately
after each pulse is transmitted. The effect of adjusting the STC is to reduce the clutter on
the display in the region directly around the transmitter. The greater the value of STC,
the greater the range from the transmitter in which clutter will be removed. However, an
excessive STC will blank out potential returns close to the transmitter.

3.) Fast Time Constant (FTC). This feature is designed to reduce the effect of
long duration returns that come from rain. This processing requires that strength of
the return signal must change quickly over it duration. Since rain occurs over
and extended area, it will produce a long, steady return. The FTC processing will filter
these returns out of the display. Only pulses that rise and fall quickly will be displayed.
In technical terms, FTC is a differentiator, meaning it determines the rate of change in the
signal, which it then uses to discriminate pulses which are not changing rapidly.

4. Power Supply: The power supply provides the electrical power for all
the components. The largest consumer of power is the transmitter which may
require several kW of average power. The actually power transmitted in the pulse may
be much greater than 1 kW. The power supply only needs to be able to provide
the average amount of power consumed, not the high power level during the actual
pulse transmission. Energy can be stored, in a capacitor bank for instance, during the rest
time. The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when transmitted, increasing the
peak power. The peak power and the average power are related by the quantity called
duty cycle( DC). Duty cycle is the fraction of each transmission cycle that the radar is
actually transmitting. Referring to the pulse train in Figure 2, the duty cycle can be seen
to be:

DC = PW / PRF

5.Synchronizer: The synchronizer coordinates the timing for range determination.

It regulates that rate at which pulses are sent (i.e. sets PRF) and resets the timing
clock for range determination for each pulse. Signals from the synchronizer are sent
simultaneously to the transmitter, which sends a new pulse, and to the display,
which resets the return sweep.

6.Duplexer: This is a switch which alternately connects the transmitter or receiver to the
antenna. Its purpose is to protect the receiver from the high power output of the
transmitter. During the transmission of an outgoing pulse, the duplexer will be aligned to
the transmitter for the duration of the pulse, PW. After the pulse has been sent, the
duplexer will align the antenna to the receiver. When the next pulse is sent, the duplexer
will shift back to the transmitter. A duplexer is not required if the transmitted power is
low.

7.Antenna: The antenna takes the radar pulse from the transmitter and puts it into the air.
Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well-defined beam which increases
the power and permits a determination of the direction of the target. The antenna must
keep track of its own orientation which can be accomplished by a synchro-transmitter.
There are also antenna systems which do not physically move but are steered
electronically (in these cases, the orientation of the radar beam is already known a priori).

The beam-width of an antenna is a measure of the angular extent of the

most powerful portion of the radiated energy. For our purposes the main portion, called
the main lobe, will be all angles from the perpendicular where the power is not less than
½ of the peak power, or, in decibels, -3 dB. The beam-width is the range of angles in the
main lobe, so defined. Usually this is resolved into a plane of interest, such as the
horizontal or vertical plane. The antenna will
have a separate horizontal and vertical beam-width. For a radar antenna, the
beam-width can be predicted from the dimension of the antenna in the plane of
interest by

q = l/L

where:
q is the beam-width in radians,
l is the wavelength of the radar, and
L is the dimension of the antenna, in the direction of interest (i.e. width or height).

In the discussion of communications antennas, it was stated that the

beam-width for an antenna could be found using q = 2l/L. So it appears that
radar antennas have one-half of the beam-width as communications antennas. The
difference is that radar antennas are used both to transmit and receive the signal.
The interference effects from each direction combine, which has the effect of
reducing the beam-width. Therefore when describing two-way systems (like radar) it
is appropriate to reduce the beam-width by a factor of ½ in the beam-width
approximation formula.

The directional gain of an antenna is a measure of how well the beam is

focused in all angles. If we were restricted to a single plane, the directional
gain would merely be the ratio 2p/q. Since the same power is distributed over a
smaller range of angles, directional gain represents the amount by which the power in the
beam is increased. In both angles, then directional gain would be given by:

Gdir = 4p/q f

since there are 4p steradians corresponding to all directions (solid angle, measured in
steradians, is defined to be the area of the beam front divided by the range squared,
therefore a non-directional beam would cover an area of 4pR2 at distance R, therefore
4p steradians).

Here we used:
q = horizontal beam-width (radians)
f = vertical beam-width (radians)

Sometimes directional gain is measured in decibels, namely 10 log (Gdir).

As an example, an antenna with a horizontal beam-width of 1.50 (0.025 radians)
and vertical beam-width of 20o (0.33 radians) will have:

directional gain(dB) = 10 log (4 p/ 0.025 0.333) = 30.9 dB

Example: find the horizontal and vertical beam-width of the AN/SPS-49 long
range radar system, and the directional gain in dB. The antenna is 7.3 m wide
by 4.3 m tall, and operates at 900 MHz.
The wavelength, l=c/f = 0.33 m.

Given that L= 7.3 m, then

q = l/L = 0.33/7.3 = 0.045 radians, or
q = 30.

The antenna is 4.3 m tall, so a similar calculation gives

f = 0.076 radians
f = 40.

The directional gain,

Gdir = 4p/(0.045 0.076) = 3638.

Expressed in decibels,
directional gain = 10 Log(3638)
= 35.6 dB.

8.Display: The display unit may take a variety of forms but in general is designed to
present the received information to an operator. The most basic display type is called an
A-scan (amplitude vs. Time delay). The vertical axis is the strength of the return and the
horizontal axis is the time delay, or range. The A-scan provides no information about the
direction of the target.
Figure 4

The most common display is the PPI (plan position indicator). The A-scan information is
converted into brightness and then displayed in the same relative direction as the antenna
orientation. The result is a top-down view of the situation where range is the distance
from the origin. The PPI is perhaps the most natural display for the operator and therefore
the most widely used. In both cases, the synchronizer resets the trace for each pulse so
that the range information will begin at the origin
Figure: 5

In this example, the use of increased STC to suppress the sea clutter would be helpful.

Radar performance

All of the parameters of the basic pulsed radar system will affect the
performance in some way. Here we find specific examples and quantify this
dependence where possible.

Pulse Width

The duration of the pulse and the length of the target along the radial direction
determine the duration of the returned pulse. In most cases the length of the
return is usually very similar to the transmitted pulse. In the display unit, the
pulse (in time) will be converted into a pulse in distance. The range of values
from the leading edge to the trailing edge will create some uncertainty in the
range to the target. Taken at face value, the ability to accurately measure range
is determined by the pulse width.
 If we designate the uncertainty in measured range as the range resolution,
RRES, then it must be equal to the range equivalent of the pulse width, namely:

RRES = c PW/2

Now, you may wonder why not just take the leading edge of the pulse as the
range which can be determined with much finer accuracy? The problem is that it
is virtually impossible to create the perfect leading edge. In practice, the ideal
pulse will really appear like:

Figure 6

To create a perfectly formed pulse with a vertical leading edge would require an infinite
bandwidth. In fact you may equate the bandwidth, b, of the transmitter to the minimum
pulse width, PW by:

PW = 1/2b

Given this insight, it is quite reasonable to say that the range can be determined no more
accurately than cPW/2 or equivalently

RRES = c/4b

In fact, high resolution radar is often referred to as wide-band radar which you now see as
equivalent statements. One term is referring to the time domain and the other the
frequency domain. The duration of the pulse also affects the minimum range at which the
radar system can detect. The outgoing pulse must physically clear the antenna before the
return can be processed. Since this lasts for a time interval equal to the pulse width, PW,
the minimum displayed range is then:

RMIN = c PW/2
The minimum range effect can be seen on a PPI display as a saturated or blank area
around the origin.

Figure 7

Increasing the pulse width while maintaining the other parameters the same will also
affect the duty cycle and therefore the average power. For many systems, it is desirable to
keep the average power fixed. Then the PRF must be simultaneously changed with PW in
order to keep the product PW x PRF the same. For example, if the pulse width is reduced
by a factor of ½ in order to improve the resolution, then the PRF is usually doubled.

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

The frequency of pulse transmission affects the maximum range that can
be displayed. Recall that the synchronizer resets the timing clock as each new pulse is
transmitted. Returns from distant targets that do not reach the receiver until after the next
pulse has been sent will not be displayed correctly. Since the timing clock has been reset,
they will be displayed as if the range where less than actual.
If this were possible, then the range information would be considered ambiguous.
An operator would not know whether the range were the actual range or some
greater value.

Figure 8

The maximum actual range that can be detected and displayed without ambiguity, or the
maximum unambiguous range, is just the range corresponding to a time interval equal to
the pulse repetition time, PRT. Therefore, the maximum unambiguous range,

RUNAMB = c PRT/2 = c/(2PRF)

When a radar is scanning, it is necessary to control the scan rate so that a

sufficient number of pulses will be transmitted in any particular direction in order
to guarantee reliable detection. If too few pulses are used, then it will more
difficult to distinguish false targets from actual ones. False targets may be present in one
or two pulses but certainly not in ten or twenty in a row. Therefore to maintain a low
false detection rate, the number of pulses transmitted in each
direction should be kept high, usually above ten.
 For systems with high pulse repetition rates (frequencies), the radar beam
can be repositioned more rapidly and therefore scan more quickly. Conversely, if
the PRF is lowered the scan rate needs to be reduced. For simple scans it is easy
to quantify the number of pulses that will be returned from any particular target.

Let “t” represent the dwell time, which is the duration that the target remains in
the radar's beam during each scan. The number of pulses, N, that the target will
be exposed to during the dwell time is

N = t PRF

We may rearrange this equation to make a requirement on the dwell time for a particular
scan

tmin = Nmin /PRF

So it is easy to see that high pulse repetition rates require smaller dwell times. For a
continuous circular scan, for example, the dwell time is related to the rotation rate and the
beam-width.

t = q/W

where q = beam-width [degrees] W = rotation rate [degrees/sec] which will give the
dwell time in seconds. These relationships can be combined, giving the following
equation from which the maximum scan rate may be determined for a minimum number
of pulses per scan:

WMAX = q PRF/N

Radar Frequency

Finally, the frequency of the radio carrier wave will also have some
affect on how the radar beam propagates. At the low frequency extremes, radar
beams will refract in the atmosphere and can be caught in "ducts" which result in
long ranges. At the high extreme, the radar beam will behave much like visible light
and travel in very straight lines. Very high frequency radar beams will suffer high losses
and are not suitable for long range systems.
 The frequency will also affect the beam-width. For the same antenna size,
a low frequency radar will have a larger beam-width than a high frequency one.
In order to keep the beam-width constant, a low frequency radar will need a
large antenna.

Theoretical Maximum Range Equation:

A radar receiver can detect a target if the return is of sufficient strength.

Let us designate the minimum return signal that can be detected as Smin, which
should have units of Watts (W). The size and ability of a target to reflect radar energy
can be summarized into a single term, s, known as the radar cross-section, which has
units of m2. If absolutely all of the incident radar energy on the target were
reflected equally in all directions, then the radar cross section would be equal to the
target's cross-sectional area as seen by the transmitter. In practice, some energy is
absorbed and the reflected energy is not distributed equally in all directions. Therefore,
the radar cross-section is quite difficult to estimate and is normally determined
by measurement.

Given these new quantities we can construct a simple model for the radar power that
returns to the receiver:

The standard form of Radar range equation is also called as simple form of Radar range
equation. Now, let us derive the standard form of Radar range equation.

We know that power density is nothing but the ratio of power and area. So, the power
density, Pdi

at a distance, R from the Radar can be mathematically represented as –

Where,

Pt is the amount of power transmitted by the Radar transmitter

The above power density is valid for an isotropic Antenna. In general, Radars use
directional Antennas. Therefore, the power density,( Pdd)

due to directional Antenna will be –

Target radiates the power in different directions from the received input power. The
amount of power, which is reflected back towards the Radar depends on its cross section.
So, the power density( Pde)

of echo signal at Radar can be mathematically represented as –

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

The amount of power, (Pr )received by the Radar depends on the effective aperture, Ae

of the receiving Antenna.

Substitute, Equation 4 in Equation 5.

Standard Form of Radar Range Equation

If the echo signal is having the power less than the power of the minimum detectable
signal, then Radar cannot detect the target since it is beyond the maximum limit of the
Radar's range.

Therefore, we can say that the range of the target is said to be maximum range when the
received echo signal is having the power equal to that of minimum detectable signal. We
will get the following equation, by substituting R=RMax

and Pr=Smin

in Equation 6.

Equation 7 represents the standard form of Radar range equation. By using the above
equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.

Modified Forms of Radar Range Equation

We know the following relation between the Gain of directional Antenna, Gand effective
aperture, Ae
.

Substitute, Equation 8 in Equation 7.

Equation 9 represents the modified form of Radar range equation. By using the above
equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.

We will get the following relation between effective aperture, Ae

and the Gain of directional Antenna, G

from Equation 8.

Substitute, Equation 10 in Equation 7.

Equation 11 represents another modified form of Radar range equation. By using the
above equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.

Note − Based on the given data, we can find the maximum range of the target by using
one of these three equations namely
  Equation 7
 Equation 9
 Equation 11

Perhaps the most important feature of this equation is the fourth-root dependence. The
practical implication of this is that one must greatly increase the output power to get a
modest increase in performance. For example, in order to double the range, the
transmitted power would have to be increased 16-fold. You should also note that the
minimum power level for detection, Smin, depends on the noise level. In practice, this
quantity constantly be varied in order to achieve the perfect balance between high
sensitivity which is susceptible to noise and low sensitivity which may limit the radar's
ability to detect targets. Example: Find the maximum range of the AN/SPS-49 radar,
given the following data

Antenna Size = 7.3 m wide by 4.3 m tall

Efficiency = 80 %
Peak power = 360 kW
Cross section = 1 m2
Smin = 1 10-12 W

We know from the previous example, that the directional antenna gain,

Gdir = 4p/qf = 4p/(.05 x .07) = 3430

The power gain,

G = r Gdir
G = 2744.

Likewise, the effective aperture,

Ae = rA = .8(7.3 x 4.3)

Ae = 25.1 m2.

Therefore the range is , or

R = 112 km.

ELINT HISTORY:

During the initial phases of the Battle of Britain a German bomber, relatively safe under
cover of darkness, flew over the blacked-out landscape heading for London. At a specific
moment the bomber dropped its bombs, which accurately hit their target, and another
successful German Luftwaffe attack was history. Electronic advancements by the German
s made this possible. British interception and analysis of this new electronic bombing
device countered the Germans' success and continued to render less effective every
subsequent electronic advantage the Germans developed. In a parallel manner the
Germans developed a highly effective electronic intelligence effort directed against the
Allied raids originating from Britain. This phase of electronic intelligence, utilizing
electronic means to determine enemy electronic capabilities, began in England just before
World War II and has been an ever increasing effort which today is called ELINT.

ELINT is a coined word for the process of electronic intercept and analysis of electronic
intelligence - a process about which very little has been written. The intelligence officer,
unless he is in the electronics field himself, has had little contact with ELINT. By
directive ELINT is defined as: "the collection (observation and recording), and the
technical processing for later intelligence purposes, of information on foreign, non-
communications, electromagnetic radiations emanating from other than atomic
detonation sources." In simple terms, ELINT is the detection and analysis of radiations
from foreign electronic devices for the purpose of extracting information of value to
intelligence.

Just as a flashlight radiates a beam of light observable to the human eye, electronic
devices emit or radiate non-visible, non-audible radiations which are detectable and
recordable, using electronic devices just as the human ear hears sound. This interception
or collection of enemy radiations is the first stage of ELINT.

The formal definition restricts ELINT to "non-communication electromagnetic radiations

other than atomic detonation sources." This means that ELINT is responsible for all
radiations except those used in voice or other communications such as radio or telegraph
and those resulting from atomic sources. What other kind of radiations are there? To
name a few with which ELINT deals, there are radiations from missiles and missile
guidance devices, radiations from developmental laboratories and field testing stations
working on electronic devices, radar, navigational aids, anti-aircraft and aircraft gun
direction, air-to-air or air-to-ground identification signals, and so on.

"Technical processing for later intelligence purposes" means subjecting the collected
ELINT raw data, usually in the form of beeps on a magnetic tape or wire, to a detailed
analysis by use of complex electronic equipment. This equipment permits the analyst to
hear with his ears, to see on an oscilloscope, to measure very accurately, to photograph,
to compare with standards and to investigate the intercepted signal in as many ways as
are necessary to identify the characteristics of the foreign device. When the "technical
processing" is completed the technical analyst can pass to the intelligence analyst detailed
information on the location and capabilities of the foreign device. The intelligence
community can then combine this information with other knowledge to estimate the over-
all competence and possible intentions of foreign powers.
For a technical look at what ELINT really is let us turn for a moment to basic physics.
Here we remember that electromagnetic energy, like light, travels in waves. These waves
vary in length and form a spectrum. We are all familiar with the rainbow with its colors
ranging from red, having waves of 760 millimicrons in length (400 million
megacycles/sec), to violet, with waves of 385 millimicrons in length (800 million
megacycles/see). This color spectrum is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radio
portion of this electromagnetic spectrum is used primarily for communications and
military weapons. Currently the military weapons use radio waves varying from a few
thousand cycles (waves per second) up to 100 kilomegacycles (one hundred billion waves
per second). The following diagram illustrates the position of the radio and color
spectrums in the over-all electromagnetic spectrum and an expansion of the radio
spectrum showing the bands where different Soviet electronic devices radiate.

For a specific example of how ELINT works, let us take a simplified look at Soviet radar.
Soviet radar devices radiate electronic impulses at certain frequencies and in definite
beams searching the sky for long distances and great altitudes for any object that may be
present. When these impulses strike an object they bounce off and return to a ground or
airborne receiver which calculates the length of time between emission and reception and
the strength of the signal received. From this, the Soviet radar operator can generally tell
the size, speed, direction, altitude, and other pertinent information about the unseen
object. Our Strategic Air Command, with its retaliatory mission, urgently requires every
possible bit of information on Soviet radars - particularly on their location and capability.
This is where ELINT goes to work. By intercepting, amplifying, recording and analyzing
an enemy radar signal or pulse, we can learn all about it. By studying the type of
radiation, its modulation (AM, FM, pulse) its pulse repetition rate, pulse duration, pulse
shape, its radio frequency (position on the electronic spectrum), its antenna pattern
characteristics, and so on, we can identify the radar, compare it with
known information, ascertain its range, location, use, and other essential information
required to evaluate its capability as a radar and its susceptibility to countermeasures.

This same process of ELINT pertains to any and all enemy electronic devices including
airborne intercept devices used by guided missiles, guided missile launchers, fighter
aircraft, longrange and short-range navigational aids, ground controlled intercept height
finders, anti-aircraft and aircraft fire control radar, blind bombing devices, electronic
radiations emanating from scientific laboratories or production plants, and so on.

What do these radiated signals sound like? Frankly they sound like noise or radio static
during a thunder storm - in fact, before the more euphonious term of ELINT was coined,
the British called it "Noise Listening" and, during World War II, had a "Noise Listening
Bureau."
Although ELINT is a very complex field - constantly looking beyond present knowledge
of electronics to fulfill its role of providing timely information on new foreign electronic
developments, it need not be pushed aside as too complicated to be understood. Because
of its complexity, some members of the intelligence community are inclined to throw up
their hands and ignore this potential tool. However, ELINT is not too difficult to
comprehend or use, nor is it an end in itself, but it can contribute essential, accurate
information to the intelligence process.

Scientific intelligence and, in particular, ELINT, or electronic intelligence, had its start in
England immediately before World War II. Early in 1939 the British Committee for the
Scientific Study of Air Defense first drew attention to Britain's ignorance of new German
weapons. One scientist, Dr. R. V. Jones, was appointed to look into the matter. Before he
even started his task the war broke out and in June 1940, Dr. Jones, after considerable
study, concluded that the Germans had developed a radio beam by which their bombers
could operate over England regardless of weather, darkness, or cloud cover and still be
most accurate in their blind bombing. This beam, just a little more than one-half mile
wide, passed directly over London. Based on Dr. Jones' conclusion, steps were
immediately taken to find any possible countermeasures. A Royal Air Force search
aircraft was outfitted and it accomplished its mission of looking for and detecting this
German beam. Technical analysis of this information provided the radio frequency and
other characteristics of the beam, thus permitting the British to jam it and render it
ineffective. Henceforth, many bombs intended for London fell harmlessly on the open
countryside. This interception and analysis of an enemy electronic radiation (later known
as Knicklbein) was the birth of present day ELINT. The Germans altered their beam
system and soon began using a better system utilizing intersecting beams
referred to as the "X" apparatus, which provided greater accuracy. These beams were at a
different frequency than Knicklbein, requiring new search and analysis before the British
solved this new threat and took countermeasures. With the "X" apparatus, the bomber
flew along an electronic beam while its position along the beam was observed from a
German radar station on the continent. When the bomber was over the target, it was told
to drop its bombs. By now Britain's ELINT capability of intercepting and analyzing this
electronic information was quite effective and continued to grow in scope and importance
throughout the war.

During World War II the US made extensive use of electronic intercept devices in both
the Pacific and European Theatres of Operation. Special USAF and Navy planes
equipped with ELINT receivers ferreted out the secrets of German and Japanese
antiaircraft radar and aircraft warning devices. From the use of such planes the word
"ferret" was coined, a term presently applied to aircraft equipped to investigate enemy
electronic radiations. Among the most deadly weapons directed against the Eighth Air
Force were the German antiaircraft guns which were equipped with extremely accurate
radar directors known as "Wurzbergs." The close formations of American aircraft made a
juicy target for the more than 16,000 German antiaircraft guns. By use of radar intercept
equipment (ELINT equipment) information was obtained which permitted the use of
jamming devices, and thus the one-billion dollar investment of the Germans in their
Wurzberg radars was literally ruined by the countermeasures made possible through
ELINT. Knowing we had this capability, the Germans began a frantic search for non-
jammable radar equipment, but the war was over before they succeeded.

Following World War II there was a period in which interest in ELINT, as in many
wartime activities, tapered off. Some effort continued but the real push to provide
intelligence on electronic advancements in other countries was not initiated until the
USSR clamped down its Iron Curtain. Since that time, the collection and analysis of
electronic signals radiating behind the Curtain has been the constant goal of ELINT.
Since the birth of ELINT in 1940 the effort has grown in size, cost, importance,
complexity, coverage, and capability, and, like most scientific efforts, is making
yesterday's limits, today's capabilities.

Electronic intercept, to use one connotation of ELINT, provides factual information.

Unlike the collection of much intelligence information where we are forced to rely on
word of mouth, memory, or integrity of source, electronic radiations are intercepted and
recorded by machine. If a signal is being radiated it can be recorded and later reported
accurately even by someone who doesn't understand all that he is doing. Because of
this factual nature, ELINT has provided substantiation of many intelligence estimates
based on other intelligence processes.

During World War II, Air Force B-24 aircraft and radar equipped Navy Catalina aircraft
were assigned the job of locating enemy radar in the Pacific. They spotted and pinpointed
Japanese air warning sets scattered all the way from the Solomons to the China coast. A
few days before the Leyte landing in October 1944 one of the ferrets discovered a new
Japanese radar on Suluan Island at the mouth of the Leyte gulf. As this radar commanded
the approaches to the Leyte coast line it was necessary to eliminate it and this was done
on a commando raid by the US Rangers.

Currently, ELINT is providing the Strategic Air Command with the intelligence it
requires on the location and range of Soviet radar. Through ELINT, information is
acquired on the method, capability, and limitations of Soviet long-range navigation
systems upon which their atomic bombers rely. Soviet missile tests are monitored by
ELINT and the point may soon be reached where, by interception and analysis of the
telemetering signals from Soviet missiles, we will acquire missile performance data vital
to our National Intelligence Estimates. (Telemetering is the electronic system used in
missile testing which records, codes, and transmits to ground test stations such things as
missile speed, flight path, guidance, skin temperatures, and other behavior characteristics
of the missile in flight.)

Since early in World War II the Army, Navy, and Air Force each have expended varying
degrees of effort on ELINT, and in 1952 the Central Intelligence Agency entered the
ELINT field. Although much of this individual endeavor was valuable, in 1954 better
organization was given to ELINT - organization on a national level. The lack of proper
dissemination of valuable intelligence produced by one organization but not always
readily available to the others in the community was noted as a serious problem. When
this situation came to the attention of the National Security Council a study was made,
and National Security Council Intelligence Directive No. 17, entitled Electronic
Intelligence (ELINT) was issued (in May 1955). NSCID-17 established the first national
policy for ELINT and it is still the basic authority for the national ELINT program. It
directed that:

a. The US Communications Intelligence Board (USCIB) shall be the national policy body
for ELINT.

b. The Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency shall be responsible
for their respective ELINT collection activities.

c. The technical processing of all ELINT shall be accomplished in a jointly-staffed center

administered by the Department of Defense.

d. All data collected by the collection agencies shall be made available to the National
Technical Processing Center (NTPC).

e. The NTPC shall effect the fullest and most expeditious processing possible and furnish
the results to the interested agencies.

The present national organization for ELINT is rather complex, with many interlocking
organizations and many formal and informal coordinating committees. The important
consideration is that each of the services and CIA is free to run its own collection
operations designed to furnish information it alone requires, but is expected to submit all
collected data to the NTPC subject only to the minimum delays necessitated by prior
exploitation for urgent tactical or operational purposes. One can immediately see the
strong vertical organization for ELINT within each major component. It should also be
appreciated that much horizontal collaboration is being accomplished by joint
participation in such organizations as the KTPC and AFOIN-Z in an effort to coordinate
individual activities into a national ELINT program.

In October 1953 a study was made of ELINT in CIA. This resulted in the appointment of
an Agency ELINT staff officer and in the preparation of an Agency ELINT program
which the Director of Central Intelligence approved on 29 May 1954.

Within the Agency ELINT is organized generally as follows. The Office of Scientific
Intelligence develops targets and requirements for ELINT collection, furnishes scientific
and technical guidance to Agency collectors, and performs the technical analysis and
collation of ELINT with all source material n the production of scientific intelligence.
The Clandestine Services conducts a continuing review of the potential and capabilities
for -covert ELINT collection, implements specific clandestine activity in response to
approved ELINT requirements, and coordinates US ELINT clandestine activities with
foreign governments. The Office of Communications arranges for research, development,
and procurement of ELINT equipment as required to support clandestine ELINT
collection. The CIA ELINT Staff Officer advises the Deputy Director of Central
Intelligence and appropriate operating components on the formulation, implementation,
and coordination of ELINT plans, policies, and programs.

On the national level, much work has gone into summarizing what each organization
requires in the way of information on enemy electronic developments. This sizeable task
has resulted in a formal statement of the currently definable Specific ELINT Collection
Requirements (SPECOR). This collection guide is based on the priority of the National
Intelligence Objectives. It has been disseminated throughout the services and CIA field
units for guidance as to what information the intelligence community requires and in
what priority.

To realize the need for an adequate requirements system, consider that the ideal ELINT
system is one capable of collecting all signals of interest and extracting all of the useful
information from each signal. This is neither possible nor practicable, however. The
questions of just what signals are of interest and just what information about them is
needed must be answered in the light of the gaps in our intelligence. Thus, as in other
branches of technical intelligence, ELINT is faced with the problem of relating scientific
techniques to intelligence problems.

In general, ELINT targets fall into two major categories. The Army, Navy, and Air Force,
charged with the military defense of our country, are primarily concerned with the
location and capability of all enemy radar on a current basis. This is referred to as the
Radar Order of Battle (ROB). The Air Force, for instance, must know where the heavy
concentrations of enemy radar are so that its planes can either skirt the area or take proper
countermeasures. The largest portion of intercepted enemy electronic information falls
into this category of maintaining an adequate radar order of battle. CIA, on the other
hand, is primarily interested in scientific break-through, or in not being surprised by new
enemy electronic developments. This means that most ELINT effort is directed toward
the interception and analysis of new and unusual electronic signals. Naturally in the
course of searching for new and unusual signals, much order of battle information is
received. This serves, in addition to supplementing the services operations, as a basis of
comparison to determine what is new and unusual. The ELINT objectives of first priority
to CIA relate to those signals which have yet to be intercepted or for which the radiating
source has yet to be seen. Specifically, the targets are as follows:

a. Those non-communication signals which are, or are suspected to be associated with the
Soviet or Satellite ability to deliver atomic or other weapons of destruction - that is,
guidance or telemetry signals associated with missiles, airborne navigation, and bombing
systems.

b. Those non-communication signals which are or are suspected to be associated with the
Soviet or Satellite ability to defend their countries against the delivery of atomic or other
weapons of destruction-that is, early warning, ground-control intercept, gap-filling radars,
surface-to-air weapons systems, airborne weapons systems, ground surveillance systems,
jammers, and so forth.

c. Those signals occupying an unusual portion of the radio frequency spectrum not
normally associated with Soviet or Satellite equipment.

The equipment involved in ELINT is elaborate and complex. To make matters worse, the
higher up the frequency spectrum you go the shorter your intercept range becomes, and
the present trend toward higher frequencies means that ELINT equipment must get closer
to the target or be designed with greater ranges, both of which approach the impossible.

ELINT equipment falls into two main categories: collection equipment (airborne,
maritime, fixed station, or agent-carried) and analysis equipment (used on the ground to
reproduce, readout, and analyze the collected information). Basically, the major
components of an ELINT collection system are the antenna, receiver, recorder, direction
finder, and analyzer. ((picture))

The antenna corresponds to the human ear. It is that component which first detects a
signal. It is, of course, desirable that the antenna be very sensitive or, as we say in ELINT,
have high antenna gain. This permits the maximum intercept range. The ideal antenna
system would have the following characteristics:

a) a continuous and fixed broad area coverage,

b) Very broad electronic spectrum coverage,
c) Very high gain,
d) Inherent capability for giving directional information.

These requirements are not all compatible. In practice it is necessary to compromise in

order to gain a workable system. The decision as to which of the desirable characteristics
can be safely compromised, and to what extent, is based on the frequency range of
interest and also on the specific ELINT target under consideration. For instance, broad
area coverage may be obtained by either of two means - a broad
beam antenna fixed in space or a narrow beam, scanning antenna. The first method
demands a sacrifice in gain. The second limits the time coverage of any part of the total
area.

Following receipt of the signal by the antenna it is passed to a receiver. The function of
the receiver is to convert transmitted information available at the antenna into a form that
can be measured and recorded. Basically two general types of receivers are in use today -
the super heterodyne and the crystal video. The operating characteristics of each receiver
may be outlined as follows:

Super heterodyne - slow scan.

a) Inherently high sensitivity,

b) Good frequency resolution,
c) Prohibitively long search time in many cases.

Crystal video - wide open.

a. low sensitivity reducing maximum probable range,

b. frequency resolution problems,
c. search time considerably less than the super heterodyne.

From the receiver the signal goes next to the recorder where the signal is stored on
magnetic tape or wire. There are two main reasons for recording signals. A permanent
record of the signal is required for future analysis and for records, and on signals of short
duration or higher complexity the operator may not have enough time or capability to
evaluate the signal parameters before the transmission is ended.
Direction-finding equipment is sometimes utilized during the interception of the signal. It
displays incoming signals on an oscilloscope or other azimuth-reading device giving the
direction of the arrival of the signal.

Analyzers in the ELINT collection system are sometimes used during interception to
provide a preliminary observation of the type of modulation and to measure the repetition
rate, duration, and general shape of signal pulses. Signals are usually presented by a
cathode ray tube (similar to a television screen), which provides a moving picture of the
shape, size, and nature of the incoming signal pulse or wave form.
The pictures are usually photographed as a permanent record. It should be pointed out
that ELINT collection devices need not be huge in size, as are those used in ground, sea,
and some airborne operations. Quite to the contrary, considerable use is made of
miniature equipment no larger than a book. ELINT collection equipment is usually
designed for the specific situation involved, whether it be a 60-foot parabolic antenna on
the ground or a tiny, unassuming, hand-carried package.

The major components of an ELINT analysis system vary greatly with the purpose of the
analysis. Order-of-battle analysis is often done automatically by IBM-type equipment.
The analysis that CIA performs is not for order of battle but is to identify new and
unusual signals. For this, man-operated equipment is required and an analysis position
contains at least the following fundamental equipment: a tape transport used for
duplicating or monitoring; a counter that measures and illustrates the modulation
frequency; an ink-on-paper recorder to draw a continuous trace of the signal amplitude;
an oscilloscope, which permits observation of the wave form; a vibralizer to display
modulation frequency components versus time; filters to separate signals; a rapid-
advance movie camera; and a host of other equipment to permit the analyst to scan great
volumes of tape and film to separate that minute portion which, upon detailed analysis,
may prove to be a new electronic development. ((Picture))

It is hoped that this basic discussion of ELINT will provide a general concept of this
complex scientific intelligence process. It should be realized that in the interest of
readability many points have been simplified and technical details omitted so as not to
confuse the non-technical reader.

If one considers that one-third of the cost of a modern fighter aircraft goes for electronic
equipment and that most of the electronic devices which make up this equipment radiate
signals, then one begins to understand how much there is to learn of Soviet capabilities
by examining their use of electronics. This also applies to ground and sea weapons,
including missiles. Recent news reports of Soviet developments in the scientific field
demonstrate how heavily the Russians are relying on electronics and how advanced their
development is. The Soviet earth satellites with their radiated signals are a responsibility
of ELINT. ELINT must continue to intercept and to analyze Soviet electromagnetic
emissions preferably in the research and development stages in order to keep abreast of
Soviet electronic advancements and to attempt to predict future capabilities

ELINT processing during mission time or recording data for further analysis. Tools to
record and process signature data. Built-in Radar Finger Printing System.

ESM:

1.ESM for Submarine: This is a submarine borne ESM System operating in the frequency
bands D to J. The system intercepts, detects and identifies the radar signals and displays
active emitters, including RF transmissions from radar installed on submarines. The
system is wide open in frequency and space, provides high probability of intercept. The
ESM system has sufficient operational sensitivity especially in the higher frequency
bands achieve
high detection ranges. It provides threat warning based on library available in the system.
The system can handle pulse, CW, chirp and other exotic signals.

FEATURES: Wide open in spectral and spatial domain ELINT with high sensitivity and
parameter accuracy Extensive BITE facility for easy maintenance Large programmable
threat library for radar modes Automatic tracking of large number of emitters Wide open
receivers with high probability of intercept and sensitivity Data recording and replay
facility for Post Mission Analysis Single operator controlled system with user friendly
MMI AHU of the system capable of withstanding external pressure upto 60bar

2.ESM for Small Class Ship:

The ESM system is designed for fitment on patrol boats that intercept, analyses and
identifies radar signals operating in the frequency band of C to J and displays the emitter
on the monitor. The information displayed includes Frequency, Pulse Width, Pulse
Repetition Frequency, Direction of Arrival, Antenna Scan Period, Amplitude etc. The
system is designed to suit the operational requirements of highly dense EW environment.
The system can be re-configured to suit the different types of ships.

FEATURES: Light weight, wide-open, multi-antenna ESM system Designed using highly
directional LPDA for high sensitivity Provides high parameter accuracies High
probability of intercept with quick reaction time Software intensive using modern
processor algorithms Flexibility in installation (wrap around or single mast configuration)
Built in Record and Replay of the scenario for offline analysis

3.ESM for Small Helicopter: The lightweight ESM system operating in the frequency
range of D to J bands is meant for fitment on small helicopters. This ESM system
provides reconnaissance of ground
based, airborne, ship-borne and subsurface Radars. The system intercepts, detects,
identifies and displays various parameters of the intercepted radar signals. It provides
threat warning from a large built-in radar library and accord threat prioritization. The
system is wide open in frequency and space and provides very high probability of
intercept. Employing mono-pulse amplitude comparison technique on a four antenna
system configuration, it provides high DOA accuracy. The ESM system features an
integrated DIFM receiver for highly accurate instantaneous frequency measurement.

FEATURES: Simple configuration & modular construction Designed using state-of-art

devices Near 100% Probability of Intercept (POI) Wide frequency coverage with good
dynamic range Auto-tracking of large number of emitters Extensive Built-in Test for self
diagnosis Large Radar Library for threat identification and prioritization Data recording
and replay facility for post mission analysis

4.ESM for Small Aircraft:

This air borne ESM system provides reconnaissance of ground based, airborne, ship-
borne and submarine radars, both static and mobile. The system intercepts, detects, and
identifies radar signals and displays all the parameters of radar emission. The system is
wide open in frequency (D to J band) and space, provides 100% probability of intercept
and processes radar signals with very low reaction time. It also carries out threat
prioritization and provides threat warning by using a built-in radar library. The system
sensitivity is adequate to meet the range requirements of most of the radars.
FEATURES: Wide open in spectral and spatial domain High Probability of Intercept
(POI) High sensitivity and good DOA accuracy Light weight and Modular construction
Automatic tracking of large number of emitters Data recording and replay facility for
Post Mission Analysis

5.ESM for Large Aircraft: This is a wide-open, multi-antenna ESM system covering C-J
Band meant for installation on large aircraft. The system intercepts, detects, and identifies
radar signals and displays all the parameters of RF signals. The system is wide open in
frequency and space, provides 100% probability of intercept and processes radar signals
and presents the data with very low reaction time.

FEATURES: Flexible configuration & Modular construction High probability of

Intercept (POI) Wide frequency coverage & Wide dynamic range Excellent DOA Auto-
tracking of larger number of emitters Built in test User friendly MMI on Windows
platform Data recording & replaying facility for post analysis.

6.Radar Warning Receiver for Fighter Aircraft: RADAR WARNING RECEIVER (RWR)
is designed for fitment on fighter aircrafts and helicopters. It intercepts, detects and
identifies all types of ground and air borne emitters (Pulse,CW, ICW, Pulse Doppler,
Pulse agile, Frequency agile) and presents them on Cockpit Display Unit with the help of
alphanumeric/special colour symbols and audio tones.

FEATURES: Frequency range: L band to Ku band Compact, light weight High sensitivity
State of the art hardware; software intensive Threat Warning-Audio / Visual
Man/machine interface - Colour LCD display with integrated push buttons. Auto
brightness adjustment facility according to cockpit light conditions & NVG compatibility
Interfaces with CMDS, SPJ, Radar and other navigation equipment Capable of logging
threat activity and pilot operations with time and geographical co- ordinates. System
software provides enough flexibility to optimise the system configuration for the mission.
7.EW Suite For Fighter Aircraft: FEATURES: Unified [Warning & Jamming] Radar
Warning: 1 - 18 GHz;Digital Receiver based Wide Band Receiver with 100% by HPOI
Receiver Selectable Narrow Band Receiver options Dynamic Range:65 dB DOA
Accuracy: Coarse & Fine DF modes Jamming: 6-18 GHz, DFRM based jamming Active
Phased Array (APA) steering with narrow beams for accurate/pin point threat jamming
APA based with Solid State TR Modules Various mutually exclusive ECM technique
generations & Multiple Threat handling.
8.Heliborne Self Protection Suite: FEATURES: Radar Warning Receiver (RWR), Missile
Warning Systems(MWS) and Laser Warning System(LWS) Types of threat handled :
Radar, Missile and Laser threats High sensitivity and high acquisition probability Fast
Reaction time Track and warn capability for simultaneous multiple threats Low False
Alarm rate Blanking capability BITE facility Threat Data Recording facility System can
be interfaced to on-board CMDS Audio-Visual threat indication with MMI on NVG
compatible display unit.

9.ESM FOR MEDIUM CLASS SHIP: The ESM system is a state-of-art ship borne
system designed to meet any class of ship requirement. The main functions of this ESM
system are the automatic and instantaneous detection, direction finding, analysis,
classification and identification of radar emissions in C-J bands with 360° coverage in
azimuth. The system is capable of intercepting LPI radars with exotic emissions, namely,
chirp, FMCW, Barker codes etc. The accuracy of the system parameters is excellent in
the operating frequency and dynamic ranges.
FEATURES: Capability to intercept Low probability of Intercept (LPI) radars with high
sensitivity High accuracy DOA configured with monopulse amplitude comparison using
multi-beam array antennae Full wideband receiver with 100% POI. Narrow band digital
receiver Digital signal processing for Intra-pulse measurements High speed data transfer
on Ethernet to Combat Management systems

10.Integrated Electronic Warfare System: Integrated Electronic Warfare System (IEWP)

is designed for plains, semi-desert regions and mountainous terrain region. It is capable
of intercepting, analyzing, locating and jamming of enemy communication emitters. It
covers the frequency band of HF to Ka, consisting of both Communication and Non-
Communication EW segments, linked by ECCM featured intra-communication network.
The Communication and Non-Communication segments are integrated to Counter
Measure Control Centre (CCC) and High Level Control Centre (HLCC) Complex.

FEATURES: Geographical Information System Facilities Communication

Reconnaissance & Monitoring Direction Finding & Location Fixing Multi threat
Jamming Radar band ESM & ECM Control Facilities Mission Support Facilities User
friendly GUI Message creation, transmission and reception
11.EW Suite for Large Warship The system is an integrated electronic warfare (IEW)
system with ESM and ECM functions. It is naval version IEW with capability of
interception, measurement and jamming features. This system has quick reaction time for
both ESM and ECM

FEATURES: Ship-borne EW suite with wide open ESM in C-K band and ECM in I-K
bands ESM system with advanced features
Phase comparison for DOA measurement Wide dynamic range Excellent parameter
accuracy High Probability of Intercept ECM with high ERP Built with Multi Beam
Jammer BITE up to PCB level Modular design for easy maintenance User friendly MMI

12.COMMUNICATION IEW SYSTEM:

13.VIP PROTECTION RCIED JAMMER : Convoy Jammer system is designed to mute

the Remotely Controlled Improvised Explosive Devices (RCIEDs) working in V/UHF
bands. The complete frequency band has been subdivided in certain Bands, which
includes uniform coverage of V/UHF band leaving no inter band gap in spectrum, along
with the coverage of sub bands like GSM, Ex GSM, CDMA, 3G, Wi-Fi etc. The system
has been designed to jam all the vulnerable band of the spectrum where the probability of
terrorist/ anti-national activities is more. The system uses different jamming techniques as
an excitation signal for different bands.

FEATURES: VIP protection system Ultra Wide Frequency Coverage Capable to Jam
various types of Modulations Wide Band jamming in split bands User Friendly Operation
VSWR & Thermal Protection Over Voltage & Under Voltage Protection Charging facility
available by AC/DC Converter

14.Mini Portable Jammer Portable Jammer (Hybrid Technology) system is basically a

`VIP Protection System'. It is a broad band transmitting equipment which can be
effectively used for muting of wide
range of receivers of Remotely Controlled Improvised Explosive Devices (RCIEDs) used
by anti-national elements. This can be easily carried by the operator to the place of
deployment. Wheels are provided for easy movement of the Jammer. This system is quite
useful in places like buildings, meeting places, where vehicle-mounted Jammer cannot be
deployed.
FEATURES: Provides protection against RCIEDs Wide frequency coverage User
Friendly Operation VSWR & Thermal Protection. In built battery charging

15.CELL JAMMER 5W (CJR05): The low power cellular Jammer instantly blocks and
paralyzes cell phone operations in CDMA, GSM (900 and 1800 MHz), 3G, Wi-Fi &
Bluetooth and 4G bands in limited defined areas. Once the cellular Jammer is on, all
types of cellular activities in the surroundings (including incoming and outgoing calls,
SMS, picture sending, etc.) are jammed. Effective jamming range depends upon the site
terrain and cellular signal strength at the site. The low power equipment is primarily
designed considering the health safety standards and indian working conditions. As the
power output is very low and directional coverage the jamming range will be well
controlled. Jamming range can be enhanced by keeping multiple jammers.

FEATURES: Approved by CABSEC Frequency Band Power Output of 5 Watts (Typical)

LED indicator for R F Power ON/OFF. CDMA & GSM900 Downlink : 869 – 894 MHz
& 935 – 960 MHz GSM 1800 Downlink : 1805 – 1880 MHz 3G Downlink : 2110 – 2170
MHz 4G/LTE-TDD : 2300 – 2400 MHz Wi-Fi & Bluetooth : 2400 – 2500 MHz LED
indicator for Thermal Shutdown
The typical jamming range is 35-40 feet depending upon BTS signal strength, however
multiple low Power jammers can be used to increase the effective Jamming Performance.

Types of Electronic Warfare There are three basic types of electronic warfare: · passive
Electronic Support Measures (ESM) · active Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) · anti-
ECM Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (ECCM) One of the problems with the last
two types is the continuous development of one equipment to counter the other. As the
ECM specialist produces systems to provide jamming and decoy methods so the ECCM
engineer develops equipment to overcome these methods. Frequently the same
manufacturers are doing both! The electronic warfare scene is a continuously evolving
battle between the various aspects of ESM , ECM and ECCM . With the complexity of
modern weapons, and the speed of reaction necessary to combat them, the weak link in
the chain would appear to be the human being who has to make the decision! This is not
necessarily the case, because in some instances an operator is far better than an automatic
processor. He can interpret situations based on previous experience more readily and can
alter his thresholds easily to perform basic functions such as detecting a signal in heavy
background clutter, whereas a machine can only operate at the threshold for which it has
been programmed. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in artificial intelligence
systems and, although there is still a long way to go, the era of complete automation will
eventually arrive. The amount of raw information from modern sensor systems is so vast
that better and better processors, employing highly complex software programs, are vital
to analyze the inputs. This speed and complexity is such that the operators must be highly
efficient, and an extensive business in providing EW training and simulation systems has
grown up over the past
years. Even so, this does not help, say the pilot of a single-seat fighter who is being
presented with a vast amount of electronic information and, perhaps, only a second or so
to react against a missile attack. All that this means, in that type of situation, is that the
warning system must be fully automatic in its countermeasures role, with an overriding
manual facility as a safety measure. Another vital component is the provision of
programmable software so that the system program can be changed easily. It is interesting
to note that EW systems used in the Gulf War were designed to cope with Soviet missiles
and radars but, in some cases, found themselves faced with Western systems. Fortunately
the most up-to-date radar warning receivers and jammers are software controlled and
were able to be reprogrammed to meet the threats. Electronic Warfare Support Measure
( ESM) There are two basic types of ESM: · Electronic Intelligence ( ELINT )
Electronic Intelligence primarily dedicated to the interception and analysis of radar
emissions from surveillance, fire-control or missile guidance radars, and is often allied to
an ECM system to provide protection from these. · Communications Intelligence (
COMINT ) communication Intelligence, as its name implies, is intended for the
interception of communications, whether by voice or data link. Both ELINT and
COMINT systems are heavily dependent on the digital computer to provide all the
analysis functions. The software program upon which these functions are based is keyed
in before any operational mission and will carry out the necessary analysis on multiple
signals. The library of the average processor will contain the parameters of 2,000 or more
radar systems and, in many cases, can be reprogrammed by the operator to store
unidentified signals for later processing and analysis. The processing involved consists of
three stages in series: · sorting of the radar pulses as they come in, · segregation of the
pulse trains, and · identification of the emitters. The combination of ELINT and
COMINT work is known as Signal Intelligence ( SIGINT ). Electronic Intelligence
(ELINT)
For platform protection ELINT is vital, in that it provides not only direction-finding but
also analysis of the incoming signals to provide immediate warning of threat radars,
including surveillance, fire control, targeting and missile guidance systems. Signals from
radar systems are intercepted by a warning receiver and are analyzed by an associated
processor to give a wide range of parameters, including direction, type of radar,
frequency, frequency agility, Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), and PRF type. These
parameters are usually sufficient to characterize the type of emitter, and complete
identification is then carried out by comparing the analyzed signal with parameters of
hostile and friendly emitter characteristics stored in a library within the computer
memory. Analysis of the signals and warning of a threat is virtually instantaneous and
enables countermeasures of jamming and/or decoys to be initiated. For aircraft, ships and
armored fighting vehicles effective warning systems are essential for survival in the
electromagnetic threat environment of the modern battlefield. The warning receivers
mentioned in the previous paragraph are being continuously updated to cope with the
latest threats. These receivers are normally either crystal video or super heterodyne-based
equipment’s, both of which have their own advantages. Crystal video receivers, either
narrowband or wideband, can operate over a frequency range from 0.5 to 40 GHz,
covering all radar transmissions except those in the 94/95 GHz milli metric waveband.
They are effective against pulsed, frequency-agile, PRI-agile, spread spectrum and
continuous-wave transmitters. Super heterodyne receivers are more expensive but
provide coverage from 0.01 to 40 GHz with a high level of sensitivity, plus long pick-up
ranges and side lobe penetration. Communications Intelligence (COMINT) COMINT
provides both interception, direction-finding and analysis of hostile transmissions,
primarily to assess the movements and intentions of the opposing forces. Analysis of the
signals provides much valuable information of the intentions for command and control
purposes, and the most recent systems provide the operator with the ability to detect and
analyze unusual and complex signals as well as the normal interception and DF facilities.
The receiving equipment is frequently allied to a computer-based processing and display
system so that automatic position fixing in the land-based role can be carried out by the
use of remote-controlled DF stations. Spectra and/or time waveforms are normally
provided, together with alphanumeric readouts which include type of transmission,
frequency, modulation and other signal parameters. These parameters are used to
determine the types of communication and radar systems in use, whether they are mobile
or static, the direction of any movement, and so on. Multi signal detection and analysis is
provided in nearly all equipments, and
a map display overprinted with the intercepted information can be incorporated to give
the battlefield commander an overall picture of both the tactical and the electromagnetic
situation. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) ECM is the active part of EW and is
intended to disrupt the surveillance systems of the enemy, whether by radar or radio
communications, and also to counter any of his weapons which use electromagnetic,
infrared or laser systems for guidance or aiming. There are two main methods of
achieving this: by jamming, or by the use of decoys, both of which are effective when
used properly. Many modern ECM equipment, particularly in the naval scenario, employ
both methods in an integrated system. Noise jamming is the use of transmissions to
disrupt the enemy's communications channels or to saturate his radar to obscure its target.
Although this denies the enemy his information channels it also means that the jamming
source cannot read the signals for intelligence purposes. Apart from this, modern
frequency-agile communication systems are no longer easy to jam effectively. Simple
noise jamming is still in widespread use in the land warfare scenario, one important
application being in remotely operated expendable jammers. These can be hand-
emplaced, artillery-delivered, dropped from aircraft or used in unmanned aerial vehicles,
and serve as short term jammers for a particular operation. The second method of ECM is
the use of decoys, either chaff in the case of electromagnetic threats or flares to combat
infrared devices. The use of chaff goes back over 50 years to the Second World War, and
the material itself has changed very little. What has changed has been the method of
dispersal and this varies according to the type of platform. For infrared countermeasures
flare cartridges are ejected from the dispensers and most dispensers have a dual role of
carrying both chaff and flares. Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) is the
method by which you endeavor to combat the ECM systems of the enemy by either
making your equipment ECM-resistant or by using techniques to nullify his jamming
and/or decoy systems. It is
an extremely sensitive area in that any disclosure of ECCM measures designed into a
system are likely to inform the enemy of its vulnerability to ECM. Against jamming
systems, the most commonly used method is frequency agility, whereby the transmissions
are made to „hop” over a large frequency band in a random fashion. This means that
either the jammer has to spread its power over the entire band with the inevitable loss of
strength on any particular frequency, or it must attempt to follow the signal as it hops
randomly. The latest technique is the use of “stealth” techniques to combat the radar
system. This is beginning to be employed in aircrafts and consists of a number of
methods to reduce the radar cross-section of the aim. The main techniques employed are ·
to design the airframe itself to avoid sharp corners and flat surfaces which act as radar
reflectors, and · the use of radar absorbent material which minimizes the amount of
energy reflected back to the radar. At the aircraft the most important parts of the fuselage
can be covered in radar absorbent material to make it extremely difficult to detect. A
number of anti-radiation missiles have been developed. The missile is passive in
operation so that it cannot be picked up by ESM systems, and normally locks on to the
side lobes of the radar transmission. The main countermeasures against this type of
missile are low side lobes, frequency agility, and the use of decoy transmitters which
must be positioned close enough to the surveillance radar to “seduce” the missile but not
so close as to endanger the main system. Jamming by deception
Deception uses ECM to forge false target signals that the radar receiver accepts and
processes as real targets. The pulse repetition frequency of the false target signals are: ·
either un synchronous to the pulse repetition frequency of the radar unit and the
interfering pulses writes narrow scroll-shaped sectors on the monitor, or · either
synchronous to the pulse repetition frequency of the radar unit or even is derived from
the radar units own transmitting impulse. (Repeater Jammer). The impulse sent out to the
deception then has another range, another azimuth or another speed than the true aim
sign.
See the picture: in azimuth of 135° seven targets appear behind each other. Obviously
these are a deception disturbance since they e.g. are wider than it has the own antenna
diagram expected. Such deceptions are unmasked by changing the pulse repetition
frequency specifically. Concealment or Masking Essentially, Concealment uses ECM to
swamp the radar receiver and hide the targets. Concealment (Jamming) usually uses some
form of noise as the transmitted ECM signal. In this section, Concealment will be called
“noise” or “noise jamming”. An increasing of the noise will decrease the probability of
detection and an increasing of the false alarm rate too. A powerful jammer can hide the
targets completely. Noise jamming is either spot jamming or barrage jamming. Spot
jamming is simply narrowing the bandwidth of the noise jammer so that as much of
jammer power as possible is in the radar receiver the bandwidth. Barrage jamming is
using a wide noise bandwidth to cover several radars with one jammer compensate for
any uncertainty in the radar frequency. It is also possible to wobble a spot jamming
frequency in a wide band. Therefore this is called swept jamming . Often used in the
World War II, chaff is a passive disturbing method which cause high noise-similar
clutter on reason of its own reflection. Clutter producing reflective materials (thin staniol
stripes or metallic covered glass fibers) are dispensed into the atmosphere. These stay
quite long time into the atmosphere and cause impenetrable clouds for the radar signals.
For better effect the length of the stripes is tuned with the wavelength of the radar unit.
Special filters and ECCM -Fixes, ( Electronic Counter- Counter measures), sometimes
called EPM ( Electronic Protection measures) make an improvement. Against chaff a
Doppler radar can compare the higher speed of the aircraft with the lower chaffs wind
speed.
In this study lecture we are going to study about the generation of radar signals by the
bite source that is capable of producing
Stable radar signals
Stagger radar signals
Jitter radar signals
The bite source is generally developed for lab
The basic generation of this BITE source includes:
1) RF generator
2) SP4T switch
3) Programmable Attenuator
4) FPGA (field programmable gated array)

1) RF GENERATOR:
A frequency at which radio waves can be transmitted, ranging from extremely low
frequency (below 3000 hertz) to extremely high frequency (between 30 and 300
gigahertz).
These include
Oscillator: The most important block within the RF signal generator is the oscillator
itself. This can be any form of oscillator, but today it would almost certainly be formed
from a frequency synthesizer. This oscillator would take commands from the controller
and be set to the required frequency
In the above bite source we are going to use the 4 fixed oscillators of 5GHz, 8GHz,
12GHz, 16Ghz.

Amplifier: The output from the oscillator will need amplifying. This will be achieved
using a special amplifier module. This will amplify the signal, typically to a fixed level. It
would have a loop around it to maintain the output level accurately at all frequencies and
temperatures.

SP4T Switch: PIN diode SP4T switch family spans the frequency range of 0.5 – 18 GHz.
It offers high performance and an integrated high speed driver controlled by TTL or
CMOS signals. This switch will maintain high performance as a drop in device for
system or subsystem requirements. The Mercury Systems family of high performance
switches is available in military or non-military versions, hermetic and non-hermetic.

These fixed RF generators of ( 5GHz, 8GHz, 12GHz, 16Ghz.)

are selected by the requirement by the sp4t switch as it stands for single pole 4 through
only one signal is selected once and passes through the switch
The logic implementation of the switch is generated by the Field Programmable Gated
Array for this FPGA the logic program is given by the computer through the Ethernet
port provided in the FPGA board.

Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be

configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence the term "field-
programmable". The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware
description language (HDL)

FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic blocks, and a hierarchy of

"reconfigurable interconnects" that allow the blocks to be "wired together", like many
logic gates that can be inter-wired in different configurations. Logic blocks can be
configured to perform complex combinational functions, or merely simple logic gates
like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks also include memory elements, which
may be simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory. Many FPGAs can be
reprogrammed to implement different logic functions, allowing flexible reconfigurable
computing as performed in computer software.

Programmable attenuator:
programmable attenuators, also known as voltage controlled actuators, are available in 50
Ohm impedance. Our voltage controlled programmable attenuators are available with
SMA connectors and RF dB attenuation values that range from 1 dB to 63 B. The
frequency range of our voltage controlled attenuators is from 1 GHz to 18 GHz.

These are layered as per the design of PCD (Printed Circuit Board) and the output
of the programmable attenuator is connected to the RF signal analyzer and the required
radar signal analysis is done
In thus study project we are generating the stable radar signal generation of frequencies
(5, 8, 12, and 16) GHz. radar signal

STABLE RADAR SIGNAL: This is one of the basic radar signal that is easily
understood because it is the signal which has PW(Pulse Width ) and only single
PRF(Pulse Repetition Frequency )or PRI(Pulse Repetition Interval)
The model wave form of the stable radar signal is given below

STAGGER PRIPR
I stagger is the use of two or more PRIs selected in a fixed sequence. The sequence may
contain more than one of the several intervals before it repeats. The sequence is described
by the number of “positions” or intervals used in making up the sequence and the
number of different intervals used. A common stagger sequence consists of altering long
and short PRIs. This has two intervals and two positions.

The model output of the stagger radar signal with 2 level PRI is shown below :

The above figure contains :

PRI1=500 micro seconds,
PRI2=300 micro seconds,
PW=constant.

JITTER PRI
A parameter PRI is considered to be a jittered if the variations from the mean PRI occur
in a random or pseudorandom fashion. PRI jitter variations can occur between minimum
and maximum PRI limits or can be variations from a mean value using discrete values.
The above figure describes about the Jitter radar signal

Conclusion: