Cell Structure

Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early
biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few
floating particles. Today's biologists know that cells are infinitely more
complex than this.

There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For
descriptive purposes, the concept of a "generalized cell" is introduced. It
includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell
membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even
thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles.

Cell membrane
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell
membrane separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the
material inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and
controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell
must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed
exchange.

The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in

the cell membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of
materials, act as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide
identification markers.
Nucleus and Nucleolus
The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is
the control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus
contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and
is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will
function, as well as the basic structure of that cell.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical
reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within
the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are
carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm, materials move
by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short distances.

Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm
of the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in
the function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles
are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
and lysosomes.

Cell Function
The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are
determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have
different functions because cell structure and function are closely related. It is
apparent that a cell that is very thin is not well suited for a protective
function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate structure for nerve impulse
conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell functions.
The generalized cell functions include movement of substances across
the cell membrane, cell division to make new cells, and protein synthesis.

Movement of substances across the cell membrane

The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between
extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the
cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of
higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration. Osmosis
is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a
selectively permeable membrane. Filtration utilizes pressure to push
substances through a membrane. Active transport moves substances against
a concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy.
Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and
droplets from outside to inside the cell. Secretory vesicles are moved from the
inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis.

Cell division

Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair,
and replacement in the body. This process includes division of the nuclear
material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the body (somatic cells),
except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce
by mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by a special type of nuclear
division called meiosis in which the number of chromosomes is halved.
Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
Somatic cells reproduce by mitosis, which results in two cells identical to the
one parent cell. Interphase is the period between successive cell divisions. It
is the longest part of the cell cycle. The successive stages of mitosis
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis, division of
the cytoplasm, occurs during telophase.

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the production of the
gametes, or eggs and sperm. These cells have only 23 chromosomes, one-
half the number found in somatic cells, so that when fertilization takes place
the resulting cell will again have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23
from the sperm.

DNA replication and protein synthesis

Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural materials,
enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital
substances. DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
A gene is the portion of a DNA molecule that controls the synthesis of one
specific protein molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information
from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.

Body Tissues
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together
as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces
between the cells. This may be abundant in some tissues and minimal in
others. The intercellular matrix may contain special substances such as salts
and fibers that are unique to a specific tissue and gives that tissue distinctive
characteristics. There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions.

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cells_tissues_membranes/tissues/

A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or
"see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked
eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using such an
instrument. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to
describe the way the instruments interact with a sample to create images, either by sending a beam
of light or electrons to a sample in its optical path, or by scanning across, and a short distance from
the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented)
is the optical microscope, which uses light to pass through a sample to produce an image. Other
major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, the electron microscope (both
the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and the various types
of scanning probe microscopes.[1]

What’s the Difference Between Weather and

Climate?
Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get

Courtesy of Pixabay.com

Though they are closely related, weather and climate aren’t the same
thing. Climate is what you expect. Weather is what actually
happensTake a moment and think about the weather today where you
are. Is it normal or typical? Is it what you’d expect? If it’s been cool the
past few days but the temperature is climbing today, is that weather or
climate? Are weather and climate the same thing? Though they are
closely related, weather and climate aren’t the same thing. Climate is
what you expect. Weather is what actually happens.

What exactly is weather?

More specifically, weather is the mix of events that happen each day
in our atmosphere. Even though there’s only one atmosphere on Earth,
the weather isn’t the same all around the world. Weather is different in
different parts of the world and changes over minutes, hours, days, and
weeks.

Most weather happens in the part of Earth’s atmosphere that is closest

to the ground—called the troposphere. And, there are many different
factors that can change the atmosphere in a certain area like air
pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and lots of
other things. Together, they determine what the weather is like at a given
time and location.

What exactly is climate?

Whereas weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere,
climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a
specific area. Different regions can have different climates. To describe
the climate of a place, we might say what the temperatures are like
during different seasons, how windy it usually is, or how much rain or
snow typically falls.

When scientists talk about climate, they're often looking at averages of

precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind, and other measures
of weather that occur over a long period in a particular place. In some
instances, they might look at these averages over 30 years. And, we
refer to these three-decade averages of weather observations
as Climate Normals.

While descriptions of an area’s climate provide a sense of what to

expect, they don't provide any specific details about what the weather
will be on any given dayLooking at Climate Normals can help us
describe whether the summers are hot and humid and whether the
winters are cold and snowy at a particular place. They can also tell us
when we might expect the warmest day of the year or the coldest day of
the year at that location. But, while descriptions of an area’s climate
provide a sense of what to expect, they don't provide any specific details
about what the weather will be on any given day.

Here’s one way to visualize it. Weather tells you what to wear each day.
Climate tells you what types of clothes to have in your closet.
How do weather observations become climate data?
Across the globe, observers and automated stations measure weather
conditions at thousands of locations every day of the year. Some
observations are made hourly, others just once a day. Over time, these
weather observations allow us to quantify long-term average conditions,
which provide insight into an area’s climate.

In many locations around the United States, systematic weather records

have been kept for over 140 years. With these long-term records, we
can detect patterns and trends. And, as the Nation’s official archive for
environmental data, it’s our job to collect, quality control, and organize
these data and make them available online for scientists, decision
makers, and you.

Are regional climates different from the global climate?

Global climate is a description of the climate of a planet as a whole, with
all the regional differences averagedLike the United States, different
regions of the world have varying climates. But, we can also describe the
climate of an entire planet—referred to as the global climate. Global
climate is a description of the climate of a planet as a whole, with all the
regional differences averaged. Overall, global climate depends on the
amount of energy received by the sun and the amount of energy that is
trapped in the system. And, these amounts are different for different
planets. Scientists who study Earth’s climate look at the factors that
affect our planet as a whole.
How does the climate change?
While the weather can change in just a few minutes or hours, climate
changes over longer time framesWhile the weather can change in just a
few minutes or hours, climate changes over longer time frames. Climate
events, like El Niño, happen over several years, with larger fluctuations
happening over decades. And, even larger climate changes happen over
hundreds and thousands of years.

Today, climates are changing. Our Earth is warming more quickly than it
has in the past according to the research of scientists. Hot summer days
may be quite typical of climates in many regions of the world, but
warming is causing Earth's average global temperature to increase. The
amount of solar radiation, the chemistry of the atmosphere, clouds, and
the biosphere all affect Earth's climate.

As global climate changes, weather patterns are changing as well. While

it’s impossible to say whether a particular day’s weather was affected by
climate change, it is possible to predict how patterns might change. For
example, scientists predict more extreme weather events as Earth’s
climate warms.

Why do we study climate?

Climate, climate change, and their impacts on weather events affect
people all around the worldClimate, climate change, and their impacts on
weather events affect people all around the world. Rising global
temperatures are expected to further raise sea levels and change
precipitation patterns and other local climate conditions. Changing
regional climates could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies.
They could also affect human health, animals, and many types
of ecosystems. Deserts may expand into existing rangelands, and
features of some of our National Parks and National Forests may be
permanently altered.