Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Lab # PhyI-03: Dynamics Laws

(Knight, Ch.5: 5.1, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7; Ch.6: 6.3; Ch.7: 7.3, 7.4; Ch.9: 9.1, 9.3; Ch.10: 10.2, 10.4; Ch.11: 11.1, 11.2)

Introduction
Classical Mechanics is an area of Physics based on Newton’s laws. These laws deal with the concept of
force. Two aspects about force are very important: first, force is a vector, i.e., it has a direction as well as
a magnitude; second, force is the mutual interaction between two objects (Newton’s Third Law.) Things
do not possess force. Object A moves due to the external force exerted on it by object B.
One of the most important equations in physics is
 
aF
m (1)
This is known as Newton's Second Law of motion: an object experiencing a non-zero net external force F
will have a rate of change of its velocity (an acceleration) a that is proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to its mass m. This equation describes the behavior of everything that changes its motion due
to a net force - from the trajectory of a baseball to the motion of planets. It is simple, but we must use it
cautiously. First, we must be certain to which body the force is being applied. Second, the net force must
be the vector sum of all the forces that act on that body. If we investigate the movement of one particular
body, only the forces that act on that body are to be included in the vector sum, not forces acting on other
bodies that might be involved in the given situation. If we investigate the movement of a set of bodies
connected with each other we ought to take into account all the forces acting on all the bodies in the set.
Equation 1 tells us that if the net force on a body is zero, the body's acceleration equals zero. If the body is
at rest, it stays at rest; if it is moving, it continues to move at constant velocity (Newton’s First Law.) In
such cases, any forces on the body balance one another, and both the forces and the body are said to be in
equilibrium. However, if there is a net force on the body, it will accelerate. The acceleration will be directly
proportional to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass. 

There is an alternative statement of Newton's Second Law in terms of linear momentum p  mv that can
 
be produced through a simple manipulation. Using a  dv , we can re-write Newton's Second Law
dt

dv 
m  F in the form
dt
  
mdv  dp  Fdt . (2)
 dp
One can see from this equation that the applied force F 
dt can be obtained from the experiment as a
slope of the tangent line at each point of the curve p(t). We can integrate Equation 2 to find the change in
the momentum of the body during the time interval t = t2 - t1 :

  
t2

p  p 2  p1   Fdt . (3)
t1

The integral of the force over the time during which it acts is called an impulse of the force and for the
motion with constant acceleration (constant net force) the impulse is equal
t2
 
 Fdt  Ft .
t1
(4)

Lab # PhyI-03: Dynamics Laws

Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Thus, for the constant-accelerated motion of a body with constant mass, the alternative Newton’s Second
Law interpretation is
  
p  mv  Ft (5)
The total impulse of the net force on a body is equal to the change in the momentum of the body.
In order to reveal energy aspects of the Newton’s Laws, consider accelerated motion through a

displacement, l = l2 - l1. The work W done by the constant external force F applied in the direction of
motion is:
l2

W   Fdl  Fl (6)

l1

Using Newton’s Second Law, the constant force applied to the body results in a change of the body’s kinetic
energy, ∆K, that is equal to the work done:

v 22  v 12
l2 l2

W   Fdl   madl  mal  m  K (7)

l1 l1
2

v 22  v 12
as the motion with constant acceleration gives l  . Analogously, the constant force of
2a
gravitation reduces the body’s potential energy, U, if it falls a height difference between two positions,
h  h1  h2 :
h2 h2

W   Fdl   mgdl  mgh  U (8)

h1 h1

where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

During the process of body’s energy variation (doing work) the force transforms one type of energy into
another. For example, the force of gravity making the object fall has been doing “work” transforming the
potential energy of the body in the field of gravity, U  mgh , to the kinetic energy of its motion,
v 22  v 12
K  m . That is why the change in potential energy, U, of the isolated system is equal to the
2
change in its kinetic energy, K, that is
K   U  W (9)
Equation 9 is known as a statement of conservation of mechanical energy E for an isolated system that can
be re-written as
E  K  U  const (10)

This laboratory deals with several different aspects of motion with respect to Newton’s Second Law: an
object’s acceleration under the influence of an external force, comparison of the momentum change with
the impulse, as well as energy transformation and conservation.

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Equipment
Air Track, glider, pulley, mass set, hanger, motion sensor, 850 Pasco Interface, balance, string.
Purpose
The purpose of this exploration is to use AirTrack equipment to experimentally verify Newton’s Second
Law in a friction-free environment and to investigate an energy transformation and conservation when a
conservative force does work on an object within the system.

Theory
In order to understand the relationships between acceleration, force, and mass we have to exert an external
force on an object of certain mass M and then determine its acceleration. The diagram displayed in Figure
1 shows the experimental set-up. There is a suspended weight of mass m that falls under the influence of
gravity and pulls an object of mass M (glider on AirTrack) attached to one another by a light string.

Figure 1: Experimental Scheme

Since simply using a Pasco force sensor is impossible with the Pasco AirTrack Glider (constructional
feature), we need to calculate the force exerted on the object of mass M by the object of mass m. According
to the Newton’s Second Law (Equation 1) the acceleration of the suspended mass am is

 Fm
am  , (11)
m

where Fm is a resultant of external forces. Only two forces act on the suspended mass: the force of gravity
 
(which points down) mg and the tension force (which pulls up) Tm . We can re-write Equation 11 as
   
Fm  ma m  mg  Tm or mg  Tm  ma m , (12)

where g=9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration due to gravity.


Assuming that friction is negligible for the glider of mass M in Fig.2, and since the gravitational, Mg , and

normal, N , forces are balanced, the only horizontal force acting on the glider is the tension force of the

string TM . So, for the glider, Newton’s Second Law gives

TM
aM  . (13)
M

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Two assumptions make it possible to solve the Equations 12, 13 and predict the acceleration of the glider
and suspended mass. First, as long as the string doesn’t stretch, both the glider and mass move the same
 
distance in any given time interval. So a M  a m  a . The second assumption is not so obvious, but if the
friction in the pulley, the mass of the string, and the rotational inertia of the pulley are all small, then the
 
string pulls on the mass and glider with the same force: Tm  TM  T .
Newton’s Second Law can be reduced to these two equations:
glider: Ma = T
suspended mass: ma = mg – T
Joint solution of these equations gives an acceleration of
mg
a (14)
mM
Alternative consideration
One can be given a physical representation of Equation 14. Since the role of the pulley is to only change the
direction of motion, we can consider the motion of a system of the suspended mass and the glider as the
motion of the object of mass m + M under the influence of the force mg (see Figure 2, TM = Tm!). From the
equivalent scheme in Figure 2 for a body of mass m + M with the resultant force mg exerted on it Newton’s
Second Law gives:
F mg
a  (15)
mM mM
that coincides with Equation 14!
In this case, we can investigate the dependence of the acceleration on the external force and an object’s
mass simply by changing the relationship between m and M. Say, if we increased m two times and
simultaneously decreased M subtracting m, the mass of the system would not change but the force would
increase by two times. Analogously, changing mass M keeping mass m the same will change the system
mass but there will not be any change in the external force.

Figure 2: Experimental Diagram Transformation to the Equivalent Scheme

Thus, we can measure the acceleration of the glider for different values of M and m using a motion sensor
that measures position, velocity and acceleration by means of ultrasound waves. Then we have to verify
that Equation 14 is actually a statement of Newton’s Second Law for our system. Using the results of these
measurements, we can calculate the momentum and kinetic energy of the glider at different points or times,
as well as for different values of the force exerted on the glider and the work done by this force. And, finally,
we can compare the impulse and momentum change during a certain time interval, as well as the work done
and the kinetic and potential energy changes along a certain distance.

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Setup
Equipment Setup
1. Level the Air Track (it is very important that the track is level to get the best results):
 Turn the Air Supply on.
 Place a glider in the middle of the track without any initial velocity.
 Adjust the two adjustable feet until the glider remains at its initial position, not accelerating in either
direction.
Note: The glider may oscillate slightly about its position. This movement is caused by air currents from
the air holes in the track and should be considered normal.
2. Place the Motion Sensor in front of the AirTrack end connected to the Air Supply behind a hose
connecting the Air Supply to the AirTrack at the hight level with the AirTrack flag.
3. Set the switch on the Motion Sensor to narrow beam and rotate the sensor a bit (approximately a half of
the division from vertical position) so the flat surface of the sensor looks up a little.
4. Attach a piece of string about 1.0 m long to the top of the glider as shown in Figure 3. Set the AirTrack
flag perpendiculat to the direction of motion.
5. Attach the mass hanger to the other end of the string, and put the string in the pulley's groove.
6. Hold the glider in front of the Motion Sensor but no closer than 15 cm from the sensor.
7. Adjust the Air Supply. The Air Supply is connected to the Air Track by the air fitting on one end of the
track. The output of the blower should be adjusted for every run so that the glider just floats on the track.
8. When you need to increase the mass of the glider simply place the supplied masses on the steel pins
protruding from each side of the glider.
Note: Masses must always be added symmetrically (the same number on each side), or the glider will not
function properly.

Figure 3: Experiment Setup (string length is reduced to see the details)

Computer Setup
1. Plug the Motion Sensor into channels 1 and 2 of the 850 Interface.
2. Plug the 850 Interface into the computer’s USB port. Turn the 850 Interface on. This will automatically
install hardware driver on your computer if it was not installed yet.
3. Open the Capstone configuration file entitled Dynamics.cap and proceed with the following
instructions.

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

Procedure (Experimental Method)

Weigh the glider with the flag and record its mass in your report. Weigh the hanger and record its mass.
Let’s denote: M is the mass of the glider with or without extra mass;
m is the mass of the hanger with any extra mass on it.
Constant Net Force
You will take three runs of data. For Run #1, use the arrangement described above. Put one 2-g mass on the
mass hanger. Record the total mass of the hanger plus the extra mass, m, in Table 1. Use the glider without
any additional mass. For the second and third runs, add mass to the glider. The total mass of the system is
increased, but the net force is kept constant. You will measure the velocity of the glider in dependence on
time, and then you will find the glider acceleration as a slope of this line dependence.
Note: Hanger with the mass should not be oscillating during the run. Do not produce any movements in
front of the motion sensor within the distance of 1.5 – 2 m.
Note: The output of the blower should be adjusted carefully so that the glider floats on the track smoothly.
Excessive air pressure may cause the glider to wander on the track giving you not very smooth results.
Lack of the air pressure will lead to some friction between the glider and the air track. For the glider itself
you usually need smaller air pressure than for the glider with 200-g mass on it. You should have almost a
straight line for the dependence of the glider velocity on time.
1. Select the Velocity graph. Click Record in the Controls Palette. Release the glider. Stop the glider
before it hits the pulley and click Stop in the Controls Palette to stop data collection.
2. Record the mass of the glider, M, in Table 1 (Run #1).
3. For Run #2, add two 50-g masses to the both sides of the glider. Repeat step 1. Record the total mass of
the glider plus the extra masses, M, in Table 1 (Run #2).
4. For Run #3, add two 50-g masses additionally to the both sides of the glider. Repeat step 1. Record the
total mass of the glider plus the extra masses, M, in Table 1 (Run #3).
Constant Mass
You will take three runs of data. For Run #4, use the arrangement described above. Put one 2-g mass on the
mass hanger and four 5-g masses on the sides of the glider symmetrically. For the second and third runs,
transfer mass from the glider to the mass hanger on the string. The total mass of the system is constant, but
the net force is increased.
1. Select the Velocity graph. Click Record in the Controls Palette. Release the glider. Stop the glider
before it hits the pulley and click Stop in the Controls Palette to stop data collection. Record the mass
of the hanger plus 2-g mass, m, in Table 2 (Run #4).
2. For Run #5, transfer two 5-g masses from both sides of the glider to the mass hanger. Record the total
mass of the hanger with additional masses, m, in Table 2 (Run #5).
3. For Run #6, move the remaining two 5-g masses from the glider to the mass hanger. Record the total
mass of the hanger with additional masses, m, in Table 2 (Run #6).
Note: Do not forget to calculate the mass of the glider with additional masses and record the correct values
for each run in Table 2.
Analysis
Examine the Velocity Graph
1. Select the Velocity graph to make it active and Click Data in the Toolbar to obtain the data recorded
during the experiment. Select Run #1.
2. Click Scale axes to show all data to rescale the graph if needed.
3. Click Highlight range of points in active data to highlight a smooth part of the graph. Click Fit
menu and choose Linear Fit. The slope "m" of the best-fit line is the acceleration. Record it in Table 1.
4. After recording the acceleration for Run #1, Click Data in the Toolbar to select the next run.

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

5. Record the values of the slope "m" as the accelerations for runs #2 - #3 in Table 1 and for runs #4 - #6 in
Table 2.
Save the Capstone file after each run, because the computer can crash and you can lose the data!
Calculations: Constant Net Force
Calculate the theoretical acceleration when the mass increases and the net force remains the same and record
it in Table 1. The acceleration is the ratio of the net force divided by the total mass, a t  mg /( M  m ) .
(In the case of the Constant Net Force experiments, runs #1-3, additional mass on the hanger is always the
same, 2 g).
For runs #1, #2, and #3, the total mass of the system (mass of glider with some additional loads on it plus
mass of hanger with additional mass on it) increases but the net force remains constant. Assuming no
friction, the net force is the weight of the hanger (mass of the hanger with the additional mass, m, multiplied
by 9.8 N/kg). Find the percent difference between the theoretical acceleration and the experimental
acceleration and record it in Table 1.
Table 1
Total mass, Acceleration, Acceleration, % difference,
Run m, kg M, kg
M+m, kg experiment ae, m/s2 theory at, m/s2 100%∙|at- ae|/ at
#1
#2
#3
Net force, mg: __________ (N)
Calculations: Constant Mass
Calculate the theoretical acceleration when the mass is constant and the net force is changed and record it
in Table 2. For runs #4, #5, and #6, the total mass of the system (mass of the glider plus mass of the hanger
plus additional masses, one 2-g mass and four 5-g masses) is constant but the net force, mg, increases.
Assuming no friction, the net force is the weight of the hanger with the extra mass on it (m x 9.8 N/kg).
Find the percent difference between the theoretical acceleration, a t  mg /( M  m ) , and the experimental
acceleration and record it in Table 2.
Table 2
Net Force Acceleration, Acceleration, % difference,
Run M, kg m, kg
mg, N experiment ae, m/s2 theory at, m/s2 100%∙|at- ae|/ at
#4
#5
#6
Total mass, M+m: _____________ (kg)
Examine the Linear Momentum Graph for the Glider
1. Using the experimental data (runs #4, #5, and #6), build time dependences of the linear momentum of
the glider in the Momentum graph window for the runs #4, #5, and #6. In order to do so, select the
Momentum graph window and Click Data in the Toolbar to obtain the data recorded during the
experiment. Select Run #4. Click Scale axes to show all data to rescale the graph if needed. Since
the momentum is not measured by the motion sensor, we need to use the Calculator Tool to construct
the graph of the glider momentum, p(t )  Mv (t ) , versus time using the experimental data obtained
for the glider velocity, v(t). For this reason, we have to change the mass of the glider in the Calculator
Tool every time it changes. To do this, click the Calculate button on the left panel. In the field “m=”
enter the glider mass value (taking into account additional loads if needed) in kg corresponding to the
given run number. Do not forget to do it every time you select a new run.

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Physics I Laboratory Faculty of Science, UOIT

2. The slope of the best-fit line for linear momentum versus time dependence is the force exerted on the
glider, Fe = p(t)/t. Click Highlight range of points in active data to highlight a smooth part of the
graph (only points where you have a growing straight line). Click the Fit menu and choose Linear
Fit. Read the slope, m, (experimental force value) for the curve and record it into Table 3. Compare the
experimental force value with the theoretical one Ft = Mat, where M and at are the mass of the glider
(with or without any additional loads) and its theoretical acceleration, respectively. Take corresponding
values of M and at from Table 2. Calculate the percent difference between the experimental and
theoretical force values.
3. Repeat steps 1- 2 for the runs #5 and #6.
Table 3
Force on glider Fe,
Run Force on glider Ft, theory, N % difference, |Fe- Ft|/ Ft
experiment, N
#4
#5
#6
Examine the Kinetic Energy Graph for the Glider
1. Using the experimental data (runs #4, #5, and #6), build time dependences of glider kinetic energy in
the Kinetic Energy Graph window for the last three runs. Select the Kinetic Energy graph window, select
the Kinetic Energy graph, and Click Data in the Toolbar to obtain the data recorded during the
experiment. Select Run #4. Click Scale axes to show all data to rescale the graph if needed. Since
the kinetic energy cannot be measured by the motion sensor, we need to use the Calculator Tool to
construct the graph of the glider kinetic energy, K (t )  Mv (t ) 2 / 2 , versus time using the experimental
data obtained for the glider velocity, v(t). For this reason, we have to change the mass of the glider in
the Calculator Tool every time it changes. To do this, click the Calculate button on the left panel. In
the field “m=” enter the glider mass value (taking into account additional loads if needed, in kg)
corresponding to the given run number. Do not forget to do it every time you select a new run.
2. Measure the change in the kinetic energy, K, of the glider during a certain time interval t and the
distance l (from the position graph) over which this change occurs for the same time interval. Select
the Kinetic Energy graph window. Select the Kinetic Energy graph. Click the Show data coordinates
and access Delta Tool button on the Toolbar of the graph window. Select the Position graph. Click
the Show data coordinates and access Delta Tool button again. Both target cursors will be
synchronized. On the Kinetic Energy graph, select a smooth part between two points. Place the target
cursor on the curve at the first point and right click area of the cursor. Select Show Delta Tool. The
second target cursor will appear. Drag this cursor with the mouse to the second point on the curve.
Read the kinetic energy change value. Do the same for the distance value (from the position graph)
during the same time interval and record both values into Table 4. Compare the kinetic energy change
with the value of the work done, W = Fel, on the glider by force Fe during the selected time interval
t. The “Fe” in this formula is the experimental force value that can be found in Table 3 for each run.
Calculate the percent difference between the change in the kinetic energy of the glider and the work
done on the glider.
3. Repeat steps 1- 2 for the runs #5 and #6.
4. Make conclusions. Table 4
Kinetic Energy Work Done W = Fel, % difference,
Run Distance l, m
Change K, kgm2/s2 kgm2/s2 100%∙|ΔK- W|/ ΔK
#4
#5
#6

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