Heat & Mass Transfer

Week_01

Instructor: Mr. Adnan Qamar

Mechanical Engineering Department

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 Course Outline
ME-312 Heat and Mass Transfer
Introduction to conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer, Fourier’s law, Newton’s
law of cooling, Stefan Boltzmann’s law, Thermal conductivity, heat diffusion equation in
Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinates; one dimensional steady state heat
conduction through plane composite walls, cylinders and spheres with and without heat
generation sources, Insulation, critical radius/thickness of insulation, The overall heat
transfer co-efficient, Fins, heat transfer through extended surfaces, Thermal contact
resistance; Unsteady-state conduction, Lumped-heat-capacity system; Principles of
convection, Viscous flow, Laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, The thermal boundary
layer, Relation between fluid friction and heat transfer, Heat transfer in laminar tube flow,
Bulk temperature, Turbulent flow in a tube, non-dimensional parameters related to
convective heat transfer and their applications, shear stress; Empirical and practical
relations for forced convection heat transfer, empirical relations for pipe and tube flow,
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 Course Outline
ME-312 Heat and Mass Transfer
flow over cylinders and spheres; Radiation heat transfer-Radiation properties, black body
radiation, absorptivity, reflectivity, transmissivity, Wien’s law, Kirchoff’s law, Grey body
radiation, Radiation shape factor and relations between shape factors, Heat exchange
between non-blackbodies, Infinite parallel planes, Radiation shields, Heat exchangers -
overall heat transfer co-efficient, fouling factors, types of heat exchangers, Log mean
temperature difference (LMTD) and Effective-NTU methods, Compact heat exchanger,
Heat exchanger design considerations; Mass transfer - Fick’s law of diffusion, diffusion in
gases, liquids and solids, analogy between momentum, heat and mass transfer;
simultaneous heat and mass transfer, Evaporation processes in the atmosphere.

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 Course Outline
Recommended Books:
1. Heat Transfer by J. P. Holman (Text Book)
2.Engineering Heat Transfer by William S. Janna
3.Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera and Dewitt

Prerequisite: ME 212: Thermodynamics-II,

ME 213: Fluid Mechanics-II

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

What is Heat Transfer?

Difference between Heat and Temperature:
➢ Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules
of a substance. It manifests itself as a degree of hotness, and can be used to
predict the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T.
The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin
temperature scales.
➢ Heat, on the other hand, is energy in transit. The form of energy that can be
transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature difference.
Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The usual
symbol for heat is Q. In the SI system, common units for measuring heat are
the Joule and calorie.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.

Thermodynamics tells us:

➢ how much heat is transferred (dQ)

➢ how much work is done (dW)

➢ final state of the system

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers
as well as variation of temperature.

Heat Transfer tells us:

➢ how (with what modes) dQ is transferred

➢ at what rate dQ is transferred

➢ temperature distribution inside the body

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Modern Theory of Heat:
The kinetic energy of each molecule of the substance is proportional to its
absolute temperature

Molecules do have

➢ Vibrational Energy

➢ Rotational Energy

➢ Translational Energy

Kinetic energy of a molecule is the sum of these three energies

Heat Transfer in Engineering
➢ Transmission of energy from one region to another

➢ Due to this change in temperature, temperature gradient exists

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Purpose of Heat Transfer
➢ To calculate the rate of flow of energy as heat under both steady and transient
conditions.

➢ To calculate the temperature field.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, radiators,
heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed primarily on the
basis of heat transfer analysis.

The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two

groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.

The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an
existing system at a specified temperature difference.

The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order
to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing
and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).

The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual
physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within
the limits of experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, time
consuming, and often impractical.

The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage
that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy
of the assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Thermodynamic Properties:

The most of general sense of thermodynamics is the study of energy and its
relationship to the properties of matter. All activities in nature involve some
interaction between energy and matter. Thermodynamics is a science that governs
the following:

➢ Energy and its transformation

➢ Feasibility of a process involving transformation of energy

➢ Feasibility of a process involving transfer of energy

➢ Equilibrium processes

More specifically, thermodynamics deals with energy conversion, energy

exchange and the direction of exchange.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Basic Laws of Thermodynamics:

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

➢ The Zeroth Law deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a means for
measuring temperatures.

➢ The First Law deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the concept
of internal energy.

➢ The Second Law of thermodynamics provides with the guidelines on the

conversion of internal energy of matter into work. It also introduces the concept of
entropy.

➢ The Third Law of thermodynamics defines the absolute zero of entropy. The
entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Thermodynamic Systems:

System: A thermodynamic system is defined as a definite quantity of matter or a

region in space upon which attention is focussed in the analysis of a problem. We
may want to study a quantity of matter contained with in a closed rigid walled
chambers, or we may want to consider something such as gas pipeline through
which the matter flows. The composition of the matter inside the system may be
fixed or may change through chemical and nuclear reactions. A system may be
arbitrarily defined. It becomes important when exchange of energy between the
system and the everything else outside the system is considered. The judgment on
the energetics of this exchange is very important.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Surroundings:
Everything external to the system is surroundings. The system is
distinguished from its surroundings by a specified boundary which may be
at rest or in motion. The interactions between a system and its
surroundings, which take place across the boundary, play an important
role in thermodynamics. A system and its surroundings together comprise
a universe.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Types of systems:

Two types of systems can be distinguished. These are referred to, respectively, as
closed systems and open systems or control volumes. A closed system or a control
mass refers to a fixed quantity of matter, whereas a control volume is a region in
space through which mass may flow. A special type of closed system that does not
interact with its surroundings is called an Isolated system .

Two types of exchange can occur between the system and its surroundings:

➢ energy exchange (heat or work) and

➢ exchange of matter (movement of molecules across the boundary of the

system and surroundings).

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Types of systems:
Based on the types of exchange, one can define
➢ isolated systems: no exchange of matter and energy
➢ closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy
➢ open systems: exchange of both matter and energy

If the boundary does not allow heat (energy) exchange to take place it is called
adiabatic boundary otherwise it is diathermal boundary.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Types of systems:

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Thermodynamic Approach:

Thermodynamics can be studied through two different approaches:

(a) Macroscopic Approach and

(b) Microscopic Approach

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Macroscopic Approach:
Consider a certain amount of gas in a cylindrical container. The volume (V) can be
measured by measuring the diameter and the height of the cylinder. The pressure (P) of the
gas can be measured by a pressure gauge. The temperature (T) of the gas can be measured
using a thermometer. The state of the gas can be specified by the measured P, V and T .
The values of these variables are space averaged characteristics of the properties of the gas
under consideration. In classical thermodynamics, we often use this macroscopic approach.

The macroscopic approach has the following features.

➢ The structure of the matter is not considered.

➢ A few variables are used to describe the state of the matter under consideration.

➢ The values of these variables are measurable following the available techniques
of experimental physics.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Microscopic Approach:

On the other hand, the gas can be considered as assemblage of a large number of
particles each of which moves randomly with independent velocity. The state of
each particle can be specified in terms of position coordinates ( xi , yi , zi ) and the
momentum components ( pxi , pyi , pzi ). If we consider a gas occupying a volume
of 1 cm3 at ambient temperature and pressure, the number of particles present in it
is of the order of 1020 . The same number of position coordinates and momentum
components are needed to specify the state of the gas. The microscopic approach
can be summarized as:
➢ A knowledge of the molecular structure of matter under consideration is essential.

➢ A large number of variables are needed for a complete specification of the state of
the matter.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
➢ A system is said to be in an equilibrium state if its properties will not change
without some perceivable effect in the surroundings.
➢ Equilibrium generally requires all properties to be uniform throughout the system.
➢ There are mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibrium.
Nature has a preferred way of directing changes.eg:
➢ water flows from a higher to a lower level
➢ Electricity flows from a higher potential to a lower one
➢ Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to the one at a lower
temperature
➢ Momentum transfer occurs from a point of higher pressure to a lower one.
➢ Mass transfer occurs from higher concentration to a lower one
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Types of Equilibrium
Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in

➢ Pressure Mechanical equilibrium

➢ Potential Electrical equilibrium

➢ Concentration of species Species equilibrium

➢ Temperature Thermal equilibrium

No interactions between them occur. They are said to be in equilibrium.

Thermodynamic equilibrium implies all those together. A system in
thermodynamic equilibrium does not deliver anything.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Property: Any characteristic of a system.
Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be either intensive
or extensive.

Intensive properties: Those that are

independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.

Extensive properties: Those whose values

depend on the size—or extent—of the system.

Specific properties: Extensive properties per

Criterion to differentiate intensive
unit mass. and extensive properties.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
The ratio of the extensive property to the mass is called the specific value of that
property .
specific volume, v = V/m = 1/ ρ ( ρ is the density)
specific internal energy, u = U/m
Similarly, the molar properties are defined as the ratios of the properties to the mole
number (N) of the substance
Molar volume =v = V/N
Molar internal energy = u= U/N

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

State:

It is the condition of a
system as defined by the values of
all its properties. It gives a
complete description of the
system. Any operation in which
one or more properties of a system
change is called a change of state.

A system at two different states.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Process: Any change that a system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.

Path: The series of states through

which a system passes during a process.

To describe a process completely, one

should specify the initial and final
states, as well as the path it follows, and
the interactions with the surroundings.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

➢ Process diagrams plotted by

employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.

➢ Some common properties that are

used as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).

➢ The prefix iso- is often used to

designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant. The P-V diagram of a compression
process.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Types of Processes
➢ As a matter of rule we allow one of the properties to remain a constant during
a process.

➢ Construe as many processes as we can (with a different property kept constant

during each of them)

➢ Complete the cycle by regaining the initial state

(1)Isothermal (T) (2) Isobaric (p)

(3) Isochoric (v) (4) Isentropic (s)

(5) Isenthalpic (h) (6) Isosteric (concentration)

(7) Adiabatic (no heat addition or removal

Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

The Steady-Flow Process:

➢The term steady implies no change
with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.

➢A large number of engineering

devices operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, and
During a steady-flow process, fluid
they are classified as steady-flow
properties within the control volume
devices. may change with position but not
with time.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

➢Steady-flow process: A process

during which a fluid flows
through a control volume
steadily.

Under steady-flow conditions, the

mass and energy contents of a
control volume remain constant.
➢Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
➢ The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

➢ By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought into
contact in an isolated
enclosure.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Temperature Scales:
➢ All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the steam point.

➢ Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with
vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).

➢ Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).

➢ Celsius scale: in SI unit system

➢ Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system

➢ Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of

the properties of any substance.

➢ Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Temperature Scales:
➢ A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures on this scale are measured using a
constant-volume gas thermometer.

P versus T plots of the experimental data

obtained from a constant-volume gas
A constant-volume gas thermometer would read thermometer using four different gases at
-273.15°C at absolute zero pressure. different (but low) pressures.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Comparison of magnitudes of
various temperature units. Comparison of temperature scales.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

➢ The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).

➢ The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible

point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
PRESSURE:
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of
pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in
solids is normal stress. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit
of newton per square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa =1 N/m2
The pressure unit Pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore,
its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and mega Pascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are
commonly used. Three other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in
Europe, are bar, standard atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square centimeter:

1 bar= 105 pa=0.1 MPa=100kPa : 1 atm= 101,325 pa=101.325kPa=1.01325bars

1kgf/cm3 =9.807N/cm3 =9.807 ×104N/m2=9.807 × 104Pa=0.9807bar=0.9679atm
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
➢ Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

➢ Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.

➢ Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Variation of Pressure with Depth:

➢ Pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. This can
be shown easily by considering a thin horizontal layer of fluid and doing a
force balance in any horizontal direction. However, this is not the case in the
vertical direction in a gravity field.
➢ Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper
layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an
increase in pressure.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Energy:

➢ Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy

from one form to another.

➢ In practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world

around us, whether by exciting our muscles, by using electricity, or by
using mechanical devices such as automobiles.

➢ Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant),

mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.. In SI, the unit of
energy is Newton-meter, N m or Joule, J.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Forms of Energy

Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound, and motion. There
are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: potential
and kinetic.

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Potential Energy
➢ Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational
energy. There are several forms of potential energy.

➢ ƒChemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is

the energy that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas,
and propane are examples of stored chemical energy.

➢ ƒStored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a

force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored
mechanical energy.
ƒ

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
➢ Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; it is the energy that
holds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are
combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium
atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen
atoms in a process called fusion.

➢ ƒGravitational energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the

top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water
in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Kinetic Energy

➢ Kinetic energy is motion; it is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms,

molecules, substances, and objects.

➢ ƒElectrical energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny

particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the
electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire is called circuit electricity.
Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

➢ ƒRadiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves.

Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves.

Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
➢ Thermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances; it is the
vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances.
The more thermal energy in a substance, the faster the atoms and
molecules vibrate and move. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal
energy.

➢ Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place
to another. Objects and substances move when a force is applied according
to Newton’s Laws of Motion. Wind is an example of motion energy.

➢ ƒSound energy is the movement of energy through substances in

longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a
force causes an object or substance to vibrate; the energy is transferred
through the substance in a longitudinal wave.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Heat: Heat is an energy which appears at boundary when the system changes its
state due to difference in temperature.

Work: Work, appears at boundary when the system changes its state due to
movement of a part under the action of force.
Basic Laws Governing Heat Transfer

1. First Law of Thermodynamics

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics

3. Law of Conservation of Mass

4. Newton’s Law of Motion

5. The rate Equation

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

1. First Law of Thermodynamics: It is based on “ Law of Conservation

of Energy”.

➢ Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.

➢ When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, then the net heat

supplied to the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work

done by the system on its surroundings.

ɠ δQ = ɠ δ W
➢ It is for both reversible and irreversible transformations

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Closed System:

Net heat across the system boundary + Heat generated in the system = Change in

internal energy.

Open System:

Net energy through the volume + Energy generated in the volume = Change in

internal energy in the control volume.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics:
➢ Heat will flow naturally from one to another reservoir which is at lower
temperature.
➢ It states that heat flows in the direction of lower temperature, i.e. hot body to cold
body (Source to Sink).
3. Law of Conservation of Mass:
➢ It is used to determine the flow parameters.
5. Newton’s law of motion:
➢ It is used to determine the fluid flow parameters.
6. Rate Equations:
➢ These equations are used for application purposes depending upon the heat
transfer mode.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature
difference by the mechanism of intermolecular interactions. Conduction needs matter
and does not require any bulk motion of matter. OR
The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.

In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.

In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.

The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.
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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:
It states that” Rate of flow of heat through a homogeneous solid is directly
proportional to the area of the solid at right angles to the direction of heat flow
and to change the temperature with respect to the length of the heat flow.
QA(T 2  T 1) / dx
dT dT
Q = - KA -
dx R cond
Where,
Q = Rate of Heat Transfer
A = Surface Area of wall
dT  Temp Gradiant (Final Temp - Initial Temp)
dx  Thickness of the wall
K  Thermal conductivity of the material
R cond  Conductive Resistance

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Assumptions of Fourier’s Law;

➢ Heat flow is unidirectional

➢ Conduction of heat under steady state condition.

➢ No internal heat generation

➢ Material is homogeneous and isotropic (K is constant at all directions)

Thermal Conductivity(k):

It is defined as the amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area and
unit thickness in unit time, when the difference in temperature is unity. i.e

Q.dx
k=
A.dT
UNITSOF " K": The units of " k" are W/mK or W/m°C.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Thermal conductivity depends on, or the factors affecting thermal conductivity
are:

1. Material Structure

2. Moisture

3. Density

4. Pressure and temperature

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material
to conduct heat.

A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit
mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per
unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast
heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal conductivity

or a low heat capacity will obviously have a large
thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that
heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a
small amount of heat is conducted further.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature
difference by the combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk
transport. Convection needs fluid matter. OR

The mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or
gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.

The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Forced convection: If the fluid is
forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If the
fluid motion is caused by buoyancy
forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
The cooling of a boiled egg by
forced and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the
process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the
liquid droplets during condensation.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING: It states that; The rate of heat Transfer is directly
proportional to the Temperature Gradient and the convective resistance of the fluid
medium.
QA(T  Ts )
Q = h A dT
Q  dT/(1/hA) = dT/R conv
Here:
Q = Rate of Heat Transfer
A = Surface Area of conducting surface
dT = Temperature Gradiant.
h = convection Heat Transfer co - efficient.
R conv  convective Resistance

𝑊 𝑊
UNITS OF" ℎ”: The units of “ℎ” are 𝑚2 𝐾 or 𝑚2 °𝐶
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property of
the fluid.
It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends
on all the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation
does not need matter.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the
form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases
emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for
solids.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: This law states that the emissive power of a black body
is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. i.e.
Q  AF1 2 (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
Q  AF1 2 (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
(Ts4  Tsur
4
) (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
Q  
1 AF1 2 Rrad
Here
𝐹1−2 = view factor or shape factor or configuration factor.
𝜎 = Stephen Boltzmann constant.
𝑊
𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8
𝑚2 𝐾 4

𝜀 = Surface emissivity
𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Radiative Resistance.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Emissivity  : A measure of how closely a

surface approximates a blackbody for which
 = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a specified temperature.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Net radiation heat transfer: The When a surface is completely enclosed by a much
difference between the rates of larger (or black) surface at temperature Tsurr
radiation emitted by the surface and separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
the radiation absorbed. intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation
The determination of the net rate of heat transfer between these
heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces is given by
two surfaces is a complicated matter
since it depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to each
other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation

Radiation is usually significant

relative to conduction or natural
convection, but negligible relative
to forced convection. Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the
surfaces surrounding it.
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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by
conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or radiation on
its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a still
fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and radiation in a
flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is either
by conduction or convection, depending on the presence of any
bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.

Most gases between two solid surfaces do not Although there are three mechanisms of
interfere with radiation. heat transfer, a medium may involve
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation. only two of them simultaneously.

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
STEADY STATE SYSTEM:
If the properties of system are not changing w.r.t time then the system is said to be
in steady state.

Q in  Q ou  0
t

Q in  Q out

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
UNSTEADY STATE SYSTEM:

If the properties of the system are changing w.r.t time, then the system is said to
be in unsteady state.

Qin  Q out  0

Qin  Q out

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
COOLING PROCESS:
If “𝑄𝑖𝑛 ”is less than “𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ” Then there will be a cooling process. i.e.

𝑄𝑖𝑛 < 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

HEATING PROCESS:

IF “𝑄𝑖𝑛 ”is greater than “𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ” then there will be a heating process. i.e.

𝑄𝑖𝑛 > 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS WITH INTERNAL GENRATION

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  0  ( S . S )

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  ( S . S )

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  0  (U . S . S )

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  (U . S . S )

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  ( cooling )

Qin  Qgen.  Qout  ( heating )

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
→ Heat flows in all direction like light; we have,

′
𝑄
𝑞 = = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
𝐿
𝑄
𝑞′′ = = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝐴
𝑄
𝑞′′′ = = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
𝑉

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
Example 1.1:

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Example 1.2:

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Example 1.3:

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Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Example 1.4:

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 Introduction & Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Exercise Problems:

85