Introduction, Definition and

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION AND Concept of Psychology

CONCEPT OF PSYCHOLOGY

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Psychology: its origin and evolution
1.3 Definition of Psychology
1.3.1 Early Definitions
1.3.2 Current Definitions
1.3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour
1.4 Psychology as a Science
1.4.1 Characteristics of Science
1.4.2 Psychology: What is and what it is not?
1.4.3 Pseudo Sciences/Pseudo-Psychologies
1.4.4 Principles of Critical Thinking
1.4.5 The Tasks of Psychology
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Suggested Readings
References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. That is why, every
one is interested to know about psychology. But, there are many misconceptions
about psychology. Many people think that psychology deals with treating mad
people. Some others feel that psychologists can read your mind just by looking
at you or your face/forehead. They tend to equate psychologists with astrologers,
gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your
problems of life and predict your future.

You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’, ‘mental’ etc., but
do you know what is the meaning of psychology and how did it evolve? Is
psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? What is science and what are its characteristics?
What is the subject matter of psychology? In this unit you will find answer to
these and many more such questions.

By studying psychology, you will be able to understand what psychology is and

what it is not. This unit introduces the subject of psychology.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the origin and evolution of psychology.
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Introduction to Psychology,  Define psychology.
Objectives, Goals
 Explain Psychology as a Science.
 Elucidate the characteristics of Science.
 Describe the nature and characteristics of behaviour.
 Explain ‘Pseudo-Psychology’.
 Identify the tasks of Psychology.

1.2 PSYCHOLOGY: ITS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived
from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means
“knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). The word
‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the nineteenth century, and the field
of psychology did not actually become an independent science until the middle
of the nineteenth century.

Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a

German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at
the university of Leipzig, Germany. According to Bolles (1993), Wundt was a
medical doctor by training and early in his career, he was fortunate to work with
some of the great physiologists of the nineteenth century. Fittingly, his laboratory
was established during the time he spent as a professor of philosophy. (Remember,
the intellectual roots of psychology lie at the union of philosophy and physiology).
Wundt is traditionally recognised as the founder, or father of the modern
psychology, and 1879 is seen as the year that psychology finally emerged as a
unique field. Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because
there were no official psychologists or psychology departments. Wundt started
studying the structure of mind which meant the immediate (conscious) experience,
the contents and processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts,
feelings and emotions.

Thus, formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879.

Let us now look at how psychology has been defined.

1.3 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors.
Psychologists had been debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”,
“consciousness” or “behaviour”. Let us look at how the definitions of psychology
have come a long way over the past 130 years.

1.3.1 Early Definitions

According to Bagga & Singh (1990), the term Psychology was first used by
Rudolf Goeckle, in 1950. They have chronologically given the definitions of
psychology.

Earlier, psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested

in the study of the soul. Thus, it was first defined in terms of ‘the science of
soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings,
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it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in the middle ages. Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume of
soul.

Dandapani (2004) states that “people were rather naïve to believe in esoteric
terms such as Soul, Mind and Consciousness. It was believed, and rightly so,
that every human being is endowed with a Soul that would remain sublime at all
times. To a philosopher soul is the firm foundation upon which ethical values
are erected. Realisation of one’s soul was considered the chief mission of
life……….. Definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable
primarily because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul
was furnished. It was discarded because of its METAPHYSICAL nature. It was
found inadequate to satisfy the canons of science;…….”.

Thus, this definition was not accepted by psychologists.

Next, psychology was defined in terms of ‘the science of mind’, by some ancient
Greek philosophers. According to them, psychology was held as a branch of
mental philosophy. Since this definition does not include overt behaviour of
human beings and mind cannot be measured directly, this definition was also
dropped by psychologists.

Then, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousness’. According to

Bagga & Singh (1990), at one time during the history of Psychology, it was felt
that the main business of Psychology was to the conscious experience.
Consciousness makes us conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around
us. This definition too is now obsolete and it has been rejected due to the following
reasons:

Consciousness cannot be studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective.

Second objection came from the fast developing branch of the abnormal
psychology which brought the study of unconscious part of our mind within the
province of Psychology.

The term consciousness does not include animal or human behaviour.

The term consciousness also was supposed to have a philosophical-tinge and
not accepted by the modern scientific minded psychologists.

Finally, modern Psychology has been defined as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the

early decades of twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of
‘Behaviourism’, defined psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to
Morgan et al. (1986), Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and
insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable
(or potentially observable) activities of people and animals. Watson held that
there are no essential differences between human and animal behaviour and that
we can learn much about our own behaviour from the study of what animals do.
Watson emphasised that nothing is innate and everything can be learned.
In this context, Woodworth (1948) had earlier stated that, first psychology lost
its soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort.
As we will see below, the term ‘behaviour’ is still there in almost all the modern
definitions.
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Introduction to Psychology, 1.3.2 Current Definitions
Objectives, Goals
Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson (1975) have compiled the changing definitions
of psychology starting from that of William James (1890) to that of Kenneth
Clark and George Miller (1970). Bagga & Singh (1990) have also cited the
following two definitions of Woodworth and Munn, respectively:
“Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation
to his environment”.
“Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour,
including from the stand-point of behaviour, much of what earlier psychologists
dealt with as experience”.
Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are
as follows:
 Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the
application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are
affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external
environment (Tavris and Wade, 1997)
 Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about
the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
 The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
 The science of behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
 Scientific study of behaviour and mind. (Nairne, 2003)
 A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the
internal processes leading people (and members of other species ) to behave
as they do. (Eysenck, 2004)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Ciccarelli &
Meyer,2006; Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
 The science that studies behaviour and mental processes.( Rathus,2008)
As is evident in the above definitions, study of behaviour (human and animal)
has been emphasised in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included
‘cognitive/mental processes’ in their definitions of psychology. But, what is
behaviour? We will now look at the nature and characteristics of behaviour.

1.3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour

Behaviour is a broad term and a complex phenomenon. In this section, we will
discuss the nature and characteristics of behaviour. According to psychologists,
behaviour is every thing or any thing that a human being or animal does that can
be observed in some way. In other words, behaviour includes all actions and
responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly. Behaviour
not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive
processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal
vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through
what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different problems and
8 situations.
We will now consider some of the general characteristics of human behaviour, Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
as described by Parameswaran & Beena (1988, 2002). These are:

 Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors

Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors such as biological, cultural, social,
environmental, past experience, motivational, emotional, cognitive (e.g. feelings,
emotions, motivation, thoughts) etc.

 Behaviour varies in complexity

Behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen, waving a friend or reflex responses
like sneezing etc. Some other behaviours include certain skills which become a
habit over a period such as playing guitar, cycling etc. Yet some other behaviours
involve complex activities like repairing a car. Activities such as landing on the
moon, flying a fighter plane, rock climbing etc. are some of the examples of
highly complex behaviour.
 The factors influencing behaviour are of different kinds
Behaviour is influenced by two large sets of factors:
i) Those belonging to the individual; and
ii) Those belonging to the environment.
Factors pertaining to an individual can be categorized under physiological
(biological needs such as hunger, thirst etc.) and psychological ( ideas, opinions,
attitudes etc.).

The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends,

the larger society and even the overall cultural and social background.

 Individual differences
Behaviour also varies from one person to the other as well as from one group of
people to the other group of people. People differ in their physiological and
bodily conditions, in their past experiences, in their abilities, in their background
etc. It is therefore, natural that if ten people are put in same situation, each person’s
behaviour differs from that of others, in some respects or in some degrees.

 Behaviour also shows similarities

Though behaviour differs from person to person but this does not mean that all
people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is also a
considerable degree of similarity in behaviour among people. For instance, if a
particle of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove it. This type of
behaviour is universally found.

 Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive

Human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always directed
towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and studying suddenly gets up and
takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water and the purpose
is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying and feels
cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here the goal is to switch off the fan
and the purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. So, all our behaviours can be
categorized under:
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Introduction to Psychology, i) Approach behaviour (Positive goal directed) or
Objectives, Goals
ii) Avoidance behaviour (Negative goal avoidance)
 Behaviour is changeable to a large extent
It was mentioned earlier that a number of factors influence behaviour. In view of
this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these factors. It is this
changeability which enables a child to become adult, a bad man to become a
good man and a good man to become a bad man. It is again this very characteristics
which helps people to adjust to new surroundings. These changes are the results
of one’s practice or experiences (learning).

 Behaviour also shows stability

Though emphasis has been laid on the possible changes in behaviour, it must be
mentioned that life is not always full of all sorts of changes. While behaviour
changes, at the same time there is also a certain stability in behaviour. It does not
change with every change in the environment nor do all forms of behaviour
change. Human behaviour shows a lot of stability. For instance, you may still
find your grandmother preferring old ideas and old ways of life, though she is
living in an ultra modern society.

 Behaviour is integrated
As already mentioned, behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and a
variety of purposes. Every human being has physiological, psychological, personal
and social purposes.

He/she has also been the subject of different learning experiences. In spite of all
this, behaviour always shows an order and a hierarchy of purposes. Every
individual behaves as a total person and this process of the organisation of different
purposes, different learnings and different influencing factors results in an
integration of behaviour.

Thus, an individual put in different situations, still shows certain characteristic

ways and styles of behaviour which help us to understand and predict his/her
behaviour. We often say, Ram is a pleasant person. Gobind is an unpleasant person,
Krishna is a sociable person and so on. Psychologists use the term Personality to
describe this process of integration. The greater the degree of integration in a
person’s behaviour, the more effective his behaviour is likely to be.

It can therefore be appreciated that behaviour is a complex phenomenon and

studying behaviour is not an easy task.

1.4 PSYCHOLOGY, AS A SCIENCE

Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like
physics, chemistry, biology and zoology or some thing different? In this section
we will look at some of the definitions of science. We will also discuss the
nature and characteristics of science and understand psychology, as a science.
Let us look at the following definitions of science:
 Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully
observing and measuring events (Morgan et al.,1986).
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 Science is approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
(Lahey,1998)
The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and
phenomena of the material world. By using a combination of accurate observation
and experimentation, logic and intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules
that govern all levels of the natural universe. We will now describe the
characteristics of science.

1.4.1 Characteristics of Science

The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by
classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict
new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same
way that the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a
number of features with them. In common with other sciences, psychology, as a
science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al. (1986).

 Empirical observation
Psychology, as a science, is first of all, and above all, empirical. That is to say, it
rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief.

 Systematic approach and theory

Data from observations and experiments are essential to science, but for them
“to make some sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered
in some way. The scientist tries to find a limited number of principles which will
summarize the data economically. Scientific theories are important tools for the
organisation of data.

 Measurement
Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined as
assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is
ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most
precise measurements.

 Definition of terms
Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure
in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour
(operational definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in
terms of measurable and observable operations. For example, the concepts of
length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence, motivation, personality
in psychology are defined in terms of observable operations, which can be
performed to measure them. However, psychology cannot measure many
behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty etc. as these cannot be defined
operationally.

The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology.

However, psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In
physics or chemistry, researchers investigate processes and events which remain
stable and constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and
predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human
behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears to be 11
Introduction to Psychology, much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical substances.
Objectives, Goals
Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man
himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation,
interviews, psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical
analysis.

Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry,

the ‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology,
economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc.(Rush, 1972).
The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects
like physics, chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include
such subjects as biology, botany, zoology etc.

The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the skill or

knack for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience.
Since principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in
a number of situations (families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as
treating behaviour disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.

1.4.2 Psychology: What it is and what it is not

Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and
challenging. Most of all, psychology is changing. Psychology is about each of
us. It asks us to take a reflective attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside
of ourselves to look objectively at how we live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists
believe the answer is through careful thought, observation, and inquiry. (Coon &
Mitterer, (2008).

According to Parameswaran & Beena (2002), some people regard psychology as

a part of philosophy. Others equate it with magic. Some view it as madness. Still
others are of the opinion that psychologists are either mystics or mysterious
people, their interest in psychology mainly arises from uninformed curiosity.
They are of the view that if they studied psychology, they would learn about
miracles, mysteries, madness and that it would be an exotic experience. Many of
them feel that the main use of psychology is in treating mentally ill individuals.
While certainly this is an important area of application, it is not the only area.
Today, psychology finds useful applications in an individual’s life almost from
the womb to the tomb.

Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence,
personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the
concepts of psychology are familiar to you, but many of them are new. The
topics included in psychology are: the nervous system, sensation and perception,
learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth and
development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders,
ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people
in social settings such as groups and organisations.

The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are to describe, explain, predict
and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies. Psychology, thus,
attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of
behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various
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problems facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
world. However, there are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology
without any type of training in psychology. They are somewhat like quacks or
‘jhola chhap’ doctors. They may be called ‘pseudo-psychologists’. In order to
further clarify, let us describe some of the pseudo-psychologies.

1.4.3 Pseudo-Sciences/Pseudo-Psychology
A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to
solve your problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists.
But these disciplines are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudo-
sciences”.

A Pseudopsychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles

psychology. Many pseudopsychologies give the appearance of science but are
actually false. (Pseudo means “false”). Pseudopsychologies change little over
time because their followers avoid evidence that contradicts their beliefs.
Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictionsas a way to advance
knowledge. They are skeptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn,
2001).

Descriptions of some of the pseudo-psychologies are given below:

1) Palmistry: False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict
the future by “reading” lines on the palms of the hands. It is also called
‘chiromancy’. ‘Chiromancy’ comes from the Greek word for hand (Cheir).
The most famous 19th century palmist, went by the name of Cheiro.
Palmistry is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and patterns
on the hands, particularly, the palms.
2) Phrenology: False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality
traits are revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology was started in the
19th century by a German anatomy teacher, Franz Gall. His theory -
‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.
 Phrenologists assumed that parts of the brain governed different
personality characteristics.
 Like muscles, parts of the brain that were used more often, tended to get
bigger. In turn, these enlarged areas pushed on the skull causing bumps.
 With advances in Neurology, this was shown to be impossible, and
phrenology declined.
 Although some brain areas do have specific functions, they are not
directly related to specific personality traits.
3) Graphology: False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal
personality traits.
 Indicates that personality is revealed by a person’s handwriting.
 Some companies in USA use handwriting analysis to evaluate job
applicants.
 Definitely, valuable in detecting forgeries.
 Careful test of accuracy in psychological studies have shown that
graphologists score close to zero in rating personality. 13
Introduction to Psychology, 4) Numerology: False system based on the belief that personality traits are
Objectives, Goals
revealed by certain numbers, usually birthdays ( date, month and year ).They
are the database from which a numerologist is able to describe you, sight
unseen. Number values are assigned to the letters in your name. By adding
these, with the numbers in your birth date, in a multitude of combinations,
a numerologist establishes your key numbers. He then interprets the meaning
of these key numbers, which results in a complete description of your
personal characteristics.
5) Astrology: False system based on the belief that human behaviour is
influenced by the position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption
that the position of the planets and stars at the time of a person’s birth
determines personality characteristics and affects behaviour.
In its modern guise, astrology is based on the assertion that the apparent positions
of certain objects in the solar system at the time an individual is born, are somehow
correlated with his or her personality, activities, preferences and even major life
events such as marriages, divorces, accidents etc.

Pseudo-psychologies are not supported by scientific evidence. Belief in pseudo-

psychologies is based on the following thinking errors:
i) Uncritical acceptance: The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering
descriptions of oneself.
ii) Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information
that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting discrepancies.
iii) Barnum effect: The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if
it is stated in general terms. (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).
Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Contrary to pseudo-
sciences scientific psychology is based on objectivity, empirical evidence and
critical thinking.

Self Assessment Questions

1) The term psychology is derived from two Greek words: .......................
and ..........................................................................................................

2) Psychology was first defined in terms of:

a) Soul b) Mind c) Consciousness d) Behaviour

3) Psychology is defined as the science of ...............................................

and ..........................................................................................................

4) Following does not come under Pseudo Psychology:

a) Astrology b) Graphology c) Astronomy d) Palmistry

1.4.4 Principles of Critical Thinking

According to Rathus (2008), psychologists are guided by scientific principles,
and one hallmark of science is critical thinking. A group of psychologists
(McGovern 1989) defined the goals of critical thinking as fostering the following
thinking skills:
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 Development of skepticism about explanations and conclusions. Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
 The ability to inquire about causes and events.
i) Increased curiosity about behaviour
ii) Knowledge about research methods.
iii) The ability to analyse arguments critically.
According to Beyer (1995), critical thinking means reasoned judgments (logical
and well thought out judgments).

Let us now consider some principles of critical thinking, as pointed out by Rathus
(2008). These are as follows:
1) Be skeptical: Keep an open mind. Politicians and advertisers try to persuade
you. Accept nothing as the truth until you have examined the evidence.
2) Examine definition of term: Some statements are true when a term is
defined in one way but not when the term is defined in another way. So try
to follow the real meaning of a term.
3) Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments: Consider the
statement that one can not learn about human beings by engaging in research
with animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings
are not animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings
are not animals. We are, of course, social animals.
4) Be cautious from drawing conclusion from evidence: Suppose you see a
driver drinking, before he/she met with an accident. You are too quick to
draw a conclusion that ‘drinking was the cause of accident’. However, there
may be other causes such as bad road , mechanical failure or fault of the
other driver. One or more of which might have been the cause of the accident.
5) Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence: You read a
statement based on a research that, frustration leads to aggression. However,
all frustrated people are not necessarily aggressive. Similarly, aggressive
behaviour is not due to frustration alone. Though research evidence is
accepted without question, researchers may differ in their interpretation of
the same. So, you must think of other alternative interpretations of results
rather than blindly accepting the explanation given by a researcher.
6) Do not over simplify: Most human behaviour involves complex interaction
of genetic and environmental influences. Also consider the issue of whether
psychopathy helps people with psychological problems. A broad answer to
this question? simple yes or no ? might be over simplifying. It is more
worthwhile to ask, What type of psychopathy, practiced by whom, is most
helpful, for what kind of problem?
7) Do not over generalise: Consider the statement that one can not learn about
human beings by engaging in research with non human animals. Is the truth
of the matter an all-or-nothing issue.
8) Apply critical thinking to all areas of life: A skeptical attitude and a demand
for evidence are not only useful in college but are of value in all areas of
life. Be skeptical when you are bombarded by TV commercials, or when
political causes try to sweep you up or when you see the latest cover stories
about unidentified flying objects etc.
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Introduction to Psychology, These are the kinds of principles that guide psychologists’ thinking as they observe
Objectives, Goals
behaviour, engage in research, or advise clients, as to how to improve the quality
of their lives. Now let us look at the nature of tasks psychologists are engaged in.

1.4.5 The Tasks of Psychology

Parameswaran & Beena (2002) have suggested the tasks of psychology, which
are described as follows:
1) Firstly, a science of behaviour should observe, investigate and identify factors
which influence behaviour and also assess their relative influences.
2) It must investigate the role of each of these factors, separately and together
in producing similarities and differences in behaviour.
3) Based on these investigations, psychology should arrive at generalisations
in the form of theories, laws and principles explaining the similarities and
also the differences in behaviour
4) It should also explain the complimentary functions of the factors and the
processes, in generating similarities as well as differences among people.
5) Since behaviour is purposive, psychology must investigate the nature, kinds
and number of purposes, their origin and development, and the relationship
among them.
6) Since behaviour changes, it is the responsibility of psychology to study and
explain the nature of such changes, kinds, the processes which govern them
and the interaction among different kinds of changes.
7) While changes in behaviour are to be understood, stability and consistency
in behaviour also need to be explained.
8) The master concern of psychology is to explain how change and stability,
similarities and differences, are organised and integrated to produce both
generality and uniqueness in behaviour.

Psychologists are engaged in the above tasks, and they are thus, quite different
from pseudo-psychologists.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Topics included in Psychology are:
a) Learning b) Memory c) Thinking d) All of them
2) Physics is to Physical Sciences as Psychology is to ............................
Sciences
3) The goals of Psychology are to ......................................, ....................,
........................................ and ................................................ behaviour
4) The first laboratory in Psychology was established in the year .............
5) The first laboratory in Psychology was established by ..........................
..............................................................
6) Psychology is the study of Human and ...........................................
behaviour.
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 Introduction, Definition and
1.5 LET US SUM UP Concept of Psychology

We have discussed the origin and evolution of psychology as an independent

academic discipline. We have also defined psychology and discussed the nature
and characteristics of science and behaviour.

Further, we have also discussed the meaning and concept of psychology, and the
principles of critical thinking that guide psychologists. Finally, some of the
pseudo-psychologies have been described and the tasks of psychologists have
been highlighted.

This introduction to the meaning and concept of psychology is useful to students

or anybody who wants to learn psychology, in clarifying some of the
misconceptions of psychology, understand and appreciate psychology, as a
scientific discipline, and make them informed consumers of psychological
researches.

1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the origin and evolution of psychology.
2) What are the differences between psychology and pseudo- psychology ?
3) List the topics covered by psychology.
4) Enumerate the characteristics of behaviour.
5) Try and think of some examples of pseudo- psychologies that you have
believed or that you have seen others following one or more pseudo-
psychologies. What is your experience?
6) Describe the characteristics of science. Describe psychology as a science.
7) Illustrate the tasks of psychologists.
8) Explain the principles of critical thinking.
9) Define psychology.

1.7 GLOSSARY
Behaviour : Observable actions and responses of human beings
and animals. Behaviour also includes not so directly
observable activities, such as, inner mental
(cognitive) processes (e.g. feelings and thoughts)?
as long as they can be observed and measured in a
systematic way.

Behaviourism : Emphasises that psychology should focus on

behaviour rather than on mind.

Critical thinking : Critical thinking means reasoned judgments (logical

and well thought out judgments).

Pseudo-psychology : Any unfounded system that superficially resembles

psychology.
17
Introduction to Psychology, Psychology : The science of human behaviour and cognitive
Objectives, Goals
(mental) processes.

Science : Science is a systematised body of knowledge gathered

through carefully observing and measuring events.
Answers to SAQs.
1) Psyche and Logus; 2- a; 3- Behaviour and Cognitive / Mental processes;
4- c; 5- d; 6- Social / Behavioural ; 7- Understand, Describe, Predict and
Control; 8- 1879; 9- Wundt; 10-Animal

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

References
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..
Bagga, Q. L. & Singh, A. (1990). Elemrnts of General Psychology. New Delhi:
Arya Book Depot.
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn & Bacon.
Beyer,B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation.
Bolles,R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson
Education, Inc.
Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind
and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition). Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Dandapani, S. (2004). General Psychology. Hyderabad (India): Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd..
Das,J.P.(19980. The Working Mind: An Introduction to Psychology, New Delhi,
Sage Publication
Eysenck, M.W.(2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. Psychology
Press.

18
Feldman, R.S.(2004). Understanding Psychology (6thedition), New Delhi (India): Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
Tata McGraw Hill.
Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to
Psychology (6th edition). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.Y.:Holt.
Lahey, Benjamin B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Nairne, J.S. (2003). Psycho logy: The Adaptive Mind (3 rd edit ion).
USA:Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (1988). Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada:
Wadsworth.
Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A
perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in
organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking
for a new age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in Perspective (2nd Ed). New York:
Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Woodworth, R. S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York:
Ronald.

19
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals UNIT 2 BRANCHES AND FIELDS OF
PSYCHOLOGY

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Psychology: Its Relation to other Sciences
2.3 Branches and Fields of Psychology
2.3.1 Early Divisions
2.3.2 Basic Fields
2.3.3 Applied Fields
2.3.4 Both Basic and Applied Fields
2.4 Psychologists: what do they do?
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Questions
2.7 Suggested Readings
References

2.0 INTRODUCTION
We have come to know from unit 1 that psychology is the scientific study of
behaviour and cognitive (mental) processes. We now, also know about the nature
and characteristics of behaviour. However, behaviour is studied by other academic
disciplines too. So, which aspects of behaviour are the concerns of psychology?
Also, what is the relation of psychology with other academic disciplines?

You might have heard people using the terms ‘psychiatrist’, ‘psychologist’,
‘counselor’, etc. But, many of them perhaps, do not know the difference between
them. Many of them also do not know, as to where do psychologists work. They
think, psychologists mainly work in mental hospitals to treat abnormal/insane
people, or may be teaching psychology at schools and colleges/universities. While
certainly, these are the places where psychologists work, there are many other
areas where knowledge of psychology is applied.

In this unit, you will find answer to the above questions. You will also come to
know about the various branches of psychology and the wide range of fields
where psychologists apply the principles of psychology, to solve a variety of
human problems and/or improve the quality of life.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the relation of Psychology to other academic disciplines;
 Describe the basic branches of Psychology;
 Explain various applied fields of Psychology;
20  Identify the basic and the applied fields of Psychology;
 Distinguish between a Psychologist and a Psychiatrist; and Branches and Fields of
Psychology
 Identify the places where psychologists work.

2.2 PSYCHOLOGY: ITS RELATION TO OTHER

SCIENCES
You have already learnt from unit 1 that psychology as a behavioural science
shares common characteristics with other physical and biological sciences. All
sciences have practical application to deal with human problems and improve
their quality of life. Engineering and technology have developed from the results
of physics, chemistry and mathematics and have made life easier and comfortable.
Similarly, medical sciences have contributed significantly to not only fight and
control/eradicate many deadly diseases, but also cure/prevent many diseases.
Psychologists have also developed a number of techniques to help people lead a
fuller and happier life by promoting/enhancing their psychological health.
Psychologists also cure and help in prevention of various psychological and
emotional problems (behaviour disorders).

Sometimes, the world’s problems such as climatic change, pollution, aftermath

of natural disaster, man made disasters etc. are so widespread and serious that no
one or two sciences can solve such problems. A group of scientists from different
fields have to, therefore, come together and jointly handle such problems. This
is known as ‘transactionalism’ (Rush,1972).

Due to the interaction of the results of different disciplines, new fields of

knowledge have emerged. Examples of such disciplines are; biophysics,
biochemistry, geophysics etc. Over the years, developments in one particular
science, or sometimes more than one discipline, have influenced the developments
in other sciences. Thus, no particular field of science can not be completely
isolated from other fields of science, and different fields of scientific knowledge
are quite closely related.

It is clear that though psychology has emerged as an independent field of scientific

enquiry, nevertheless it has very close relationship with other sciences. In fact,
the very emergence of psychology as a science, was possible because of
developments in other sciences like genetics, physiology, neurology, medicine,
physics, chemistry. sociology; anthropology, cybernetics and other sciences. Its
methods of enquiry and analysis as well as application have all been influenced
by developments in other subjects.

Of course, development in psychology have in turn, influenced the growth and

development of other disciplines like sociology, anthropology, economics,
political science, management etc. It is obvious that even though we can think of
different fields of scientific knowledge, the fact is that these fields depend for
their expansion on the findings of other disciplines. Perhaps, this will become
clearer if we can examine in some detail the relationship of psychology with
certain other sciences. For this purpose, we may group the other sciences in to
the following categories: biological sciences, physical sciences, medical sciences
and social sciences (Parameswaran and Beena, 2002)

21
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals 2.3 BRANCHES AND FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
All sciences have broadly, two branches . One, the basic or academic branch and
the other, applied. The basic or academic branch is the result of an academic
curiosity or a question e.g. Newton asked “Why does the apple fall on the ground?”
which gave rise to the theory of ‘gravity’. On the other hand, applied branch
deals with solving problem by applying inputs from the basic/academic branch.
However, this distinction is not rigid and beyond a point, both the branch converge.
e.g. many theories of basic branch are applied, or have potential to be applied, to
solve problems. Similarly, many applied branches have come up with new or
supplementary theories, that have been included in the basic branch.

According to Parameswaran and Beena (1988), psychology may be broadly

classified into general psychology and differential psychology. The former is
concerned with the investigation of generalities and similarities in behaviour,
especially among the normal adults while the later has been primarily concerned
with the observation, measurement and explanation of individual differences.
Gradually, these two broad divisions developed into further branches or divisions
of general psychology and applied psychology.

2.3.1 Early Divisions

Psychology too, like other sciences, started with basic branches, which were
classified as: experimental and non-experimental. The experimental branches
started with physiological, learning, and perception. Many psychologists attempt
to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour and their work may not be
directly applied to solve practical problems. They are primarily engaged in basic
research, and study such fundamental processes as learning, memory, thinking,
sensation and perception, motivation, and emotion, by using experimental method.
Thus, the experimental psychologist investigates how behaviour is modified and
how people retain these modifications, the processing of information thinking,
how human sensory systems work to allow people to experience what is going
on around them, and the factors that urge them on and give direction to behaviour.

The non-experimental branch included personality, social, and developmental.

However, many of these academic branches are having further sub branches,
i.e.; developmental psychology has sub-branches like child psychology,
adolescence psychology, and gerontology. Similarly, social psychology has an
‘applied social psychology’ branch and it has given rise to an applied field called
‘organisational psychology’. Applied fields have also led to many theories, e.g.;
application of theories of motivation to organisations has resulted in many work
motivation theories. Thus, today, there are many branches of psychology, which
are categorized under both basic and applied branches.

Many authors use the terms ‘branch’ and ‘field’ interchangeably. Area or branch
seem to be broader terms which include both basic and applied aspects, whereas,
field implies specific area, where expertise or specialised knowledge is required
to solve problems. However, some authors use the term ‘field’ in a broad manner,
e.g. ‘the field of psychology’ has many sub fields. Others use the term ‘division’
and ‘sub-divisions’ of psychology. Clear cut distinction is not obvious. Therefore,
these terms are used interchangeably.

22
Now, let us look at some of the psychology’s major branches/fields, as described Branches and Fields of
Psychology
by various authors (Baron, 1999; Coon, & Mitterer, 2008; Morgan et al., 1986;
and Parameswaran & Beena, 2002).

2.3.2 Basic Fields

The basic fields in psychology are primarily concerned with identifying the causes
of behaviour. Psychologists who work in these fields try to understand and
describe the determinants of behaviour. The following are the basic fields:

Biopsychology: Studies the biological bases of behaviour. The intimate

relationship between psychology and the biological sciences is quite obvious.
All behaviour occurs through bodily processes. The brain plays a very important
role in coordinating and organising the functions of the different organs of the
body. In fact, it is the seat of all forms of complex behaviour. It is impossible to
understand and explain behaviour without an understanding of the structure and
functioning of the brain. Along with the brain, the entire nervous system plays a
crucial role in behaviour. Hence, there is an intimate relationship between
psychology and neurology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry and other branches
of knowledge which are directly involved with the study of the nervous system,
particularly the brain. Genetics, the branch of the biology which deals with the
nature of inheritance of different qualities is also an important discipline from
the point of view of psychology. Over the years, geneticists have carried out
important researches, bringing out the role of heredity in determining behaviour.
This has been particularly so in the case of abnormal behaviour like neurosis,
mental retardation, psychosis etc. Studies on the role of heredity have also
indicated the importance of the genes in determining the intelligence level.

In recent years, the role of chemical factors especially the hormones, secreted by
endocrine glands have been shown to play an important role in behaviour.
Emotional behaviour, temperament etc. are to a considerable extent, influenced
by the hormones of the endocrine glands.

Cognitive Psychology: Studies human information processing abilities.

Psychologists in this field study all aspects of cognition such as memory, thinking,
problem solving, decision making, language, reasoning and so on.

Comparative Psychology: Studies and compares the behaviour of different

species, especially animals. That is why some authors used to call this field as
animal psychology. By studying animal behaviour, these psychologists gather
important information which can be compared with and applied to human
behaviour. For example, investigating how does the queen bee direct, control,
and gets things done by the worker bees, may provide meaningful information
about leadership.

Cultural Psychology: Studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and ethnic
group membership affect behaviour. These psychologists do cross cultural
research and compare behaviour of people in different nations.

Experimental Psychology: Investigates all aspects of psychological processes

like perception, learning, and motivation. The major research method used by
these psychologists include controlled experiments. But, as Morgan et al. (1986)
put it, experimental method is also used by psychologists other than experimental
23
Introduction to Psychology, psychologists. For instance, social psychologists may do experiments to determine
Objectives, Goals
the effects of various group pressures and influences on a person’s behaviour.
So, in spite of its name, it is not the method that distinguishes experimental
psychology from other sub-fields. Instead, experimental psychology is
distinguished by what it studies—the fundamental processes of learning, and
memory, thinking, sensation and perception, motivation, emotion, and the
physiological or biological bases of behaviour.

Gender Psychology: Does research on differences between males and females,

the acquisition of gender identity, and the role of gender throughout life.

Learning Psychology: Studies how and why learning occurs. These psychologists
develop theories of learning and apply the laws and principles of learning to
solve a variety of human problems.

Personality Psychology: Studies personality traits and dynamics. These

psychologists develop theories of personality and tests for assessing personality
traits. They also identify the causes of problems related to personality
development.

Physiological Psychology: Physiological psychologists investigate the role of

biochemical changes within our nervous systems and bodies in everything we
do, sense, feel, or think. Mostly, they use experimental method and do basic
research on the brain, nervous system, and other physical origins of behaviour.
Physiological Psychology is not only a part of psychology, but also is considered
to be part of the broader field called neurobiology which studies the nervous
system and its functions.

As we know, Physiological Psychology is categorised under ‘experimental’

psychology. That is why some authors called this branch as ‘experimental and
Physiological Psychology’. On the other hand, some authors have categorized
‘experimental Psychology’ as a separate branch of psychology.

Sensation and Perception Psychology: Studies the sense organs and the process
of perception. Psychologists working in this field, investigate the mechanisms
of sensation and develop theories about how perception or misperception (illusion)
occurs. They also study how do we perceive depth, movement, and individual
differences in perception. Researches in this field has given rise to many laws
and principles that help us understanding the ways we adjust to the visual world
in a meaningful way.

2.3.3 Applied Fields

Social Psychology: Investigates human social behaviour, including attitudes,
conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, helping and so forth.
Emphasises on all aspects of social behaviour such as how we think about and
interact with others, how we influence and are influenced by others. For example,
social psychologists study how we perceive others and how those perceptions
affect our attitude and behaviour towards them.

This field has developed by the joint contribution of sociologies and social
psychologists and their research interest overlaps. However, their focus differs
in the sense that while the former are concerned primarily with social institutions,
24 the later focus typically up on the individual.
The social psychologists who are working on the applied side of this field, have Branches and Fields of
Psychology
developed and standardised techniques to measure attitudes and opinions. Their
survey research on political opinion, consumer attitudes and attitudes related to
important social issues provide important information to politicians, business
executives, and community leaders who benefit from these, while making
decisions.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Experimental psychology is distinguished from other sub-fields,
because:
a) It studies the fundamental psychological processes
b) The experimental method is used by these psychologists
2) The field that studies memory, thinking, problem solving etc. is known
as;
a) Comparative psychology b) Personality psychology c) Cognitive
psychology
Answers
1. b) 2. c)

Clinical Psychology: Does psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems;

develops methods of treatment. This field emphasises on the diagnosis, causes,
and treatment of severe psychological disorders and emotional troubles.

Confusion between the fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry occurs because
both clinical psychologists and psychiatrists provide psychotherapy. And both
usually work together in many hospitals/clinics. That is why many people get
confused regarding the difference between the two. Well, they belong to two
different groups of professionals and differ in their educational background as
well as ways of diagnosis and treatment.

Psychiatrists are physicians. After completing medical studies, they do Doctor

of Medicine (M.D.) in psychiatry and specialise in the treatment of mental
disorders, whereas, clinical psychologists hold a master’s degree M.A/M.Sc and/
or a doctorate degree (Doctor of Philosophy [Ph.D] or Doctor of Psychology
[Psy.D]) in clinical psychology.

Because of this difference in training, clinical psychologists who do not have

medical training, cannot prescribe drugs to treat behaviour disorders. Also,
whenever there is a possibility of medical disorder, a patient should be examined
by a psychiatrist or other physician. Moreover, mostly, only a psychiatrist can
refer a patient to a hospital for treatment and care. Clinical psychologists carry
out research to find out better ways of diagnosing, treating, and preventing
psychological disorders. They also rely heavily on standardised tests for
identifying the causes of these disorders. They use psychotherapy, for which
they are trained, for the treatment of mental disorders. But clinical psychologists
are not authorised to prescribe drugs to treat behaviour disorders, as they do not
have medical training. Also, they cannot refer a patient to a hospital, for care and
treatment. Whenever there is a possibility of a medical disorder, a patient should
be examined by a psychiatrist or other physician.
25
Introduction to Psychology, Community Psychology: Promotes community-wide mental health through
Objectives, Goals
research, prevention, education, and consultation. Community psychologists apply
psychological principles, ideas, and points of view to help solve social problems
and to help individuals in adapting to their work and living groups.

Some community psychologists are essentially clinical psychologists and they

specially organise programmes to reach those people in the community, who
have behavioural problems or who are likely to have such problems. These
psychologists not only deal with mental health problems of community members
but also attempt to promote their mental health.

Other community psychologists are more concerned with bringing ideas from
the behavioural sciences to bear on community problems. They may be called
the ‘social-problem community psychologists’. Hostility among groups in the
community, bad relations between the police and community members, or distress
due to lack of employment opportunities, for example, might be problems on
which a social-problem community psychologist would work. Such psychologists
also, often work to encourage certain groups to participate in community
decisions, to provide psychological information about effective and health-
promoting child-rearing practices, or to advise school systems about how to make
their curricula meet the needs of community members.

Consumer Psychology: Researches packaging, advertising, marketing methods,

and characteristics of consumers. This field is an offshoot of social psychology.

Counseling Psychology: Does psychotherapy and personal counseling; researches

emotional disturbances and counseling methods. This branch deals with helping
people/individuals with personal problems including interpersonal relations,
career choice, mild emotional troubles or behavioural problems such as over
eating, slow learning or lack of concentration. Counseling psychologists assist
individuals having specific problem like how to plan career, how to develop
more effective interpersonal skills(e.g. communication skills). Now a days, there
are many specialised fields within the counseling psychology and experts are
working as marriage counselors, family counselors, school counselors etc.

The work of the counseling psychologist is quite similar to that of the clinical
psychologist. The difference between them is that counseling psychologists
generally work with people who have milder emotional and personal problems.
They may use psychotherapy in an attempt to help with these problems.
Counseling psychologists are often consulted by people with specific questions,
such as a choice of career or educational program.

Educational Psychology: Investigates classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and

learning; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs. Investigates
all aspects of educational process ranging from curriculum design to techniques
of instruction to learning disabilities. This branch deals with broader problem of
increasing the efficiency of learning in school by applying psychological
knowledge about/of learning and motivation to the curriculum. Another
specialised sub-field called School Psychology may be included in educational
psychology.

Engineering Psychology: Does applied research on the design of machinery,

computers, airplanes, automobiles, and so on, for business, industry, and the
26
military. Psychologists working in this field also write instruction manual in Branches and Fields of
Psychology
such a manner that can be understood by laypersons so that they can operate
complex machinery and home appliances.

Forensic Psychology: Investigates problems of crime and crime prevention,

rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for
police work. Forensic psychologists mostly work within the judicial system in
such areas as assessing emotional and psychological state of under trials and
victims, evaluation of rehabilitation programmes; eyewitness testimony and
evidence; jury selection; and police training etc.

Industrial/Organisational Psychology: Investigates all aspects of behaviour in

work setting ranging from selection and recruitment of employees, performance
appraisal, work motivation to leadership. The first application of psychology to
the problems of industries and organisations was selection and recruitment of
employees by using intelligence, aptitude tests.

Now a days, a number of companies are using modern versions of such tests in
their programmes for hiring and selection of employees. Specialists in this field
also apply psychology to problems related to management and employee training,
leadership and supervision, communication, motivation, inter- and intra-group
conflict within the organisation. They organise on-the-job training programmes
for improving work environments and human relations in organisations and work
settings. These psychologists are sometimes called personnel psychologists.

Medical Psychology: Applies psychology to manage medical problems, such as

the emotional impact of illness, self-screening for cancer, compliance in taking
medicines. Job of these psychologists overlaps with part of health psychology.
School Psychology: These psychologists do psychological testing, referrals,
emotional and vocational counseling of students; detect and treat learning
disabilities, and help improve classroom learning. The job of school psychologists
include diagnosing learning difficulties and trying to remedy them.
Educational psychology may include school psychology, but educational
psychologists, as such, are usually involved with more general, less immediate
problems. Educational psychologists are especially concerned with increasing
the efficiency of learning in school by applying their psychological knowledge
about learning and motivation to the curriculum.

Self Assessment Questions

1) ‘Child Psychology’ comprises a large part of:
a) School psychology b) Counseling psychology
c) Developmental psychology d) All of them
2) Psychologists, who deal with mild emotional troubles, work in the
following field:
a) Health psychology b) Child psychology c) ) Counseling psychology
d) All of them
Answers
1) c 2) b
27
Introduction to Psychology, 2.3.4 Both Basic and Applied Fields
Objectives, Goals
There are some fields which are categorised under both basic and applied fields,
as per Feldman (Coon & Mitterer, 2007). These are described below.
Developmental Psychology: Conducts research on infant, child, adolescent, and
adult development; does clinical work with disturbed children; acts as consultant
to parents and schools. Emphasises on how people change physically, cognitively
and socially over the entire life span. Developmental psychologists try to
understand complex behaviours by studying their beginnings and the orderly
ways in which they change with time. If we can trace the origin and developmental
sequence of a certain behaviour, we will have a better understanding of it. Child
psychology, the study of children’s behaviour, consists of a large part of
developmental psychology, because changes in behaviour occurs in an accelerated
manner. But developmental changes also occur in adolescence, adulthood, and
old age; and so the study of these changes is also a part of developmental
psychology.
Developmental psychology has both research and applied aspects. For instance,
a great deal of research has been done on the development of thinking in children.
Progressive and systematic changes take place in their thinking during the first
few years of life. On the applied side, developmental psychologists are often
concerned with children who have behaviour problems or psychological disorders.
The kinds of behaviours found in disturbed children are frequently quite different
from the behaviours found in disturbed adults, and different methods are used to
treat them.
Environmental Psychology: Studies the effects of urban noise, crowding, attitudes
toward the environment, and human use of space. These psychologists act as
consultants on environmental issues.
Health Psychology: Studies the relationship between behaviour and health; uses
psychological principles to promote health and prevent illness.
Positive psychology: This is an emerging field of 21st century. This field is defined
as the science of happiness and human strengths. Psychologists working in this
field are concerned with the positive aspects of human nature such as hope,
optimism, passion, love, gratitude, forgiveness, humility etc. They try to find out
what makes a good life. The work of these psychologists overlaps with that of
humanistic psychologists who have similar viewpoints.
Self Assessment Questions
1) To start with, ‘Developmental psychology’ was categorised under the
following field:
a) Physiological psychology b) Basic psychology c) Applied psychology
d) Educational psychology
2) Emerging field of 21st century is:
a) Health psychology b) Child psychology c) Counseling psychology
d) All of them
Answers
1) b 2) a
28
 Branches and Fields of
2.4 PSYCHOLOGISTS: WHAT DO THEY DO? Psychology

It is evident from the above that the work of psychologists are varied, as there
are many specialties within the field. Psychologists are highly trained in the
knowledge, methods, and theories of psychology. They usually have a master’s
degree or a doctorate. These degrees typically require several years of postgraduate
training. Psychologists may teach, do research, give psychological tests, or serve
as consultants to business, industry, government or the military. (Coon &
Mitterer,2007).

In addition to their basic interest in research, many psychologists are engaged in

applying this knowledge, to solve a variety of human problems.

Approximate percentages of psychologists working in different areas, as given

by Coon and Mitterer(2008), referring APA (2000), are depicted in the figure
given below:
(a) Specialities in psychology (b) Where Psychologists Work
34% Private Practice
48% Clinical

28% Colleges and

universities
11% Counselling
18% Other
5% Experimental and
other research areas 14% Hospital/Clinc
8% Other
1% Health 4% School
4% Schools 6% Human Services
2% Educational 4% Industrial/Organisational
6% Business,
3% Developmental 4% Social and Personality Industry, Government

(a) Specialities in psychology (APA, 2005).

Percentages are approximate, (b) Where (c) What Psychologists do (Primary Activity)
psychologists work (APA, 2000). (c) This
chart shows the main activities 50% Mental health
psychologists do at work (APA, 2000). Any services
particular psychologist might do several
of these activities during a work week.
As you can see, most psychologists 9% Other
specialise in applied areas and work in
applied settings. 4% Applied psychology 18% Education and
Educational services
10% Research
9% Management/
administration

2.5 LET US SUM UP

We have discussed various branches of psychology. Some of them fall under the
basic fields, and others, under applied field. We have also seen how psychologists
are working and applying the knowledge of psychology in a variety of situations,
be it in business, industry, community, hospital, school, or society.
This unit provides you important information regarding whom (the expert who
has specialised knowledge and training in a particular field) to consult for a
particular problem.

2.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the relation of psychology to other academic disciplines.
2) What are the basic branches of psychology?
29
Introduction to Psychology, 3) Explain various applied fields of psychology.
Objectives, Goals
4) Identify the branches which fall under both basic and the applied fields of
psychology.
5) Distinguish between a psychologist and a psychiatrist.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi

(India): Thomson Wadsworth.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,

(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

References
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind

and Behaviour (11th edition) Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi

(India): Thomson Wadsworth.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (1988). Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi:

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,

(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..

Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A

perspective behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.

30
 Branches and Fields of
UNIT 3 SYSTEMS AND THEORIES OF Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 A Historical Review of the Development of Psychology
3.3 Systems of Psychology/Viewpoints
3.3.1 Early Schools of Psychology
3.3.2 Modern Perspectives of Psychology
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Unit End questions
3.6 Suggested Readings
References

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Many people get surprised when they hear that psychology is a science. They
argue, if it is a science, why do students of psychology get Master of Arts (M.A.)
degree rather than Master of Science (M.Sc) ? Moreover, it is not taught like
physics, chemistry, or biology. Some people are also confused/puzzled regarding
the subject matter of psychology. Most people think psychologists study ‘mind’
and they avoid facing/meeting a psychologist, thinking that he/she might read
their mind by looking at them and come to know what all is going in their
mind, which they may not like to share with anybody. Do psychologists really
study ‘mind’, ‘consciousness’ or ‘behaviour’? How do psychologists explain
behaviour?

In this unit, you will find answers to such questions. First, we will present an
overview of the development of psychology, as a science discipline, by
narrating a brief historical background. Then we will discuss various viewpoints
including early schools of thought, as well as the modern perspectives of
psychology.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the contributions of ancient Greek philosophers to the development
of Psychology as a science;
 Differentiate between ‘structuralism’ and ‘functionalism’;
 Identify the main characteristics of the school of ‘behaviourism’?
 Describe the modern perspectives of psychology; and
 Explain any behaviour (s), using the relevant perspective (s) of psychology.

31
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals 3.2 A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has been recognised as an academic discipline since over 130 years.
However, questions related to psychology have been asked thousands of years
ago. Psychology has its roots in philosophy, which is the study of knowledge,
reality and human nature. You already know how psychology is related to other
sciences (physical and biological), from unit 1.2. Now, we will discuss briefly,
the historical review, as to how other academic disciplines have influenced the
development of psychology, as a scientific discipline.

Much before the Christian era, Greek philosophers studied the nature of man’s
psyche (mind/self/soul). More than 2000 years ago, the ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates advised “Know thyself”. He claimed that reliable self-knowledge could
not be attained through our senses, because the senses do not exactly reflect
reality, in the true sense. According to Socrates, because the senses provide
imperfect knowledge, we should rely on processes such as rational thought and
introspection (careful observation and examination of one’s own thoughts and
emotions), to achieve self-knowledge. He also stated that people are social
creatures, who influence one another.

One of the main contributors among the ancient Greek philosophers was Aristotle.
His concept of empiricism — the view that science could rationally treat only
information gathered by the senses, has given rise to the empirical method, which
is employed by all sciences. Other contributions of Aristotle include the following
(see Rathus, 2008):
 Numbered the so-called five senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
 Explored the nature of cause and effect.
 Pointed out that people differed from other living things in their capacity for
rational thought.
 Explained how the imagination and dreaming contained images that survived
the stimulation that caused them.
 Outlined laws of associationism that have lain at the heart of learning theory.
 Wrote a text book on psychology, whose contents are found in modern text
books of psychology.
 Argued that human behaviour, like the movements of the stars and the seas,
is subject to rules and laws.
 Declared that people are motivated to seek pleasures and avoid pain.
Another ancient Greek philosopher, Democritus suggested that we could think
of behaviour in terms of a body and a mind. Contemporary psychologists also
hold that there is an interaction of biological and mental processes. According to
Democritus, our behaviour is influenced by external stimulation. He was also
one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice i.e.,
where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin?
Psychology has been influenced by not only philosophy, but also by a number of
other sciences, as we have noted in Unit 1.2. These influences are reflected in
32
various viewpoints of psychology.
 Systems and Theories of
3.3 SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY/VIEWPOINTS Psychology

We have also noted earlier (in Unit 1), how psychology has been defined as the
study of ‘soul’ to ‘mind’ to ‘consciousness’. The current definition of psychology
emphasises on the study of behaviour and cognitive/mental processes. Thus, as
Morgan et al. (1986) stated ‘fundamental differences in viewpoints show up in
the very definition of and ideas about what psychology should study and how.
Such differences, and the arguments they spark can make psychology a lively
field indeed’.

In the history of psychology, strong differences of opinion about what psychology

should study and how it should do it, were represented by schools of psychology—
groups of like-minded psychologists which formed around influential teachers
who argued for one viewpoint or another (Morgan et al., 1986). Many of these
earlier schools of thoughts have gone into the history. Today, many psychologists
agree that psychology should study behaviour. Even those who want to study
internal mental events, generally agree that this must begin with a look at
behaviour. Though psychologists agree to look at behaviour, they may disagree
about what they see and what it means. The moment psychologists try to make
sense out of the complexities of behaviour, their differing perspectives can lead
them to sharply differing views.

In this section, you will come to know about the earlier viewpoints, as well as,
the current/modern perspectives of psychology.

3.3.1 Early Schools of Psychology

Formal ideas about behaviour and mind in western culture began with the classical
Greek philosophers and have continued to this day as part of the fabric philosophy.
Psychology, as a separate area of study, split away from philosophy a little over
130 years ago. The successes of the experimental method in the physical sciences
encouraged some philosophers to think that mind and behaviour could be studied
with scientific methods. As we know, the first psychological laboratory was set
up by Wundt in 1879, at the University of Leipzig, Germany.

In the United States, the first formal psychology laboratory was established at
John Hopkins University in 1883. Within a few years, most major universities
had psychology laboratories and departments. The famous text book in psychology
titled “The Principles of Psychology” was written by William James in 1890.

Wundt, James, and the then other psychologists thought of psychology as the
study of mind. They attempted to find the laws relating to events in the physical
world to a person’s mental experience of those external events. For this, they did
many experiments in the areas of imagery, memory, thinking, and emotion.
However, in the first decades of the twentieth century, psychologists hold quite
different views regarding the nature of mind and the best ways to study mind.
About the same time, fundamental questions were raised about what should be
studied in psychology:

Should psychology be the study of mind, should it study behaviour, or should

both mind and behaviour be included? Different influential psychologists of the
time held quite different views on the nature of mind and the proper subject
33
Introduction to Psychology, matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed around these leaders, as their
Objectives, Goals
students adopted their ideas. These schools of thought are known as the schools
of psychology; they set the direction for much of the research on mind and
behaviour in the early years of twentieth century (Morgan et al., 1986). Given
below are the early schools of thought: Structuralism, Gestalt Psychology,
Functionalism, Behaviourism, and Psychoanalysis.

Structuralism: This early school, the structural school of psychology grew up

around the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt, in Germany and was established at Cornell
University in the United States by one of Wundt’s students, Titchener.
Structuralism emphasised that the subject matter of psychological research
consists of images, thoughts, and feelings, which are the elements, forming the
structure of consciousness.

The goal of the structuralists was to find the units, or elements, which make up
the mind. They thought that as in Chemistry, a first step in the study of the mind
should be a description of the basic, or elementary, units of sensation, image,
and emotion which compose it. For instance, the structuralists did experiments
to find the elementary sensations—such as red, cold, sweet and fragrant, for
example—which provide, the basis of more complex mental experiences. The
main method used by the structuralists to discover these elementary units of
mind was introspection. Participants were trained to report as objectively as
possible, what they experienced in connection with a certain stimulus,
disregarding the meanings they had come to associate with that stimulus. A
respondent might, for example, be presented with a colored light, a tone, or an
odor and asked to describe it as minutely as possible.

These experiments have given us a great deal of information about the kinds of
sensations people have, but other psychologists of the time, challenged the idea
that the mind could be understood by finding its elements and the rules for
combining them. Still others turned away from describing the structure of the
mind to study how the mind functioned.

Gestalt Psychology: This school of Psychology was founded in Germany about

1912 by Max Wertheimer and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler.
These pioneer psychologists felt that structuralists were wrong in thinking of the
mind as being made up of elements. They maintained that the mind is not made
up of a combination of simple elements.

The German word Gestalt means “form” or “configuration”, and the Gestalt
psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from
the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organisations
within this pattern. For instance, we recognise a tune when it is transposed to
another key; the elements have changed, but the pattern of relationships has
stayed the same. Or, to take yet another example, when you look at the dots in
figure below, your mental experience is not just the dots, or elements, but of a
square and a triangle sitting on a line.

● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
34 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
It is the organisation of the dots and their relationships that determine the mental Systems and Theories of
Psychology
experience you have. Thus, the point made by the Gestalt psychologists in their
opposition to structuralism was, mental experience depends on the patterning
and organisation of elements and is not due simply to the compounding of
elements. In simpler words, according to the Gestalt psychologists, the mind is
best understood in terms of the ways elements are organised. Gestaltists were
mainly concerned about the element of form or organisation which unifies
behaviour, particularly perceptual behaviour.

Functionalism: As the name implies, functionalists were interested in studying

the functions of mind and behaviour rather than limiting themselves to the
description and analysis of mind. They proposed that psychology should focus
on “what mind and behaviour do” (function of mind) and not on the “structure”
of mind. Their interest was to study behaviour, as a dynamic, integrated process.
Influenced by Darwin’s ideas and theory of evolution, functionalists were,
specifically, interested in the fact that mind and behaviour were adaptive, as
they enable us to adjust to a changing environment. They did experiments on the
ways in which learning, memory, problem solving and motivation help people
and animals adapt to their environments.

Behaviourism: This school of psychology was propounded by John B. Watson,

who was at Johns Hopkins University for many years. Watson rejected the idea
that mind should be the subject of psychology, and instead, emphasised that
psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable (or potentially
observable) activities of people and animals. There are four important
characteristics of behaviourism.
i) First, its focus on behaviour, as the proper subject matter of psychology.
ii) Second, it emphasised on conditioned responses (learned responses) as the
elements or building blocks, of behaviour. Watson believed that complex
human and animal behaviour is almost entirely made up of conditioned
responses.
iii) A third closely related feature of behaviourism was its emphasis on learned
rather than unlearned, behaviour. It denied the existence of any innate, or
inborn, behavioural tendencies.
iv) Finally, the fourth characteristic of behaviourism was its focus on animal
behaviour.
Watson argued that there are no essential differences between human and animal
behaviour. He also believed that we can learn much about our own behaviour
from the study of what animals do.

Psychoanalysis: It was founded by the famous psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, in

Vienna, Austria. Psychoanalysis has had a significant impact on the thinking and
theorising of many psychologists. Therefore, many authors have included
psychoanalysis in the early schools of psychology, even if, strictly speaking, it is
not a school of psychology.

Freud developed a theory of behaviour and mind (the psychoanalytic theory), on

the basis of his practice with neurotic patients, which held that much of what we
think and do is due to our urges, drives , and desires, which seek expressions in
our thought and behaviour. It is important to note that, according to psychoanalytic
35
Introduction to Psychology, theory, these urges and drives are unconscious, i.e., they are hidden from our
Objectives, Goals
awareness. What is seen in behaviour and thought of people is the expression of
these unconscious drives, urges, wishes, and desires. Thus, the concept of
unconscious motivation is the key idea of psychoanalysis, which is still being
utilised, as one of the explanations of behaviour.

The above schools of thought are part of the history of psychology. We will now
look at the modern perspectives of psychology.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Darwin’s theory influenced the following school of thought:
a) Structuralism b) Functionalism c) Gestalt d) Behaviourism
2) “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts”, is emphasised by the
following school of thought:
a) Structuralism, b) Functionalism, c) Gestalt, d) Behaviourism
e) All of them
3) ‘Behaviourism’ emphasises on:
a) Animal behaviour, b) Form, c) Innate responses
d) Consciousness, e) Conditioned response, f) Configuration
Answers: 1. b 2. c 3. a and e

3.3.2 Modern Perspectives of Psychology

Though the early schools of psychology are more than 100 year old, two of
them; behaviourism and psychoanalysis, are still surviving in modified forms,
among the current psychological perspectives. Along with these two, some new
perspectives have come up in the last 130 years or so. In order to understand and
describe behaviour, psychologists now have a rich variety of viewpoints to choose
from. The perspective taken, depends on how the psychologist is observing and
interpreting a particular behaviour and also on what aspect of behaviour is being
studied. Certain perspectives are more appropriate for some particular behaviours
than others. Moreover, a particular behaviour may be described by one or more
than one perspective.

Let us now look at the following two examples and attempt to understand how
the current perspectives deal with these behavioural observations:

Some relatives have come to Pappu’s (a 5-year-old boy) house, during the
vacation. Pappu, his little sister Munni and their cousins were playing in the
courtyard. Pappu snatched away the toy car from his sister.

Mr. Kumar, a 59-year-old man, realises that he is forgetting the recent events and
important meetings.

The Behavioural Perspective: emphasises the role of learning in behaviour. The

behaviour which is followed by reward or punishment is likely to increase or
decrease, respectively. A psychologist with behavioural perspective might explain
Pappu’s behaviour that, he has learned to behave in this manner, because such
behaviour (snatching toys from younger children) paid off in the past.
36
Another form of learning is observational learning, which is a complex process- Systems and Theories of
Psychology
far more complex than mere imitation-and plays an important role in many aspects
of behaviour. A large body of research indicates that aggression may indeed be
learned through observation. Given the fact that many children spend more time
watching television, playing violent video games, and, more recently, surfing
the Web than they do in any other single activity, the potential influence of such
experience on behaviour seems worthy of careful attention (Baron, 2001). Studies
show conclusively that if large groups of children watch a great deal of televised
violence, they will be more prone to behave aggressively (Anderson et al., 2003;
Bushman & Anderson,2001).
As far as Mr. Kumar’s problem is concerned, this perspective would focus on an
exact description of the changes in his behaviour. A psychologist with behavioural
perspective might also attempt to teach behavioural skills to this person, so that
he might learn to deal with the problems caused by his forgetfulness.
The Evolutionary and Biological Perspective: Psychologists are interested in
the roles of evolution and heredity in behaviour and mental processes such as
psychological disorders, criminal behaviour, and thinking. Generally speaking,
our heredity provides a broad range of behavioural and mental possibilities.
Modern evolutionary psychologists focus on the evolution of behaviour and
mental processes. Charles Darwin argued that in the age-old struggle for existence,
only the “fittest” (most adaptive) organisms manage to reach maturity and
reproduce. Environmental factors interact with inherited factors to determine
specific behaviour and mental processes (Rathus, 2008). From this perspective,
Pappu is behaving in a manner that proves that he is strong and “fit”; he can take
any thing he likes to, irrespective of whose belonging it is. Mr.Kumar’s behaviour
could also be explained from this perspective. Because memory is very crucial
for survival, it is a matter of concern for him.
The Biological Perspective suggests that there are some biological factors—
particularly, the functions of nervous and glandular systems, that influence human
behaviour. Studies show that males are generally more aggressive than females
(Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974); this may be related to male-female hormonal
differences. However, the research on this, in humans, provides mixed results.
So, it cannot be conclusively said that Pappu, being a male, is behaving
aggressively.
A psychologist with biological perspective would try to understand Mr. Kumar’s
problem by linking this to brain problem. Due to the ageing process much wear
and tear takes place in the organs of the body, including brain. May be, Mr.
Kumar is in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease and the chemistry of the
brain is at fault. Alzheimer’s disease is a kind of primary degenerative dementia
in which there is a cluster of specific degenerative brain changes due to unknown
causes.
The Cognitive Perspective: Explains how behaviour is determined by the way
we remember, think, perceive, make decisions, solve problems and comprehend
our social environment etc. Cognition means perception of the world around us.
It also refers to the processing of information which we receive through our
senses. Our experience or mind is based on such processing of information.
A psychologist with this perspective would attempt to explain Pappu’s behaviour
in terms of his perception of Munni, as a weak little girl, who cannot fight back.
37
Introduction to Psychology, Another possible explanation could come from the social learning theory. He
Objectives, Goals
might have seen other little boys getting away with such aggression and may be
modeling his behaviour on their example. Also, he perceives the situation and
thinks, it is safe to behave the way he did, as no adult was likely to be present in
the courtyard.

Memory is the most important focus of this perspective. So, Mr. Kumar’s problem
could be dealt with properly, by finding what exactly was forgotten and what
was remembered, how the information processing had changed. A psychologist
with this perspective would also attempt to help Mr. Kumar by giving him new
ways of processing incoming information for storing in his memory and later,
retrieving from his memory store.

The Socio-cultural Perspective: The profession of psychology focuses mainly

on the individual and is committed to the dignity of the individual. However,
many psychologists today believe we cannot understand people’s behaviour and
mental processes without reference to their diversity (Basic Behavioural Science
Task Force, 1996b). Studying perspectives other than their own helps
Psychologists understand the role of a culture’s beliefs, values, and attitudes in
behaviour and mental processes. It helps them perceive why people from diverse
cultures behave and think in different ways, and how the science of psychology
is enriched by addressing those differences (Denmark, 1998; Reid, 1994). This
perspective addresses many of the ways in which people differ from one another.
It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socio-economic status
on behaviour and mental processes (Allen, 1993; Lewis-Fernandez & Kleinman,
1994). This perspective has not much scope to explain Pappu’s behaviour.
Mr.Kumar’s forgetfulness is a matter of concern, as this is not accepted in any
culture, particularly, if a person is in active service.
The Social Perspective: Attempts to explain behaviour in terms of social
interaction and the setting in which such interaction takes place. If a criminal
(such as a don or a terrorist leader) gets recognition, position or respect in a
society or community, he/she is likely to be perceived as a role model by some
individuals. Pappu might have behaved in this manner to show off and get
recognition. Mr. Kumar’s position in society and in his community is at stake,
because of his memory problem.
The source of evidence for social learning of aggression is found in studies that
reveal differences in violence, as a function of cultural and social variables. There
is, for example, considerable evidence of systematic variation in the occurrence
of violent acts across different national cultures. Residents of some countries
also show a more pervasive tendency to think of violence as means of solving
problems than persons living in other countries (Archer & McDaniel, 1995 [cited
in Atkinson et al., 2000] ).
Developmental Perspective: According to this perspective, behaviour is
determined by the physical growth and maturity. Certain characteristic changes
occur in people (i.e. the way they think), due to the process of maturation.
Sometimes, young children commit crimes but not deliberately. This may be
because of their cognitive egocentrism, which means that children have limited
ability to think about how things look or feel to others. They do not have any
intention to commit crimes in a planned way. Thus, Pappu being a 5-year-ld boy,
he might not have realised how his behaviour might have hurt/has hurt his sister.
38
Even law also considers age as to whether a person will be convicted or not. In Systems and Theories of
Psychology
the context of legal and social definitions of crime and the criminal, Taft (1956)
states that legally, a crime is an act made punishable by law. A criminal is one
who has committed such a legally forbidden act. Yet there are other criteria which
determine whether a person may be dealt with as a criminal. He has pointed out
5 such criteria as competent age, voluntary criminal act, criminal intent, degrees
of intent, and injury to the state.
Regarding Mr. Kumar’s memory problem, as we have already explained in the
biological perspective, it might be due to aging process.
The Humanistic Perspective: Concerned with the person’s sense of self. From
this view point, a criminal’s behaviour might be seen as a part of his/her search
for personal competence, achievement, and self-esteem. People who commit
violent crimes may perceive that by committing such acts, they are going to
achieve some thing significant, such as doing justice to the society or for the
cause of national security etc. In the case of Pappu, his behaviour has a little
scope to be explained from this perspective.
Mr. Kumar’s self-esteem is however, at stake, because he might be feeling
embarrassed for his forgetfulness.
The Psychoanalytic Perspective: Comes from the psychodynamic perspective,
which emphasises the role of unconscious feelings and impulses. According to
Sigmund Freud, who propounded the psychoanalytic theory of personality,
behaviour of human beings are largely guided by their feelings, emotions, instincts
and desires which are unconscious. They are born with an aggressive drive. This
innate motive gets expressed in action or fantasy, in destructiveness, war and
sadism. According to this viewpoint, any impulse which is unacceptable, makes
a person anxious, and then he/she uses what is called ‘defense mechanism’, to
reduce anxiety. For example, when a person is angry at some higher authority or
someone who is very powerful, the person cannot express one’s anger openly
and so, may displace that anger to someone, who is weaker. This is known as
‘displacement’, which is one of the defense mechanisms. Pappu might be angry
with his parents or teachers, for some reasons, and his anger is probably displaced
towards his sister (displacement).
Mr. Kumar might also be forgetting his appointment to someone, whom he dislikes
(motivated forgetting).
Any one or more than one of the above psychological perspectives, may be used
to explain behaviour .
Self Assessment Questions
1) The following schools of thought are still among the current
psychological perspectives:
a) Structuralism, b) Behaviourism, c) Gestalt, d) Functionalism,
e) Psychoanalysis.
2) ‘Cognitive egocentrism’ has been referred in the following perspective
of psychology:
a) Biological, b) Behavioural, c) Cognitive, d) Developmental,
e) Humanistic
Answers: 1) b and e 2) d
39
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals 3.4 LET US SUM UP
We have discussed various schools of psychology. Some of them are earlier
schools of thought (Structuralism, Gestalt, Functionalism, Behaviourism, and
Psychoanalysis) and others are current psychological perspectives (The
Behavioural, The Evolutionary and Biological, The Cognitive, The Sociocultural,
The Social, The Developmental, The Humanistic and The Psychoanalytic).

This unit illustrates how any kind of behaviour can be explained, using one or
more than one, psychological perspective.

3.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the contributions of ancient Greek philosophers to the development
of Psychology as a science.
2) Compare and contrast ‘structuralism’ and ‘functionalism’.
3) What are the main characteristics of the school of ‘behaviourism’?
4) ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts’; explain.
5) Briefly describe the modern perspectives of psychology.
6) Explain any behaviour (s), using the relevant perspective (s) of psychology,
by giving examples.

3.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, Robert A.. (2001). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. Thomson

Wadsworth; New York.

References
Allen. L. (1993). Integrating a sociocultural perspective into the psychology
curriculum. G. Stanley Hall lecture presented to the American Psychological
Association, Toronto, Canada.

Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, I. R., et al.

(2003).The influence of media violence on youth . Psychological Science in the
Public Interest, 4(3), 81-110.

Atkinson, Rita L.; Atkinson, Richard C.; Smith, Edward E.; Bem, Darvl J.;&
Nolen-

Hoeksema, Susan. (2000). Hilgard‘s Introduction to psychology, (13th ed.) : New

York: Harcourt Inc.

Baron, Robert A.. (2001). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

40
Basic Behavioural Science Task Force of the National Advisory Mental Health Systems and Theories of
Psychology
Council (1996b). Basic behavioural science research for mental health:
Perception, attention, learning, and memory. American Psychologist, 51, 722-
731.

Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American
public. American Psychologist, 56 (6/7), 477-489.

Denmark, F. L (1998). Woman and Psychology: An International Perspective.

American Psychologist, 53(4), 465-473.

Lewis-Fernandez, R. & Kleinman, A. (1994). Culture, Personality, and

Psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 67-71.

Maccoby,E.E. & Jacklin C.N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition), New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. Thomson

Wadsworth; New York.

Reid, P.T. (1994). The real problem in the study of culture. American Psychologist,
49, 524-525.

Taft, D.R. (1956). Criminology. New York: The Macmillan Company.

41
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals UNIT 4 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY
TO DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Psychology and the Social /Behavioural Sciences
4.2.1 Psychology and Economics
4.2.2 Psychology and Political Science
4.2.3 Psychology and Education
4.3 Psychology and Other Sciences
4.3.1 Psychology and the Biological Sciences
4.3.2 Psychology and the Physical Sciences
4.3.3 Psychology and the Medical Sciences
4.4 Psychology and Some Other Disciplines
4.4.1 Psychology and Engineering
4.4.2 Psychology and Cognitive Science
4.4.3 Psychology and Environmental Sciences
4.4.4 Psychology, Law, and Criminology
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Unit End Questions
4.7 Suggested Readings
References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
We have earlier discussed, how psychology is related to, and influenced by other
academic disciplines. You have also come to know how the applied fields of
psychology are contributing to solve various day to day problems of living beings.
Thus, you have learnt that psychology is making significant contribution in the
fields of health, education, sports, community, society, organisations and so on.

Psychology is however, applied to yet certain other disciplines.. In this unit, you
will come to know how psychology is related to such disciplines and some
interdisciplinary fields, such as, environmental sciences, medical sciences,
cognitive science etc.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the interrelationship of psychology with other academic disciplines;
 Describe the application of psychology to biological sciences; and
 Identify the areas of application of psychology to physical, medical and social
sciences.

42
 Application of Psychology
4.2 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL/ to Different Disciplines

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Behaviour mostly takes place in the context of social setting and in relation to
other people. Different social/behavioural scientists emphasise on one or the
other aspects of social life. However, psychology extensively studies behaviour.
As you already know, human behaviour is determined by many factors, and one
can explain behaviour from various viewpoints. That is why interest of psychology
overlaps with that of some other social/behavioural sciences. Thus the relevance
of other social/behavioural sciences to psychology is obvious.
Parameswaran & Beena (2002) have described the relationship of psychology
with behavioural sciences, biological sciences, physical sciences, medical sciences
as well as, with some other disciplines. Given below is the description of
psychology with some of the disciplines of social sciences.
Anthropology is supposed to be the mother of all social/behavioural sciences. It
is interested in the study of culture, customs, ritual and practices of different
distinct groups of people and understand the variations among them. Many
anthropologists have contributed to our understanding of the various factors which
explain the homogeneity or similarity of behaviour among members of a particular
group and also how such groups differ from each other. Researches in
anthropology have thrown light on why people of a particular community or
even whole nation behave as they do. Psychology is enriched by such findings.
Psychological theories have also contributed to our understanding of the origin
of culture, customs, religious practices etc. Psychoanalysts like Freud, Jung and
others have made notable/significant contributions in this regard. Thus, there is
a reciprocal relationship between anthropology and psychology. In fact,
psychoanalytic anthropology and psychological anthropology attempt to explain
the origin of all customs, cultures and practices on the basis of psychological
factors.
Sociology is another major social science, which is mainly concerned with social
organisations of societies into family groups, kinship groups, caste groups, nation
groups etc. Sociologists study variations in these group formations among
different societies and also try to analyse their roles in social life. It is a well
known fact that these factors influence behaviour.
The structure of the family, caste groups, class groups etc. influence human
behaviour. To this extent, psychologists must understand the roles of these factors
in influencing behaviour. Sociological researches have contributed a lot to the
field of psychology. This is particularly so in understanding the behaviour of
groups of people and organisations and also in understanding the impact of groups,
group standards, group expectations etc., on behaviour.
Social psychology, organisational psychology and group dynamics are branches
of psychology, which are very closely connected with sociology. In fact, the first
book in social psychology was written by a sociologist and a psychologist. The
psychologists, while studying the development of behaviour from infancy
onwards, have to analyze the role of society and social customs on the
development of social behaviour. Sociologists like Durkheim, Parsons, Bales
and others have made important contributions to the development of psychology.
43
Introduction to Psychology, Psychology is also concerned about how members of groups are influenced by
Objectives, Goals
other members, as well as by the group norms, values, rituals and practices of
particular groups. It also emphasises on leadership and group formation etc.,
which can contribute to the field of sociology. Sociology has gained a lot from
psychology.

Psychological theories have contributed considerably to explain the origin and

survival of social customs and institutions. Theories of learning, perception and
motivation, have contributed to the development of sociology. Sociology has
also gained a lot from methods of research, developed by psychologists. Moreover,
sociology has widely used measurement techniques, such as, attitude scales,
interaction analysis etc., developed by psychologists.

4.2.1 Psychology and Economics

Economics deals with the economic organisation of society like income,
expenditure, the role of economic institution etc. Much of human behaviour can
be called economic behaviour. Economic theories have for long, considered the
role of psychological factors in economic behaviour. Thus, Mill and Bentham
advanced the theory of economic utilitarianism. Subsequently, the role of
psychological factors in economic activities has attracted the attention of many
thinkers. In recent years, McLelland and his associates have stressed the role of
what is known as the achievement motivation, in economic behaviour.

On the other hand, the economic structure of society and economic factors like
income, facilities etc. have been found to influence behaviour. Psychologists
have been interested in the analysis of the influence of economic factors like
income, on the development of behaviour. The role of poverty and economic
deprivation on the development of behaviour has been extensively studied by.
Psychologists. They speak of the proverbial ‘middle class child’ and his
characteristic behaviour like ambitiousness, high anxiety etc. Thus, psychology
is also closely related to economics.

4.2.2 Psychology and Political Science

Political science is another discipline, which has developed extensively in recent
times. Political science deals with the political organisations, institutions and
government practices. In recent years, there has been a very close interaction
between political science and psychology. Attempts have been made to study
and analyse the influence of the political system on human character and
behaviour. Psychologists have done extensive research on what is known as
‘authoritarianism’ and have tried to explain this as a product of certain types of
political systems.

Similarly, concepts like Machiavellianism, autocracy, etc., which are generally

applied by the political scientists to large societies, have been made use of by
psychologists in studying small organisations. In a classical experiment, Kurt
Lewin and his followers studied autocratic groups, democratic groups, and others
and compared their functioning.

Psychologists have also attempted to study the role of psychological factors in

leadership. Thus, the lives of several political leaders have been analysed from a
psychological angle to understand their behaviour and the factors which made
44
them successful leaders. Examples of such leaders whose lives have been analysed Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
are Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Adolph Hitler and others.
Psychological analysis has also been made of different aspects of political
behaviour like propaganda, voting behaviour, emergence of public opinion, mob
mentality etc.

4.2.3 Psychology and Education

Education is, perhaps, one of the oldest sciences with which psychology has
been intimately connected. The field of education is primarily concerned with
the development of effective approaches and techniques for imparting knowledge
and skills which would make the people personally successful and happy and
socially productive. Needless to say, in striving to achieve these, educators have
to take into account psychological factors such as the nature of the learning
process abilities of individuals, their needs and proper methods of teaching among
other factors.

Psychologists have made extensive contributions by developing a wide variety

of tests which help the educator to measure the abilities of pupils, their
inclinations, and choose the proper educational levels and situations.
Psychological theories of motivation have contributed to work out techniques of
motivating students for improving their learning. Researchers in the psychology
of perception, learning and communication have contributed in evolving effective
methods of teaching, preparation of useful teaching aids etc. Thus, one can see
that the relationship between psychology and education is very intimate.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Different aspects of political behaviour include:
a) propaganda, b) crowding, c) mob mentality,
d) a& b, e) a & c, f) b & c
2) ......................................................... is supposed to be the mother of all
social/behavioural sciences.
3) Psychological theories of ............................................ have contributed
to work out techniques of motivating students for improving their
learning.
Answers: 1) e), 2) Anthropology, 3) Motivation

4.3 PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

You already know the tasks of psychologists. They work in a variety of basic
and/or applied fields. Though psychology has emerged as a science; due to
developments in other sciences, the developments in psychology have also
influenced the growth and development of other disciplines like sociology,
anthropology, economics, political science, management etc. Let us , now look
at the relationship of psychology and other sciences, i.e., biological sciences,
physical sciences and medical sciences, as described by Parameswaran and Beena
(2002).

45
Introduction to Psychology, 4.3.1 Psychology and the Biological Sciences
Objectives, Goals
We have already discussed about the intimate relationship between psychology
and the biological sciences. All behaviour occurs through bodily processes. Hence,
psychology, which is the science of behaviour, is naturally dependent on other
sciences which deal with the nature of the human body, the organs of the body
and their functioning. Sensations, perceptions and all forms of behaviour originate
as physical or physiological reactions and often culminate in muscular actions
and glandular secretions. We have earlier discussed how the brain plays a very
important role in coordinating and organising the functions of the different organs
of the body. Along with the brain, the entire nervous system plays a crucial role
in behaviour. Hence, there is an intimate relationship between psychology and
neurology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry and other branches of knowledge
which are directly involved with the study of the nervous system, particularly
the brain. The important role of genetics, another branch of the biology which
deals with the nature of inheritance of different qualities in determining behaviour,
is well known.

According to Darwin, species change via a process of natural selection. Studies

of selective breeding support this view. Characteristics are passed on from one
generation to the next via genes. Genetic factors influence individual differences
in intelligence, personality, and mental disorder (Eysenck, 2004). Evolutionary
psychology, an emerging field in the 21st century, is an approach that explains
behaviour and the development of the mind in terms of their function and
adaptiveness.

It is a new theoretical approach that incorporates many of these ideas of

behavioural genetics. Behavioural genetics is an approach to understanding the
causes of behaviour that uses the degree of relatedness among different relatives
to assess the role of genetic factors. The essence of evolutionary psychology, as
pointed out by Buss (1999, p.3) and cited by Eysenck (2004) is as follows:

Evolutionary psychology focuses on four key questions: (1) Why is the mind
designed the way it is? ... (2) How is the human mind designed?—what are its
mechanisms or component parts, and how are they organised? (3) What are the
functions of component parts and their organised structure—that is, what is the
mind designed to do? (4) How does input from the current environment, especially
the social environment, interact with the design of the human mind to produce
human behaviour?

It could be argued that Buss’s definition of evolutionary psychology is too broad,

and is applicable to most approaches to psychology (David Carey, personal
communication).

Pinker (1997, p. 23) addressed the issue of the historical origins of evolutionary
psychology, arguing as follows:

Evolutionary psychology brings together two scientific revolutions. One is the

cognitive revolution of the 1950s and 1960s, which explains the mechanics of
thought and emotion in terms of information and computation. The other is the
revolution in evolutionary biology of the 1960s and 1970s, which explains the
complex adaptive design of living things in terms of selection among replicators
(animals that reproduce).
46
The evolutionary process has resulted in species of animals that are structurally Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
and behaviourally adapted to the environment, in which they live. Animals have
evolved species typical behaviours to adapt to their environments. Evolutionary
processes are also said to have produced brains that are specialised so that certain
associations and responses are learned readily. Certain species are thus said to be
ready, or predisposed, to learn some things easily; and such responses are often
called prepared behaviours. Other responses are almost impossible for some
species to learn; these are known as contra prepared behaviours. A third class of
behaviours, the unprepared behaviours, can be acquired, but only when learning
procedures are applied (Seligman, 1970)

Studies in the areas of health psychology and clinical psychology suggest how
psychology also affects the physiological and biological processes. For example,
placebo effect (changes in behaviour due to expectations that a drug or other
treatment will have some effect) can be powerful. A placebo is a fake pill or
injection. Inert substances such as sugar pills and saline (saltwater) injections
are common placebos. Thus, if a placebo has any effect, it must be based on
suggestion, rather than chemistry (Moerman, 2002). According to Kirsch & Lynn
(1999), a saline injection is 70 percent as effective as morphine, in reducing
pain. That is why doctors sometimes prescribe placebos. Placebos have been
shown to affect pain, anxiety, depression, alertness, tension, sexual arousal,
craving for alcohol, and many other processes.

Research also indicates that, in addition to exercises, there are some reliable,
drug free ways of relaxing, when you are under stress. Meditation is one of the
most effective ways to relax (Deckro et al., 2002). But be aware that listening to
music, taking nature walks, enjoying hobbies and the like can be meditation of
sorts. Anything that reliably interrupts upsetting thoughts and promotes relaxation,
can be helpful. Also, Vipassana meditation(A Buddhist technique) has many
beneficial effects including reduction/tolerance of pain.

It is also possible to relax systematically, completely, and by choice by a method

called progressive relaxation. It is a method for producing deep relaxation of all
parts of the body. Yet another technique called guided imagery can also be used
for relaxation. In this technique, people visualise images that are calming, relaxing
or beneficial in other ways.

Research shows that about 94% of diseases have psychological origin. These
psychosomatic diseases (Asthma, ulcers, even cancers) can be cured by application
of psychology. It has also been reported by many studies that optimistic outlook
and positive thinking help patients in speedy recovery.

Thus, knowledge of psychology, such as perception, thinking, motivation,

personality etc., can be applied by professionals like doctors, psychiatrists and
counselors.

4.3.2 Psychology and the Physical Sciences

Physical sciences like physics and chemistry have also influenced the development
of psychology. In fact, early experiments in psychology were very much modeled
after and inspired by experiments in physics. Psychophysics appeared as an area
of research in psychology due to the interaction between psychology and physics.
The outstanding British thinker, John Stuart Mill suggested that psychology should
47
Introduction to Psychology, be a type of mental chemistry. From the early Greek period onwards researchers
Objectives, Goals
have tried to investigate and establish the chemical basis of human behaviour.
Psychology has been influenced by the developments in physics like the work of
Ehrenfels in acoustics. In fact, gestalt psychology (one of the early schools of
psychology), was primarily/mainly inspired by this work. The developments in
quantum-physics, magnetic field theories etc., have also revolutionalised
psychological thinking. More recently, engineering sciences, particularly
cybernetics and information theory have also influenced psychology. These
developments have led to development of modern computers. Today, attempts
are being made by psychologists to draw analogies between computers and human
behaviour, particularly in areas like thinking, memory, learning, decision making
etc. Thus, psychology is very closely related to physical sciences.

4.3.3 Psychology and the Medical Sciences

Medical sciences attempt to find out the causes of disfunctioning or
malfunctioning of the body system. In fact, medical sciences are a branch of
biological sciences. Advances in the medical sciences have resulted in a
considerable amount of knowledge about the structure and function of the brain,
the nervous system and the endocrine glands, which are crucial to the study of
behaviour.

Medical sciences have contributed significantly to the understanding of abnormal

behaviour. Actually, many of the leading thinkers in psychology such as Freud,
Jung, Adler, Horney, Rogers, McDougall, Goldstein and some others were
originally medical persons. They have contributed a lot to the understanding and
treatment of human behaviour, as they were not only interested in treating physical
diseases but also in dealing with psychological abnormalities. The development
of the fields of abnormal/ clinical psychology as well as the psychodynamic
approach to personality is due to the contribution of medical sciences.

While interacting with mentally ill and emotionally troubled people, these medical
doctors developed useful insights to human behaviour.
Self Assessment Questions
1) .................................................... psychology, an emerging field in the
21st century, is an approach that explains behaviour and the development
of the mind in terms of their function and adaptiveness.
2) A ............................................................... is a fake pill or injection.
3) In fact, medical sciences are a branch of ..................................... sciences.
Answers: 1) Evolutionary, 2) placebo, 3) biological

4.4 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOME OTHER

DISCIPLINES
We have so far examined the relationship between psychology and different groups
of sciences. But psychology is connected not only with the sciences but also
with other disciplines which are not generally regarded as sciences. For example,
the relationship between psychology and philosophy is well known. Modern
psychology grew out of philosophy and philosophers have always influenced
theories in psychology. Even today, this is quite true.
48
Literature and art are the other fields of knowledge which are also related to Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
psychology. In recent years, extensive investigations have been made in to the
role of psychological factors in the production of literary pieces and works of
art. Freud, Jung and several outstanding psychologists have tried to analyse the
role of psychological factors like ego, motivation and personality in literary and
artistic conditions.
Architecture is yet another field which has begun to take in to account
psychological factors in designing buildings, town planning etc. One may
therefore, say that the science of psychology as a very intimate relationship with
almost every other discipline. This is naturally so because psychology is the
basic science which is directly concerned with the study of human behaviour
and evolving of techniques and strategies to improve human behaviour. Most
other disciplines are also concerned with human behaviour or products of human
behaviour directly or indirectly. Hence, this intimate connection of psychology
with other fields of knowledge, is only natural.
You may be wondering that if psychology is so intimately related to other branches
of knowledge and it has borrowed extensively from developments in other
sciences, can we regard psychology as an independent discipline? The answer to
this is strongly in the affirmative. While psychology might have leaned very
heavily on discoveries and developments in other fields, it has an identity of its
own. While other disciplines may be concerned with different aspects of
behaviour, psychology alone is concerned with behaviour in totality. Further, if
it has borrowed from other subjects, it has also contributed as much or more, to
the growth and development of other subjects. In fact, this trend is steadily on
the increase.
This is particularly so when it comes to the question of application of scientific
knowledge to action programs. You can now appreciate the extensive and wide
scope of psychology in a better light. It is no more a subject limited to
philosophical speculations. It is now considered as a science and to be more
exact, a psycho-socio-biological science. While it is related to other branches of
knowledge, at the same time it is independent; perhaps, much more extensive in
its scope and far more deeper in its implications. (Parameswaran and Beena,
2002).
We will now discuss the interrelationship of psychology to other fields like
engineering, cognitive science, environmental sciences, law, and criminology.

4.4.1 Psychology and Engineering

Human factors engineering, as a branch of applied psychology, has made
important contributions in the field of engineering. Industrial psychologists have
helped in designing the right type of machines which would make would make it
possible for the workers to do their best by eliminating unnecessary operations,
minimizing strain and eliminating possibilities of confusion and oversight. This
aspect of adjusting the job to the employee is known as human engineering.
Human engineering has played a major role in developing ultra-comfortable
automobiles, aircrafts, etc., in order to minimize stress strain and maximize
efficiency and work output.

Every industry depends on its ability to sell its products, not only for its survival
but also for its growth and expansion. Therefore, it is important to know the
49
Introduction to Psychology, needs, likes, dislikes, preferences and habits of people who buy these products.
Objectives, Goals
In a watch company, the product in-charge for a new range of watches which
were believed to be exquisite, took informal feedback from their own friends
and peers within the company. What they omitted to do was to check formally
with consumers. They went ahead with production.

But, they had unsold inventory for many months because consumers rejected it,
the chief reason being difficulty in reading time on those beautiful dials.
Somewhere, in that quest to deliver cutting edge, perhaps, they had forgotten the
basics. This highlights the importance of consumer psychology, yet another branch
of psychology, which not only attempts to understand consumer needs and
preferences through consumer surveys, but also contributes in the field of
advertising. Effective advertisements help industries to influence consumers to
buy their products. Psychologists have been helping in designing advertisements
which would attract the attention of consumers and effectively convey the
messages so that they are motivated to buy the products.

4.4.2 Psychology and Cognitive Sciences

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, e.g.,
how information is represented and transformed in a brain or in a machine. It
consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial
intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, learning sciences, linguistics,
anthropology, sociology, and education. It spans many levels of analysis, from
low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning;
from neural circuitry to modular brain organisation. The term cognitive science
was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the
Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of Artificial Intelligence
research. In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive
Science Society were founded. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive science).

The cognitive processes such as cognitive learning, memory, creative thinking,

problem solving, decision making are being studied by psychologists and have
been contributing to the field of cognitive science. For example, many modern
organisations are using computers for routine kind of decision making.

4.4.3 Psychology and Environmental Sciences

An off shoot of human factors engineering, is a relatively recent field of
psychology called environmental psychology . This is a broad area of enquiry
and interdisciplinary in nature. The focus of investigation of environmental
psychology is the interrelationship between the physical environment and human
behaviour and experience(Holahan, 1982). Since its inception, environmental
psychology has attracted scholars, researchers and practitioners from a variety
of disciplines, including sociology, geography, anthropology, medicine,
architecture and planning, as well as psychology (Craik, 1970; Prashanky and
Altman, 1979). The study of human behaviour in physical settings requires the
work of researchers in many social sciences as well as that of architects and
planners responsible for the design for the design of human settings.

According to Holahan (1982), the label “environmental psychology” should be

understood to describe the problem area of the field rather than a disciplinary
restriction. Researchers in environmental psychology investigate wide range of
50
questions that involve psychological content—spatial behaviour patterns, mental Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
images, environmental stress, attitude change. The researchers themselves,
however, represent many disciplines including psychology. Research in
environmental psychology is oriented toward both the resolution of practical
problems and the formulation of new theory. Environmental psychologists have
worked in such topics as environmental perception, environmental cognition,
environmental attitudes, performance in learning and work environment, coping
with environmental stress, coping with crowding, privacy and territoriality,
personal space, affiliation and support in the urban environment. These have
applications to environmental planning, for example, reducing urban noise,
designing for the elderly, design strategies in dense environments, territoriality
in institutional environments, humanizing the design of high-rise housing, citizen
participation in urban planning etc.

4.4.4 Psychology, Law and Criminology

Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the criminal
justice system. It involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions,
in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal
professionals. An important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify
in court, reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the
courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in a way that can be
understood. A forensic psychologist can be trained in clinical, social,
organisational or any other branch of psychology. Generally, a forensic
psychologist is designated as an expert in a particular jurisdiction. The number
of jurisdictions in which a forensic psychologist qualifies as an expert, increases
with experience and reputation.

Questions asked by the court of a forensic psychologist are generally not questions
regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response must be in language
the court understands. For example, a forensic psychologist is frequently appointed
by the court to assess a defendant’s competency to stand trial. The court also
frequently appoints a forensic psychologist to assess the state of mind of the
defendant at the time of the offense. This is referred to as an evaluation of the
defendant’s sanity or insanity (which relates to criminal responsibility) at the
time of the offense. These are not primarily psychological questions but rather
legal ones. Thus, a forensic psychologist must be able to translate psychological
information into a legal framework.

Forensic psychologists provide sentencing recommendations, treatment

recommendations, and any other information the judge requests, such as
information regarding mitigating factors, assessment of future risk, and evaluation
of witness credibility. Forensic psychology also involves training and evaluating
police or other law enforcement personnel, providing law enforcement with
criminal profiles and in other ways working with police departments. Forensic
psychologists work both with the Public Defender, the States Attorney, and private
attorneys. Forensic psychologists may also help with jury selection. (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science).

A whole range of topics like criminal profiling to psychopathic personality to

eye witness testimony, to mental and emotional states of victims/witnesses, to
decision making process by the jury members and judges etc., are studied by
51
Introduction to Psychology, forensic psychologists. The findings of these researches have been very helpful
Objectives, Goals
for the legal system to do justice to the honest and punish the guilty.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Environmental psychology is an off shoot of .........................................
2) Forensic psychology is the intersection between ............................ and
the ................................................
3) Environmental psychology has attracted scholars, researchers and
practitioners from a variety of disciplines, including sociology, ............
........................., anthropology, ........................................................, and
architecture and planning
Answers: 1) human factors engineering, 2) psychology, criminal justice
system, 3) geography, medicine

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Application of psychology to other disciplines cannot be overemphasised, even
though, many disciplines have influenced the developments in psychology,

As we have seen in this unit, psychology has significantly contributed in many

ways, to other disciplines, be they physical sciences, biological sciences, social/
behavioural sciences, medical sciences, environmental sciences, cognitive science
or disciplines like engineering, law and criminology. Thus psychology, in spite
of being an independent academic discipline, has close interrelationship with
other disciplines.

4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the relationship of psychology with other academic disciplines.
2) Discuss the application of psychology to biological sciences.
3) How psychology is applied to physical sciences and medical sciences?
4) Briefly discuss the application of psychology to social sciences.
5) Describe some other disciplines, where psychology is applied.

4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. New York:
Psychology Press.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition) New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,

(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..

52
References Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Craik, K. H. (1970). Environmental psychology. In New directions in psychology,

Vol. 4, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Deckro, G. R., Ballinger, K.M., Hoyt, M., Wilcher, M., et al. (20020. The valuation
of a mind/body intervention to reduce psychological distress and perceived stress
in college students. Journal of American College Health, 50(6), 281-287.

Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. New York:

Psychology Press.

Holahan, Charles J. (1982). Environmental psychology. New York: Random

House.

Kirsch, I. & Lynn, S.J. (1999).Automaticity in clinical psychology. American

Psychologist, 54(7), 504-515.

Moerman, D.E. (2002). The meaning response and the ethics of avoiding placebos.
Evaluation & the Health Professions. Special Recent Advances in Placebo
Research, 25(4), 399-409.

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology (2nd edition),

Hyderabad, (India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.

Proshanky, H. M. & Altman, I. (1979). Overview of the field. In W. P. White

(ed.) Resources in environment and behaviour. Washington D. C.: American
Psychological Association.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1970). On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological

Review, 77, 406-418.

Web reference.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science

53