Using multilingual approaches:

moving from theory to practice

A resource book of strategies, activities
and projects for the classroom
Kathleen Heugh, Mei French, Janet Armitage, Kerry Taylor-Leech,
Necia Billinghurst and Sue Ollerhead
Front cover image © Mat Wright
Back cover images © British Council
Using multilingual approaches:
moving from theory to practice
A resource book of strategies, activities
and projects for the classroom
Kathleen Heugh, Mei French, Janet Armitage,
Kerry Taylor-Leech, Necia Billinghurst and Sue Ollerhead
ISBN: 978-0-86355-958-7
British Council
10 Spring Gardens
London SW1A 2BN, UK
www.britishcouncil.org

© British Council 2019. All rights reserved.

This research was commissioned by the British Council
and authored by Kathleen Heugh with Mei French,
Janet Armitage and Necia Billinghurst at the University
of South Australia, Kerry Taylor-Leech at Griffith
University and Sue Ollerhead at Macquarie University.
This publication is for classroom and private study
use only. If you wish to reproduce, scan, transmit or
use this publication or any part of it for any other
purpose, please contact the British Council for written
permission.
The views expressed in this research do not
necessarily represent those of the British Council
and are the Supplier’s own, developed through co-
commissioned research.
Contents
Part 1: Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers
1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 Building on students’ bilingual or multilingual knowledge and learning English 8
1.3 How long does it take to learn a language before one can learn through a language? 9
1.4 Information that is important for teachers and education officers to know 10
1.4.1 Terminology 10
1.4.2 What terms should one use? 11
1.5 Understanding what multilingualism means for education 11
1.5.1 Multilingualism in one place is not the same as in another 11
1.5.2 Different kinds of bi-/multilingualism 12
1.5.3 Purposeful code-switching, translation, translanguaging and bilingual learning 12
1.6 What we already know about multilingualism in education from research in Africa and Asia 12
1.6.1 Overview of key research and collaboration activities relating to multilingual
education in Africa and Asia 14
1.6.2 Summary of the findings, their implications and principles for the teaching of
English and EMI in resource-poor contexts of Africa and Asia 20
1.7 References for Part 1 20

Part 2: Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Activities and projects for the multilingual classroom 27
Project 1: My name 31
Project 2: Linguistic landscape 37
Project 3: Our multilingual class 45
Project 4: Maths – language survey 53
Project 5: Cultural artefacts 59
Project 6: Translation study 65
Project 7: Proverbs 71
Project 8: Procedure texts 77
Project 9: Science – growing grass heads 85
Project 10: Science – nature walk 91
Project 11: Maths – graphing 99
Project 12: Festivals 105
2.3 Projects reference list 110

| 1
Contents
 Part 3: Further resources
3.1 Overview 115
3.2 Sources containing teaching materials organised by teaching activity domain 117
3.3 Additional useful literature and content 125
3.3.1 Additional sources from high-resource contexts 129
3.3.2 Additional sources discussing multilingual education 129
3.4 Gaps in the literature and resources currently available 141

Appendix: Notes on terminology 143

2 |  Contents
 Acknowledgements

The authors and the publication team at the British Council would like to thank the following individuals for their
support for this project.
Stephanie Agius, Julie White and Ning Yue Zhang from the University of South Australia; Bhawna Bajaj, Ambika
Devi, Deepali Dharmaraj, Caroline Grant, Jemima Hughes, Vanessa Komiliades, Amy Lightfoot, Mirrin Raikhan and
Mike Solly from the British Council; freelance consultants Radhika Cherbol and Rama Mathew; Vrishali Ingle and
Lina Mukhopadhyay from the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad; Kunling Liu and Joris Van
den Bosch for kindly enabling us to use the ‘Proverbs’ illustration and Lesley Rhodes for proofreading.
An extra special thank you to all the teachers and teacher educators who participated in the workshop leading
up to this publication, trialled the activities with their students and gave insightful feedback to help us refine the
content: Jenie C Alex, Garima Bhatnagar, Deepti Chawla, Urmila Chowdhury, Monal Dewle, Ekta Goel, Rashmi
Grover, Bushra Imam Khanam, Cheryl R Jacob, CH Jyothi, Kadambari Lohiya, Neeru Lohiya, Chandeep Marwah,
Rajshree Nagarkar, Parul Sethi, Reeta Sharma, Karamjeet Singh, Shefali Srivastava, K Siva Priya and Ritu Tokas.

Acknowledgements | 3

4 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers
Part 1:
Guide for teachers,
teacher educators
and education officers

| 5

6 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers
 Part 1
Guide for teachers,
teacher educators
and education officers
Kathleen Heugh

1.1 Introduction
This book, Using multilingual approaches: moving from theory to practice, is for teachers who teach English as a
subject and for teachers who use English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in classrooms with students
in multilingual societies.1 Historically, two-thirds of the world’s languages (66.5 per cent) come from sub-
Saharan Africa and Asia, but because more and more people are migrating, multilingual classrooms can now be
found all over the world.
The resource book has been developed especially with teachers in low-income communities and/or schools
with limited resources in mind. These are schools where there are few teaching and learning materials and
teachers who have not been provided with professional learning or teacher training to teach students from
diverse language backgrounds. We hope that the resources for teachers that are included here will also be
useful for teachers in well-resourced schools and in professional learning or teacher education programmes in
many parts of the world.
This resource book has three main parts.
A guide that explains relevant research evidence and experience gained from education stakeholders
1 and education systems in Africa and Asia that are important for teachers, parents, teacher educators
and education officials when making informed decisions.
Strategies, activities and projects that teachers can use in their classrooms to supplement existing
2 teaching and learning resources provided by local, national or not-for-profit education stakeholders.
This input has been designed to build on students’ learning and use of their home or local language, the
regular language of the classroom, which may be the regional or national language, and English.
An abridged list of multilingual resources that are also available for teachers to use in classrooms
3 in schools and classrooms with limited resources.2 This list also includes an annotated list of research
publications that can be used by teacher educators and education officials.

1
This resource was initially intended for teachers in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. However, because the principles of
multilingualism in teaching and learning are equally relevant for, and affect so many, educational contexts across Central,
South-East and East Asia, the British Council hopes that this resource can be used as a guide that can be adapted for use by
teachers in many of these contexts.
2
This is a sample of many resources that are likely to be available in different parts of the world.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 7

 The resource book has been developed by building on a. the home/local language
the experience and research evidence collected from
b. a regional or national language where this is
language teaching in education systems in Africa,
different from the home language
South Asia and East Asia. A wide range of stakeholders
(including international agencies such as UNESCO c. an international language such as English
and UNICEF, national ministries of education and in successful education for all students who live in
not-for-profit agencies) now recognise that successful diverse linguistic, cultural and faith-based contexts
education in these regions of the world needs to and communities.
build on the foundations of students’ home language,
ensure adequate access to the national or regional The strategies, activities and projects in this resource
language used for teaching and learning, and also are primarily for teachers who work in classrooms
the best approaches to the learning of a language of with:
international use, such as English.3 ■■ students who speak and use one or more local,
In recent years, the British Council has made regional or national language (i.e. students who are
significant decisions to promote the use of multilingual bilingual or multilingual)
approaches in the teaching of English internationally. ■■ teachers who may or may not have the same
A key public statement on this was made by Martin
languages as their students
Davidson, the Council’s Chief Executive Officer in
2013, who announced a policy change where the ■■ classrooms that have few or limited resources.
British Council had taken the decision that in future,
support for English is as a language in addition to
the languages spoken by individuals, not instead of 1.2 Building on students’ bilingual or
them. It is English in the context of multilingualism multilingual knowledge and learning
that we wish to promote, not English as a dominant English
or domineering language.4 Common for most teachers who are teaching students
This is an important change for many teachers to learn English in Africa and Asia is that students
and education decision makers, who for the last already have at least one home or local language in
century have assumed that all students need to learn addition to what they are learning at school. They
through either a national language or an international already know how to use this language (sometimes
language such as English.5 It is very difficult for more than one language) and they are likely to know
teachers and parents to change the way they have how to use their multilingualism to communicate
understood the across language barriers outside of formal education.
best approaches for In other words, students
An important objective Students come to come to school with their
successful education
of this resource is to school with their own substantial language
for more than one
provide information that own substantial repertoires. They can use
generation. An
can contribute towards language their language repertoires
important objective
‘informed’ decisions repertoires. to communicate about
of this resource is to
provide information for educational change knowledge that they have
that can contribute that can advantage all learned at home and in their local community. This
towards ‘informed’ students. can include knowledge about language and of local
decisions for beliefs, culture, environment, history, livelihoods,
educational change that can advantage all students, safety and well-being. Luis Moll and colleagues in
so that students from minority language backgrounds the southern states of the USA that are close to
can escape ongoing marginalisation. Mexico have called this ‘funds of knowledge’. Moll and
colleagues have drawn attention to how important it is
The fundamental principle of this book is to provide an to build on students’ funds of knowledge as a key goal
up-to-date understanding of the importance and role of good educational practice everywhere.6
of:

3
See UNESCO reports authored by Ouane & Glanz (2010) and edited by Ouane & Glanz (2011).
4
Davidson in his opening speech at the British Council Conference in Cape Town in 2013 (published in Davidson 2014,
p. 5). See also Anderson & Lightfoot 2018; Boruah & Hughes 2018; Coleman (ed.) 2011; Simpson 2016, 2017.
5
See also the British Council’s position on English language and medium of instruction in basic education in low- and middle-
income countries: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/english-language-medium-instruction-basic-education-low-middle-
income-countries-a-british
6
Luis Moll et al. 1992.

8 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 In most countries in Africa and Asia, students are California and one of the first scholars to conduct
expected to learn and use a regional or national a longitudinal study of different kinds of bilingual
language of wider communication (lingua franca) programmes in the USA,9 explains the process of
(e.g. Amharic, Bahasa Malaysia, Bahasa Indonesia, learning English by comparing this with baking a
Hindi, Kiswahili, Putonghua, Tetum, Tamil, Vietnamese) cake or a loaf of bread. He explains this by asking the
in school. Almost certainly, education authorities and following question:
parents also want students to learn an international
If we think about language learning as something
language, which is often English – particularly in those
like baking a cake or bread in an oven, and that if
countries with an earlier history of British colonial
it takes one hour to bake a cake or a loaf of bread
rule. Even in countries where English was not the
in an oven at 150 degrees Celsius, but if we want
former colonial language, decisions are being made
to bake this in half an hour, so we turn up the oven
to introduce English as a significant language for
to 300 degrees, what happens when we take the
learning in schools. This includes many countries
baking tin out of the oven?
in Asia, for example China, Kazakhstan, Japan and
Vietnam, and countries in Africa, including Ethiopia, The answer, of course, is that the cake or bread will
Mozambique, Rwanda and Senegal. be burnt on the outside and raw in the middle. For
school children or students, this means that on the
In this resource, taking our cue from Martin Davidson’s
outside it may look as if the children have learned
statement about the new focus of the British Council,
English (they may seem to say a few words or simple
we focus on English in relation to the local, regional
sentences in English, and they may be able ‘to read’
or national, and international contexts where
by sounding out words). However, they probably
governments and parents have high expectations
cannot understand what they are reading in English
of teachers and their children about how quickly
in order to understand simple tasks in mathematics
English can be learned. There is often an unrealistic
and science. They will be unlikely to understand
expectation that students will be able to both learn
information needed for learning in (for example)
English as a subject and learn English well enough
history or geography, so they cannot understand or
to learn through English (i.e. English as medium of
learn important ideas and information in the school
instruction, or EMI).7
curriculum. This means that learning does not really
happen, and we find out later that students are not
achieving the results that parents and teachers
1.3 How long does it take to learn a expected. Instead, students often must repeat
language before one can learn through classes/grades or they stop attending school all
a language? together. Ajit Mohanty in India says that students
The truth is that under the best-resourced conditions, don’t ‘drop out’ of school, they are ‘pushed out’.10
students need a minimum of six years of learning It is not that students
English as a subject in ‘fail’. Rather, it is the
primary school before Under the best- Students cannot education system that fails
they have enough resourced conditions, learn what they students. Students cannot
English to study through students need a cannot understand. learn what they cannot
the medium of English. minimum of six years understand.
In less well-resourced of learning English
Ramirez taught us that it is not possible to speed up
conditions, students are as a subject in
the language-learning process. The brain needs time
likely to need at least primary school
for students to learn a new language well enough
eight years of learning before they have
to use it for learning in school. This is the same for
English as a subject enough English to
students wherever they are in the world.
before they can begin study through the
to learn through English medium of English. Research in several countries in Africa, including
(EMI).8 Ethiopia, Nigeria and South Africa, has shown that
learning enough English in order to learn through
David Ramirez, an expert on bilingual education from
English in six years depends on how well the teachers

7
See, for example, several authors in Coleman (ed.) 2011.
8
Heugh 1999, 2006; Ouane & Glanz 2010, 2011.
9
David Ramirez, a language education specialist from the USA, led one of the first longitudinal studies in the USA that measured
how long and under what conditions students can learn a second language (English) well enough to learn other subjects
through English (Ramirez et al. 1991). His anecdote about the cake was shared with Kathleen Heugh in 1996 (Ramirez, personal
communication, 1996).
10
Mohanty 2009.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 9

 already know English The constitution or another legal document in each
and how well they have Learning enough country is likely to have designated at least one
been prepared to teach English in order language to have the function and status of either
English. It also depends to learn through the official or national language (e.g. Amharic in
on whether students English in six years Ethiopia, Kiswahili in Tanzania and Kenya, Filipino in
have enough books in depends on how well the Philippines, Nepali in Nepal).
English for reading and the teachers already
In some countries, languages used by large
taking home on a regular know English and how
communities of speakers may be called regional,
basis.11 well they have been
state or provincial languages. For example, in Nigeria,
prepared to teach
Further research in Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo are languages that are
English.
Africa (in Ethiopia and widespread across much of the country, and these are
South Africa) involving regarded as regional languages. Regional languages
system-wide assessment carried out over many years also occur as cross-border or transborder languages,
has shown that even when teachers are well trained such as Setswana in Botswana and South Africa;
and well prepared, if students are in schools with few Chichewa in Malawi and Zambia; Kiswahili in Kenya,
resources and there are not enough books for each Tanzania and Uganda; Bengali/Bangla in Bangladesh
student to use in class for reading or to take home, and India; and Urdu in Pakistan and India.
students may need eight years or more for learning
In some cases, even if languages are accorded
English before they can use English for learning other
regional status in legislation, as in Ethiopia, there can
subjects (EMI).12
be significant differences in terms of their real status.
Students are often expected to change from learning For example, in Ethiopia, Afaan Oromo which is spoken
through their home or local language to learning by about 33 per cent of the population, Somali and
through English (EMI) in primary school. Many parents Tigrinya each of which are spoken by about 6 per
move their children into private and independent cent, and Afar which is spoken by 1.7 per cent all have
schools so that their children can be taught through the status of a regional language. The term regional
English earlier than is likely in state-provided language in Ethiopia does not have the same meaning
education. However, evidence shows that few children as it may have in Nigeria or other parts of Africa.
learn English any faster by being taught earlier.13
The term medium of
Parents who pay expensive school fees for English-
The term medium instruction is also known
medium schools in primary schools in Africa and Asia
of instruction is as the language of
are often disappointed to find that their sacrifice is
also known as the learning and teaching
not rewarded.14
language of learning in some countries. The
and teaching in some medium of instruction
countries. may be the national or
1.4 Information that is important for official language (e.g.
teachers and education officers to know Kiswahili in primary schools in Tanzania), but in Kenya,
1.4.1 Terminology Kiswahili is not the medium of instruction in primary
In this resource book, we use several terms when schools. In Ethiopia, Amharic, the national working
discussing the different languages that students and language, is the medium of instruction in the Amhara
teachers have access to and that they can use in the Region and the capital city of the country, but not in
classroom together with English. People use a range other regions, where one or more regional languages
of different terms that may have similar meanings. are used as medium of instruction in primary
For example, mother tongue/mother language, home education.
language, first language (L1) and local language all
In India, although Hindi is one of 22 scheduled
refer to the student’s initial language or the language
languages and although it is not identified as the
that the student knows best upon entry to primary
country’s national language, in practice its status is
school.
such that most students are expected to learn Hindi in
school, particularly in the northern states. The three-

11
Fafunwa, Macauley & Soyinka 1989; Bamgbose 2000; Alidou et al. 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a; Reeves et al. 2008; Ouane & Glanz 2010.
12
Heugh 1999, 2000, 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a.
13
Macdonald 1990; Pretorius 2002; Pretorius and Ribbens 2005; Heugh 2000, 2006.
14
See several chapters in Coleman 2011.

10 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 language formula for school education in India means some flexible guidelines and principles to keep in
that each child is entitled to either mother-tongue or mind when working with students from multilingual
regional language as medium of instruction in primary communities. A multilingual classroom is one in which
school, and, in effect, also either the dominant there are students who know and use two or more
regional/state language or Hindi and English after the languages in their home or community. It is also one
fifth year of school. where students are expected to learn two or more
languages. In some multilingual classrooms, teachers
1.4.2 What terms should one use?
have been encouraged not to use their students’
As indicated earlier, the terms mother language,
languages and to focus only on the languages taught
mother tongue, first language (L1) and local language
in school. The focus here is therefore to find and
can refer to the same concept – the language that
suggest ways to include the students’ own languages
the student knows best. In some communities, it may
and to add the languages being taught at school to
seem that the students speak a ‘mixed’ or multilingual
their repertoire.
variety of language. It does not matter which one of
these terms you use. What is important is that you It is important for all stakeholders involved in
use the term that is used by most people in your educational decision making to recognise that –
community or the place where you are teaching. depending on the number of speakers of languages
and the political and/or social status of the
There are several terms that people use when
communities who use these languages – multilingual
discussing how people can use two or more
societies are hierarchically structured with unequal
languages (i.e. they are bilingual or multilingual) or
consequences in education.16 Ajit Mohanty calls this
when they mix languages (code-mixing practices)
the ‘double divide’, where students from minority
or alternate between two or more languages (code-
language communities experience marginalisation
switching, sometimes also called translanguaging).15
from the state or regional language community, from
People use several of these terms when discussing a language such as Hindi, which although not officially
the same language practice, and sometimes the designated a national language has privileged status
meaning of these terms changes depending on who in India, and also from access to English.
uses them and for what reason or purpose. Because
This ‘double divide’ may also be found in other
this can be confusing, we have included further notes
contexts where the speakers of a language that
on terminology which you can find on page 144.
is spoken by a small minority community (e.g.
Gamo in Ethiopia, Hmong in Thailand and Vietnam,
Khoekhoegowab in Namibia and South Africa) find
1.5 Understanding what multilingualism themselves facing more obstacles in education than
means for education students whose home language is either the national
1.5.1 Multilingualism in one place is not the same language or a relatively
as in another Unless the students’ powerful regional language.
It is not always easy to understand what primary languages
We now know that unless
multilingualism means in education because have visibility
the students’ primary
multilingualism and use in the
languages have visibility
in one context is classroom, minority
A multilingual classroom and use in the classroom,
not the same as students will not
is one in which there minority students will not
it is in another. achieve well at
are students who know achieve well at school.
Because there are school.
and use two or more Ironically, some of the most
so many different
languages in their home marginalised language communities of the world
interpretations of
or community. It is also live in countries that are regarded as high-income
multilingualism
one where students are and ‘developed’. This is the case for the Indigenous
across the many
expected to learn two or languages of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
countries in Africa
more languages. communities of Australasia, and Indigenous language
and Asia, we can
communities in North America.
only provide

15
Heugh 2015, 2018; French 2018; Van Avermaet et al. 2018.
16
See the discussion of inequalities of multilingualism in India (Mohanty 2009, 2012, 2018), in the Philippines (Tupas 2015) and also
in many parts of the world, particularly as a result of migration (Lorente 2017).

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 11

 1.5.2 Different kinds of bi-/multilingualism education, job applications, upper levels of the formal
There are many different approaches that can economy and government agencies). For this reason,
be taken when using two or more languages for the purposeful use of two or more languages, and
learning in the classroom at the same time. The aim translanguaging that develops students’ capability
of this resource book is to support strong biliteracy in interpreting and translation between and across
(i.e. literacy in the home/local and the regional/ languages, is an
national language) or triliteracy (local, regional and Translanguaging that important priority.
international language, i.e. English), where possible. is used purposefully to Translanguaging
In order to do this, we encourage purposeful use of encourage students to that is used
code-switching, translation and translanguaging. work through a normal purposefully to
process of language- encourage students
1.5.3 Purposeful code-switching, translation,
learning mixing, to work through a
translanguaging and bilingual learning
switching, interpreting normal process of
One of the most successful approaches to bilingual
and translating towards language-learning
teaching and learning has been the purposeful and
being able to use two mixing, switching,
simultaneous use of two languages in the same
or more languages interpreting and
classroom. This approach has had several names
as independent and translating towards
over the years. It was first called the ‘dual-medium
separate languages being able to
approach to the bilingual school’ in South Africa in
must be an important use two or more
one of the earliest studies of bilingual schooling.
objective for students in languages as
The principles of dual-medium education have
Africa and Asia. independent and
similarities with purposeful use of code-switching, as
separate languages
identified in the Welsh model of translanguaging (TL)
must be an important objective for students in Africa
described by Cen Williams (1996). The Welsh model
and Asia. Purposeful translanguaging that prepares
of translanguaging involves the careful and planned
students for successful achievement in high-stakes
use of two languages, Welsh and English. The lesson
testing/assessment in at least one of a local/regional/
begins (preview) in Welsh, the next part of the lesson
national language and an international language
(view) is in English, the third part of the lesson (review)
of wider communication (e.g. English) is a highly
is in Welsh. The next-day sequence of languages could
desirable objective and outcome for education
be switched around. This approach to translanguaging
systems in these contexts.
is consistent with purposeful use of code-switching,
as evidenced in three decades of research in
Hong Kong.17 We use the concept of ‘purposeful
translanguaging’ here to distinguish between another 1.6 What we already know about
approach to translanguaging that has been favoured multilingualism in education from research
in some large cities of North America and the UK. in Africa and Asia
This is where bi-/multilingual students are in the Since two-thirds of the world’s languages have
minority and teachers use a more informal approach emerged among communities of people living
to translanguaging in order to help minority language in Africa and Asia, it is not surprising that people
students to feel included rather than excluded by the living in these continents are more likely to live in
majority of English speakers in the community.18 The multilingual communities than in any other part of
purpose is different in contexts where the majority the world. Owing to different histories and patterns
of students do not speak English; instead, they have of colonisation, the provision of formal education
strong capability in at least one local language, by government administrations in African and
often in two or more languages. These students Asian countries has resulted in both similarities
do not need to develop their informal multilingual and differences that have impacted on language
(or translanguaging) practices; rather, they need education policies. British colonial rule, accompanied
to develop high-level expertise in two or more by missionary activity, resulted in some attention
languages that are used in contexts where language towards the use of local and regional languages for
mixing is not encouraged or tolerated (e.g. in higher the first few years of primary schooling with transition

17
Lin 2013; Swain, Kirkpatrick & Cummins 2011; Heugh 2015, 2018; French 2018.
18
See García 2009; García & Wei 2014.

12 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 to English. French, Portuguese and Spanish colonial policies took a different direction, with provision mostly or
only in the colonial language.
Early interest in the use of indigenous languages in education in Africa from not-for-profit and philanthropic
agencies resulted in a history of collecting data of student achievement in different kinds of language education
systems from the 1920s onwards. There does not appear to have been a similar history of this kind of data
collection in Asian countries. We therefore have more statistical data from Africa and a considerable body of
language policy in education debate and analysis. We also have a large body of
Most students cannot qualitative research data from Asia and contributions to the debates about what
achieve high-level multilingualism in education means. Together, the research, experiences and
proficiency in English expertise are complementary, and it is important that we share this information
unless they develop across both continents.
high-level proficiency The following pages introduce some key research which provides evidence for
in their home how students best use their languages for learning, and why it is necessary to
language build on a strong foundation of literacy and knowledge in the home or local
language in order to learn English (or any other additional language) successfully.

Teachers, parents and teacher educators need to know that:

■■ students can only learn through the languages that they know and understand

■■  ost students cannot achieve high-level proficiency in English unless they develop high-level
m
proficiency in their home language

■■ s tudents cannot use EMI for learning across the curriculum successfully unless they have strong
proficiency in their home language and they have developed literacy in both their home language and
English.19

19
Heugh 2006, UNESCO 2016.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 13

 Overview of key research
and collaboration
activities relating to
multilingual education The Six-Year Primary Project (SYPP) in Nigeria
(1970–76) gave us important research
in Africa and Asia information. Most students in Nigerian primary
schools had three years of mother-tongue
medium education followed by transition to EMI
The first compelling research findings came in the fourth year. In the SYPP, students who
from a study of student achievement in learned through the medium of home language
different kinds of bilingual and trilingual (Yoruba) for the first six years of primary
education in South Africa from the early 1930s education, and who also learned English taught
onwards. This research shows that students by a well-trained specialist teacher in English,
in classrooms where two languages (Afrikaans outperformed students who had three years of
and English) are purposefully used together home-language medium, followed by transition
in the same ‘dual language bilingual school’,20 to EMI for the fourth to sixth years.21 We now
students achieve higher levels of overall academic know that these were the first international findings
success than students who study through only on the minimum number of years learners need in
one language. They also achieve higher levels order to learn enough English in order to switch
of bilingual proficiency than students in other over and to learn through the medium of English.
kinds of bilingual schools, and they demonstrate The findings also have important implications for
greater understanding and acceptance of socio- the role of the English language specialist teacher.
cultural diversity. This type of bilingual school was These findings have been confirmed in subsequent
developed for students from disadvantaged, rural studies in the USA and across Africa.22
communities and within poorly resourced schools.

© Mat Wright
After independence from Britain in the mid 1960s,
governments in 19 countries in Africa thought it would
make sense for all students to go to school and to
learn through English as early as possible. Policymakers
thought that in countries where people speak many
different languages, an English-only or English-mainly
education system would help to build national unity and
ensure equal access to school for all children. By the late
1970s, however, the research findings began to show
that early literacy (reading) programmes that began
with English rather than the local language (e.g. in
Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia) did not show the
success that had been anticipated (e.g. Bamgbose 1982;
Heugh 1987).

20
Malherbe 1946
21
Fafunwa, Macauley & Soyinka 1989; Bamgbose 2000.
22
Ramirez et al. 1991; Thomas & Collier 1997, 2002; Collier & Thomas 2004; Heugh 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a.

14 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 In another longitudinal study in South Africa, the important role of literacy
in language learning and changing medium of instruction became evident.
It was found that the focus of literacy teaching and learning in the first three to
four years of primary (Grades/Years 1–3/4) is teaching students how to read, or
‘learning to read’ (usually stories). The focus on reading from the fourth year of
school (Grades/Years 4/5–7) is on ‘reading to learn’. This means that from Year/
Grade 4 or 5 onwards, the focus of reading turns towards reading in order to
understand and learn across the whole curriculum. These are two very different
kinds of reading.23 In EMI contexts across sub-Saharan Africa, students may learn
to read stories (narratives) in their home/local language but are expected to
switch to reading across the curriculum in their second language (L2), English,
by the third or fourth year, if not sooner. Macdonald (1990) found that all
students, even home-language speakers of English, find the switch from
‘learning to read’ to ‘reading to learn’ very difficult at the Grade 4–5 level.
The challenge for students whose home language is not English is even
greater. We have also found similar difficulties for students in relation to French
and Portuguese in the countries that were previously colonised by France
and Portugal. Students in these countries face a double hurdle, and in most
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the number of students who begin to fall out
(or are ‘pushed out’) of the school system from fourth and fifth grade increases
exponentially.24

Analyses of school-exit (Grade/Year 12)

Similar findings were identified in studies across
achievement in South Africa from 1955 to 1975,
sub-Saharan Africa, and these were confirmed
during a period in which these students were
in a system-wide study of medium of instruction
in poorly resourced schools, have shown that
in Ethiopia (2006–07).26 We now know that the
students who receive home-language (L1) or
longer that students have home language(s) as
mother-tongue medium education (MTM) for
the medium of instruction, the more likely they
eight years with a late switch to English- (and
are to remain in school to the end of secondary
Afrikaans-) medium education in the ninth
school. We also know that after five years
grade have higher levels of achievement in
investing in the use of the home or local language
school-exit examinations than students with
as the main medium of teaching students,
only four years of MTE (1976–1996) and the
governments find that there is a positive return on
students with fewer than four years of MTE since
their investment.27
1997. 25

23
Macdonald 1990; Pretorius 2002; Pretorius & Ribbens 2005.
24
Bamgbose 2000; Heugh 2006; Ouane & Glanz 2010, 2011.
25
Heugh 2006.
26
Heugh 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a.
27
Grin 2005; Heugh in Alidou et al. 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 15

 A close examination of literacy practices (teaching and
learning) conducted in a 25-country study for UNESCO
(2005–2006), and a follow-up study in Limpopo Province,
South Africa,28 found that most teachers in both early
primary and upper primary classes do not know how
to support either ‘learning to read’ or ‘reading to
learn’ in the home language or English. This is also the
case in African countries where students are expected
to learn through French or Portuguese in primary school
rather than the home/local language. In the Limpopo
study, almost no independent student writing was found
to be taking place in classrooms across the province at
the time of the study. Students were seldom given access
to classroom readers (sets of reading books). Teachers
kept these locked up in classroom cupboards in order
to keep them in good condition, rather than give them
to students to read. Teachers then were confused about
literacy pedagogies and expectations, and teacher-

© Mat Wright
training (professional learning) programmes at local
universities did not focus on the practice of teaching
reading or writing techniques/pedagogies.

System-wide assessment, using a multilingual

Teachers in most multilingual countries use
approach to assessment, for mathematics
code-switching when explaining concepts and
and language for 75,000 Grade 8 students in
information to students in the classroom, but
the Western Cape Province in South Africa30
they feel guilty about doing so. In other words,
demonstrates the kind of consequences of
they use the home or local language to explain
poor literacy (reading and writing) teaching
information that students need to learn in English,
and learning by the time students reach
and then they often write notes on the chalkboard
secondary school. Students in this study had
only in English. Students in African countries
been able to reach Grade 8 unable to read or
seldom read or write text in their home language
write in any language. They were able to respond
after the second or third year of primary school.
to examination or assessment tasks based on
Even though the teacher may write notes in
multiple-choice items only, and by randomly
English on the board, the students cannot read and
selecting possible answers. There was no evidence
understand what the notes mean in English. After
of learning having taken place. This study also
transcribing the notes into their exercise books,
shows how purposeful use of three languages can
students often cannot read these or explain their
be made in assessment, for both languages as
meaning the next day. These findings are regularly
subjects and mathematics. The language practices
also found in field research in many countries in
of students who have learned to read can involve
East and Southern Africa and in South and East
what is now called translanguaging, for example
Asia.29
reading across three languages, in order to
understand and solve a mathematical problem.

28
Reeves et al. 2008
For example, Alidou et al. 2006; Heugh et al. 2007a; Reeves et al. 2008; Swain, Kirkpatrick & Cummins 2011; Lin 2013;
29 

Mohanty 2018.
30
Heugh et al. 2007b.

16 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 Further diagnostic analysis of first-year student
assessment in an Australian university indicates
that students who develop strong academic
literacy in the home language (e.g. Putonghua
and Cantonese) throughout their primary and
secondary schooling, and who are taught
English as a subject for 12 years of school, Discussions about how best to implement
achieve more highly than students who switch multilingual approaches in school education have
to EMI before the end of secondary school. A involved close collaboration among not-for-profit
significant finding is that high-achieving students organisations and scholars in India and Southern
can translate effectively between their home Africa. For example, between 1991 and 1996,
language and English. Less successful students Rama Kant Agnihotri from the University of
demonstrate limited capability in translation Delhi visited South Africa on several occasions
between the two languages.31 In a longitudinal to collaborate with colleagues on multilingual
study (2008–18), the use of ‘purposeful approaches to education.32 Agnihotri inspired
translanguaging’, including specific opportunities the development of a flexible approach to
to translate text from the students’ home language bilingual and multilingual education in South
to English and back again, has been found to Africa and ideas for how to build on the
increase academic literacy in both languages. languages that students bring to the classroom
Translation further supports learning across the even if the teacher does not know these
university curriculum. languages.

Exchange of research knowledge between India

and Africa has been important for developments
in both contexts for several decades. The three-
language formula for education in India has
influenced language education policy in many
countries in Africa since the 1970s. India’s three-
language policy for most students has come to mean:
mother tongue or a regional language, a regional
language or Hindi, and (usually) English. This has been
interpreted elsewhere as the national/official language,
a regional or provincial language, and English (or
French or Portuguese). However, scholar Ajit Mohanty
has pointed out that the three-language formula is not
enough for minority communities who may need four
languages. For example, in Odisha state in India, Tribal
students who speak Saora may need this language,
the state language Odia, Hindi and English. In most
© Mat Wright

countries of Africa, students need a minimum of three

languages. For example, in Tanzania, students will need
at least three languages, for example Sukuma, Kiswahili
and English.

31
Heugh, Li & Song 2017.
32 
See video, Yo dude! Cosa wena kyk a? Achmat & Lewis 1992; Agnihotri 1995. The book Multilingual Education for South Africa
has several chapters in which educators discuss how they use multilingual resources in early years (pre-school/kindergarten)
(Robb 1995), including developing bilingual or multilingual textbooks (McCallum 1995). The Power of Babel: support for teachers
in multilingual classrooms (De Klerk 1996) followed soon after.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 17

 Agnihotri has made a considerable contribution There is a body of valuable research on
to multilingual education for children in poorly multilingual education in South-East Asia. This
resourced contexts of India, often working includes the rapid take-up of what has come to
with community-based and non-government be known as mother-tongue-based multilingual
organisations (e.g. Eklavya in Bhopal and the education (MTB-MLE). Developments in
Vidya Bhawan Society in Udaipur). Together multilingual education in Thailand are documented
with a colleague, Agnihotri coined the term in a detailed report in a recent UNICEF publication
‘multilinguality’ (Agnihotri 2007, 2014) to authored by Kirk Person.34 A substantial body
explain how all people have the capacity of work that precedes this, and co-ordinated
to develop multilingual expertise and to through the UNESCO office in Bangkok (including
draw upon their multilingual resources. He the Multilingual Education Working Group), can be
suggests that in countries like India, people have traced through the list of references in this report
multilinguality rather than one specific language. and on the UNESCO Bangkok website.35

Through his work with marginalised communities

like the Saora, Ajit Mohanty shows that many
children are ‘pushed out of school’ simply
because teachers are told not to use the
students’ languages, even though the students
cannot understand the school language.
He points out that minority children in a highly
multilingual country like India experience
additional layers of marginality, and what he calls
the ‘double divide’ between those who access
power and those who cannot.33 Mohanty’s lifetime
research, including 20 years with colleagues from
Jawaharlal Nehru University, is best represented
in his recent volume (Mohanty 2018). In this
publication he illustrates the cognitive necessity
© Mat Wright

of multilingual approaches to education based

on his research among marginalised and Tribal
communities in India.

33
Mohanty 2009, 2012, 2019.
34
Person 2018, UNICEF report; see also Premsrirat & Person 2018.
35
https://bangkok.unesco.org/
36
Lo Bianco 2016

18 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers

 Increasingly, as a result of the rapid rise in
human mobility, displacement and conflict,
there will be a need to consider how
multilingualism in education can support social
cohesion. Joseph Lo Bianco’s work in South-

© Mat Wright
East Asia is significant here,36 and so too is the
work conducted by the High Commissioner for
the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in
Europe.37

An increasing number of international agencies

support the promotion of multilingualism in
education. These include the Salzburg Global
Seminar, an international not-for-profit think-
tank that released the ‘Salzburg Statement for
a Multilingual World’ on International Mother
Language Day, 21 February 2018.38 The British
Council, together with the trustees of the
Language and Development Conference Series,
has played an important role in sharing research
information about the need for a multilingual
approach to education in several recently co-
hosted conferences and co-published publications.
In these, the policy decision to support the
learning and teaching of English alongside, and
not as an alternative to or replacement for, local
© Mat Wright

languages demonstrates a consistent policy shift

towards prioritising the learning of students’ home
or local languages and multilingualism around the
world.

37
https://www.osce.org/hcnm
38
https://www.salzburgglobal.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Documents/2010-2019/2017/Session_586/EN_SalzburgGlobal_
Statement_586_-_Multilingual_World_English.pdf

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 19

 Summary of the findings, their implications and ■■ Although teachers in many countries feel they
principles for the teaching of English and EMI in are doing something wrong when they use code-
resource-poor contexts of Africa and Asia. switching or translanguaging practices (alternating
■■ The languages and knowledge resources that between students’ languages and English) to help
students bring into the classroom are the most students understand the content of lessons (e.g.
important building blocks for successful learning Heugh 2000; Swain, Kirkpatrick & Cummins 2011;
and achievement at school. Lin 2013), when it is done systematically, it is good
teaching practice. But this alternating of two or
■■ Literacy development in the home/local language more languages needs to be in both spoken and
in the first three to four grades of primary school written form so that students can develop strong
establishes ‘learning to read’. This process needs reading and writing in each of these languages
to continue through Grades 4–7 in order to help (Reeves et al. 2008).
students to develop their capability in ‘reading to
learn’. ■■ Several collections of research (Coleman 2011;
McIlwraith 2013, 2014) edited on behalf of the
■■ Ideally, children should have exposure to early Language & Development Conferences and the
reading and pre-literacy in the home and local British Council indicate that the aspiration for
community, in early years or pre-primary classes. English is often much greater than the capacity
This may be difficult to achieve where the and capability to deliver it unless greater attention
languages of minority communities have not been is paid to teaching and learning of the home/local
transcribed and/or there are very few written texts languages of students, most especially in poorly
in these languages. In such cases, teachers need resourced schools.
to encourage parents and communities to share
oral histories and narratives in the local languages
as much as possible to ensure rich vocabulary and
language development in the home and community. 1.7 References
Achmat, Z. and Lewis, J. (1992). Yo dude! Cosa
■■ Literacy development in the second or third wena kyk a? The multilingual classroom. Cape Town:
language (e.g. the regional or national language National Language Project. https://www.youtube.com/
and English) needs to mirror as far as possible watch?v=rhzhq46gLCo
literacy development in the home/local language,
but it cannot replace home or local language Agnihotri, R.K. (1995). Multilingualism as a classroom
literacy development. resource. In K. Heugh, A. Siegrühn and P. Plüddemann
(eds), Multilingual Education for South Africa, pp. 3–14.
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Agnihotri, R.K. (2007). Towards a pedagogical
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paradigm rooted in multilinguality. International
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Multilingual Research Journal, 1/2: 79–88.
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English. 364–379. doi:10.1080/14790718.2014.921181.

■■ Students in resource-poor contexts are likely to Agnihotri, R.K., Gupta, A.S. & Khanna, A.L. (eds) (2017).
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subject before they can learn effectively through BlackSwan.
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indicate that it is advisable to continue to support & Wolf, H.E. (2006). Optimizing learning and education
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to have a guilt-free life using Cantonese in the English
class: A handbook for the English language teacher
in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Research Centre into
Language Acquisition and Education in Multilingual
Societies, Hong Kong Institute of Education.
Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (1997). School Effectiveness
for Language Minority Students. (National
Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education NCBE Resource
Collection Series: 9). Washington, DC: National
Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. http://www.
ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/resource/effectiveness/, accessed
on 15 December 2005.
Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (2002). A National Study of
School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students’
Long-term Academic Achievement. Santa Cruz, CA and
Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education,
Diversity & Excellence. http://www.crede.org/research/
llaa/1.1es.html, accessed on 31 May 2005.
Tupas, R. (2015). Inequalities of multilingualism:
Challenges to mother tongue-based multilingual
education. Language and Education, 29(2): 112–124.
UNESCO (2016). If you don’t understand, how can you
learn? Policy Paper 24. Global Education Monitoring
Report.
Van Avermaet, P., Slembrouck, S., Van Gorp, K.,
Sierens, S. & Maryns, K. (eds) (2018). The Multilingual
Edge of Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Williams, C. (1996). Secondary education: Teaching
in the bilingual situation. In C. Williams, G. Lewis &
C. Baker (eds.), The Language Policy: Taking Stock.
Llangefni (Wales): CAI.

Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers | 23

24 |  Guide for teachers, teacher educators and education officers
Part 2:
Strategies, activities
and projects for the
classroom

| 25

26 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Part 2
Strategies, activities
and projects for the
classroom

2.1 Introduction
The content of this resource book has been developed mainly for use by teachers of English as a subject
and EMI. In this study we identified what was already available and where the gaps are. We have used this
information, together with the key findings, implications and principles identified in Part 1, to design sets of
activities (projects) for teachers to use in schools and communities with few resources.
The activities are designed to strengthen bi-/multilingual pedagogy, including purposeful translanguaging in
the teaching of English and through English. They are explicitly designed for use in sub-Saharan Africa and
South and East Asia, but we suggest that teachers wherever there are classrooms with students from diverse
backgrounds can use these resources as supplements to regular teaching and learning materials. We advise
teachers to use the activities and projects as flexible guides and to adapt them to suit their students’ age, ability
and contexts where they teach.
The theory and pedagogy that are being used in these activities have been designed to:
a. focus on strong bi-/multilingual pedagogy that includes ‘purposeful translanguaging’ (Heugh 2015, 2018;
French 2018) between the home/local language, the main classroom language (which may be the regional or
national language) and English, that encourages as close as possible simultaneous development of high-level
academic literacy in these languages (i.e. bi-/multilingualism)
b. build teacher confidence, voice and agency in reflexive action-based sustainable pedagogy that includes
students’ languages, knowledges, cultures and faiths or beliefs
c. ensure strong connections for teachers among key principles of multilingual teaching and practical and
classroom-based activities.

2.2 Activities and projects for the multilingual classroom

The next section includes 12 projects with a number of activities for you to use with your learners. The projects
cover a range of different subjects, including language, maths and science. As you read through the ideas,
please note the following:
■■ The projects and activities include suggested grade levels. However, most of them can be adapted to suit
different ages.

■■ The projects and activities are not set in stone – they are provided as examples of what you can try with your
learners. Don’t be afraid to adapt and experiment, keeping in mind the key principles and strategies we have
outlined on pages 28–29.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 27

 Key principles
The resource book is founded on the following:
PRINCIPLE 1: The home and/or local languages that students bring to school are important foundations
for learning additional languages in school. English does not and cannot replace the local, regional or
national languages in the education of students in Africa and Asia.
PRINCIPLE 2: The home/local language is the foundation for all learning in school. It is in this language
that students bring their prior knowledge to school, and upon which school education needs to build.
PRINCIPLE 3: Students need a minimum of six years under well-resourced conditions or a minimum of
eight years under less well-resourced conditions to learn enough of a second or third language (e.g.
English) before they are ready to learn through this language.
PRINCIPLE 4: Development of strong biliteracy and triliteracy (where possible) for successful learning
across the curriculum needs careful planning and attention throughout the primary school years, and
preferably also in secondary schooling.
PRINCIPLE 5: Purposeful use of code-switching and translanguaging is an important bi-/multilingual
pedagogy for teaching students to develop high-level capability and expertise in at least two languages.
PRINCIPLE 6: Some students will need to develop high-level proficiency in a minimum of two languages
(the national and international language); most will need to have high-level proficiency in three languages
(local, regional or national, and the international language); and many will need high-level proficiency in
four languages (local minority, regional, national and international).1
Each of these principles has implications for education systems, including teacher education and
professional development of all education decision makers. This includes parents, who need to make
educational decisions on behalf of children.

What does a multilingual classroom look like?

Here are some practical ideas for making your classroom visibly multilingual.
■■ Labels: for example, the features of the classroom (such as the window, door, blackboard, cupboard) in both
the target language (e.g English) and the students’ home language(s). Use different-coloured pens or card to
help distinguish the different languages. If the multilingual students are literate in their home language, they
can help write the translated labels themselves.

■■ Multilingual word wall: create an evolving word wall in the classroom by posting up useful words and
expressions in the students’ home languages (for example, ‘hello’, ‘goodbye’, ‘sorry’, ‘thank you’). Seek out
opportunities to invite students to contribute new words. Use different coloured pens or card to distinguish
the languages.

■■ Multilingual reading material: start/create a collection of books, magazines, leaflets and other reading
materials in the languages that your students speak and add these items to your reading corner. You could
also encourage your students to write their own stories, which they can then translate into the other known
languages in the classroom, thus creating their own multilingual library.

■■ Multilingual dictionaries: depending on student needs, these dictionaries could focus on simple words and
pictures and vocabulary relating to everyday topics, and list words in English, a familiar language and their
home language. Leave the dictionaries in an accessible place for all your students to look at and contribute
to. Older students could create simple dictionaries for younger ones to use.

1
David Laitin (2007) refers to this as the 3 ± 1 (three, plus or minus one language) model that he predicts for multilingual countries and
education systems around the world.

28 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 General strategies to support purposeful translanguaging in the classroom
This resource emphasises the importance of using students’ multilingual resources in a) developing
students’ home/local languages simultaneously with b) learning and developing students’ English language
knowledge and capability. Before you go through the 12 projects, take a look at these key strategies and
approaches, which you will see are demonstrated throughout the activities.

Building the teacher’s awareness: make sure you actually know which languages your
students know and when/why they use them. If your students are very young, try to find out
what languages they use at home by asking their parents.

Building learners’ awareness: it’s important to establish and maintain a classroom culture
that is affirmative and safe and where students’ home languages are promoted and afforded
the same status as the target language (e.g. English). Encourage a class environment
that is collaborative and interactive, where you use positive, encouraging and respectful
feedback as well as non-threatening ‘small-steps’ to help students gain confidence in using a
multilingual approach to advance their learning. Let students use their home language when
needed if they cannot express their thoughts in the target language (e.g. English). Help your
learners to understand the role(s) that their language(s) play in their lives and the value of
multilingualism.

Building parents’ awareness: some parents might be concerned about multiple languages
being used in the classroom and projects that encourage this. It’s a good idea to think of
ways that you could inform them about why using multilingual approaches is important.
For example, you could write a letter to explain why you are doing this, working with your
learners to translate it into multiple languages. You can use the evidence presented in this
book to help you. Additionally, you could invite parents and community members into the
class to talk to your learners about the languages they know and use.

Encouraging learners’ reflections on what they already know and what they are
learning: for example, the ‘I see, I think, I wonder’ routine supports students to understand
the difference between their observations, interpretations and new ideas. The routine also
stimulates curiosity and creativity. It can be used when students have a lot of background
knowledge or none at all. Many teachers use this routine at the start of a lesson or as a first
step in a more extended activity. (For more information see: http://pz.harvard.edu/resources/
see-think-wonder-at.)

Making purposeful use of code-switching, translation and translanguaging: for example,

the Preview-view-review method is a useful approach for planning a lesson which uses
both the home language and English in the classroom in a systematic or purposeful way.
The teacher previews the lesson in the home or local language, provides or views the main
part of the lesson in the target language (e.g. English) and reviews the lesson in home/local
language. It is important to provide written text on the board or in students’ exercise books
in both languages so that they can make connections later if they cannot remember or
understand written text in English.

Separating the use of language to a) generate content/ideas and b) practise the

language itself: asking students to prepare the content of speaking and writing activities
in their home language before using the target language (e.g. English) helps to reduce the
cognitive load. Once ideas and content are decided, the learners can more easily focus on
the accuracy and fluency needed for the target language. This also helps learners to develop
their home language skills.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 29

 Projects list

1. My name 31
Mei French

2. Linguistic landscape 37
Mei French

3. Our multilingual class 45

Kerry Taylor-Leech, Sue Ollerhead and Mei French

4. Maths – language survey 53

Mei French and Sue Ollerhead

5. Cultural artefacts 59
Kerry Taylor-Leech

6. Translation study 65
Mei French

7. Proverbs 71
Kathleen Heugh and Mei French

8. Procedure texts 77
Janet Armitage

9. Science – growing grass heads 85

Janet Armitage

10. Science – nature walk 91

Janet Armitage

11. Maths – graphing 99

Mei French and Kathleen Heugh

12. Festivals 105

Kerry Taylor-Leech

Projects reference list 110

30 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Project 1: My name

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Our names are often our first connection with language. Learning each other’s names, how to
pronounce and use them correctly and the stories behind them can support positive relationships
between students and teachers. It can also be a good starting point for learning about the
languages in our classroom

Overview

Grade Lower and upper primary (Grades 4–8)

Home or local language, main classroom language and English; translanguaging; questions and answers;
Focus
oral presentation

Content focus Social studies, cultural studies

In this set of activities, students explore and share the stories behind their names. This activity is best
done with students choosing the language/s they wish to use. The teacher can provide explanations and
Description
translations of words as needed. Selecting which language is (or languages are) most appropriate for what
you want to do is called ‘purposeful’ language use.

This project includes four activities:

1 The teacher’s name 3 Preparing your presentation

2 Finding out about your name 4 Sharing the story of your name

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 31

 Teacher notes Activity 2: Finding out about your name

Preparation Objectives
■■ Find out the story of your own name and
■■ Students think about different aspects of names
prepare a demonstration presentation for your and naming practices, for example who chose their
students. name, how many names they were given, if they
■■ Plan to use English for most of your were named after someone.
presentation and include the languages that
connect to your name. You might like to ■■ Students ask questions and provide answers in
prepare some visual aids, use the board or their home or local languages and English.
bring in an object that relates to your name.
■■ Students communicate with family and community
This will be used in Activity 1.
members to gather information about their names,
using the family/community languages.
Classroom activities Time
Activity 1: The teacher’s name 30 minutes, plus some time at home

Materials
Objectives
■■ Board and chalk/pens
■■ The students will understand how names are a
connection between identity and language. ■■ Pencil and paper for each student
■■ The students will see a model text for a presentation Steps
about their name.
1. Ask students to think of all the different questions
■■ The students will consider how to present their own they could ask about someone’s name.
story about their name. Examples might include:
›› What is your name? (all your names)
Time
30 minutes ›› What does your name mean?
›› Who chose your name?
Materials
■■ Teacher’s presentation about the story of your name ›› Where does your name come from?
›› What language does your name come from?
■■ Board and chalk/pens
›› How do you write your name in different scripts?
Steps
›› Do people pronounce your name in different
1. Share the story of your first and/or last name with
ways? How do you feel about this?
your students. Model a clear presentation style –
stand where all the students can see you. Speak ›› What would you be called if you were the other
loudly enough for everyone to hear and make eye sex?
contact with students all around the room. Use your
›› Are there any well-known people with the same
home and/or additional languages to communicate
name as you?
key points about your name. For example, you could
write your name in its original script or share how ›› Do you have any nicknames, and how do you use
it may be pronounced differently in your home them?
language.
Students may come up with many more interesting
2. Invite questions from your students about your questions!
name. If you don’t have the answer, you can say,
For each question, write an answer structure in
‘That is a very interesting question and I will have to
their home or local language, where possible, and
find out the answer at home.’ These questions will
in English. For example:
also be useful in Activity 2.
My name is ______.
3. Discuss the presentation with students. Discuss the
purpose of the presentation. Ask them for ideas My name means _____.
about how they will do the presentation. Encourage ______ chose my name.
them to think about the structure, content, language
and presentation style they could use. Remember,
you can use the students’ home language(s) for this
type of preparation.

32 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Depending on your students’ English level, they
Activity 3: Preparing your presentation
could do this individually, in groups or following the
teacher’s instructions. Objectives
2. Write each question and answer structure on the ■■ Students structure an oral text logically.
board for students to see. Ask students to write
these in their notebooks. Remember, you can ■■ Students express their ideas in the home or local
choose the most appropriate language(s) to use, language and in English.
depending on your students’ level. ■■ Students consider how and when to use their home
3. Ask students to choose five to seven questions that language purposefully for their audience.
are most interesting to them. Ask them to think of
■■ Students practise presenting to the class in English
one or two people who can give them the answers.
and their home or the regular classroom language.
Ask students to think about which languages they
should use when asking their family or community Time
members these questions.
30–40 minutes
4. Students can work in groups to create translations
of their questions and write these on the board for Materials
others in the class to use. ■■ Pencil and paper for each student

5. Ask the students to write out their chosen ■■ Students’ answers to their questions about their
questions in their notebooks, using the appropriate names (from homework in Activity 2)
language, and leaving space to write the answers.
■■ (If available) large paper and coloured pencils for
6. Students will need to find the answers to their preparing posters
questions at home or in their communities. They
may need one or two days to complete this task. Steps
Ask students to write down the answers as they 1. Ask students to work in pairs and put their
find them out (where possible in the languages that information into an order that is logical and
the information is given). interesting. You might want to remind them about
how you structured your presentation in Activity 1.
Extra resources 2. Students write their information out in sentences.
Encourage students to include words, phrases or
Have a look at this video https://tinyurl.com/
sentences in their home language if this is the best
y5cnzhxq to see an interesting way of students
way to explain an idea. Students can also translate
using the board in the classroom.
these into English or use posters to complement
the use of their home language.
3. Students check the structure, grammar and
vocabulary of what they plan to say. Encourage the
students to check each other’s work. Monitor and
support them as they do this, helping with language
where needed.
4. Students prepare a small poster to accompany
their presentation. This could be their name written
in different scripts or a picture representing their
name. If available, each student can use a large
sheet of paper and coloured pencils for this display.
Otherwise, students could each use a section of the
TEACHER FEEDBACK
board.
Shefali 5. Students practise their presentation in pairs or
The [activity relates] deeply with the lives of
small groups. If their presentations will be assessed,
the learners and encourages them to explore.
This activity also breaks the barrier of teacher they can use the assessment criteria to give each
hierarchy by letting the teacher share something other feedback.
personal about her life.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 33

 Activity 4: Sharing the story of your name Taking it further

Objectives Assessment
■■ Presenting students demonstrate their oral Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity
presentation skills in their home language and set through one of the following activities.
English. ■■ Activity 3 can be used as an oral assessment task.
■■ Students in the audience listen to the Students can be assessed on content, structure,
presentations. purposeful use of home language, the regular
classroom language, if this is different, and English
■■ Students in the audience ask relevant questions in presentation skills.
English or their home language.
■■ You could add a written assessment task. Students
Time can write out the story of their name in a paragraph
2–3 minutes per student. If there are too many to display in the classroom. They might include
students in the class to do the presentations one by illustrations or visual aids.
one, divide the class into two or three groups and
Adaptations
have simultaneous presentations.
For older students: Students can teach their
Materials classmates how to introduce themselves in their
■■ Students’ prepared presentations home language, if this is different, for example using
translations of phrases such as ‘Hello, my name is
■■ Students’ posters, or board and chalk [name].’

Steps
1. Each student shares their presentation and poster/
Teacher reflection questions
pictures with the class.
■■ In what ways did these activities help students
2. At the end of each presentation, two or three
get to know each other and develop positive
students could ask additional questions. Discuss
relationships in the class?
with the class beforehand whether questions and
answers should be in English, the home language ■■ What are some productive ways of using home
or both. Discuss why the language was chosen. languages alongside English in oral presentations
and other classroom activities?

■■ If the main classroom language is different from the

home/local language, how can this language be
included in these activities?

■■ How can students’ identities, experiences

and languages be used in other areas of your
curriculum?

TEACHER FEEDBACK

Ekta
I adapted this resource a little as I wanted
students to do the third part as homework where
they can talk to their parents and know the story
behind their name. […] Students enjoyed doing
this activity and even today after 3 weeks have
passed I see students gathering around the wall
where they are pasted and going through them
while talking to each other.

34 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 35

36 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 2: Linguistic landscape

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
A linguistic landscape is the way languages are represented in the environment around us. This
can include classrooms, marketplaces, places of worship, government offices or even our homes.
Language might be present on signs, advertisements, notices, artwork, packaging, clothing or
documents. If we can see or hear our languages in a particular place, then we might feel more
welcome. Students can investigate, describe and analyse the linguistic landscape of the places they
often visit. This can help them consider how they might contribute to or change these landscapes.

Overview

Grade Lower secondary (Grades 7–9)

Multilingualism in the environment; home or local languages, regional languages, English; note-taking;
Focus
descriptive language and reflective writing

Content focus Civics and social studies

In this set of activities, students will investigate the way written languages are displayed in a local place
Description
and examine how these languages reflect social structures.

This project includes five activities:

1 Exploring a linguistic landscape 4 Results of individual investigation

2 Results of the linguistic landscape exploration 5 Poster exhibition

3 Individual investigation

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 37

 Teacher notes Classroom activities
Activity 1: Exploring a linguistic landscape
Preparation
■■ Select a nearby location where multiple
Objectives
languages can be seen in their written form.
■■ Students will understand the concept of a linguistic
This might be a marketplace or shop, or even
landscape.
your school or classroom.
■■ Students will consider the different ways in which
■■ Make all the arrangements for a field trip to
languages influence people who are in a particular
this location as a class or for the students to
place.
visit the location in groups outside of school
hours. Time
■■ If a field trip cannot be arranged, some If going to an outside location, 1–2 hours. If using
alternatives are: example photos, 30 minutes.

›› walking around the school Materials

■■ Students will need to bring their observation table
›› showing pictures from a location that is
and a pencil.
familiar to many students
›› conducting this activity on a field trip that Steps
has already been planned 1. Before the field trip (or alternative activity), discuss
the idea of a linguistic landscape with students. You
›› asking students to think about their journey
could ask questions such as:
to and from school
›› What languages can you see (or hear) when you
›› during a festival, rally or public event.
are at home?
■■ Make handouts including the observation table
›› What languages do you come across on your
and questions from Activity 1 and Activity 2
way to school?
or ask the students to copy the observation
table into their notebooks before the field trip/ ›› How does it make you feel to see that language
assignment. in that place?

Example observation table ›› Have you ever been somewhere where you don’t
Students might fit three or four rows per page, understand any of the languages you see?
with enough room to draw a small picture. ›› What places can you think of where you can see
many different languages?
How
Draw What
Write a might If you can make a handout (see Preparation),
Location what languages
description people include these questions as Part 1.
you see are used?
feel?
2. On the field trip (or during the other activity), point
out languages that you can see and ask students
to find others. If you are using photos that show
places with lots of languages being used, make
sure all the students can see the photos easily.
You could create a gallery – stick different pictures
around the room. Ask the students to move around
the room and identify or count the different
languages they can see.
3. As they observe, students record interesting
examples on their observation sheet. Ask them to
make their pictures and descriptions quite detailed,
including size, position, the colour of the text, etc.
They can write their notes in their home languages
or English.
4. (Optional) If you have access to a camera and a
way of displaying or sharing the photographs later,
take photos of different examples of language in
the place(s) you are visiting.

38 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 ›› If I had a shop here, I would … / I wouldn’t …
Activity 2: Results of the linguistic landscape
exploration ›› If the shops also had signs in [language], people
would …
Objectives
›› If I had seen …, I would have thought ….
■■ Students consider how the linguistic landscape
represents or caters for different people.
Extra resources
Time
Find some more ideas for teaching conditional
30 minutes
forms here: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/
Materials article/conditional-chain-game
■■ Students’ completed observation tables http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/
course/intermediate/unit-24/session-2
■■ (Optional) Photographs from the place(s) visited if
you have them

Steps Activity 3: Individual investigation

1. Soon after you return from the field trip (or
complete an alternative activity), discuss with your Objectives
students the different examples of language they ■■ Students will observe a linguistic landscape of
observed. their own choice, using the skills from the previous
activities
2. Students might like to add details to their
observation tables following the discussion. Time
3. Lead students to analyse the impact of the 20 minutes in class, plus additional time outside of
linguistic landscape. Some questions that might school
help include:
Materials
›› Did any of the displays of language make you ■■ Board and chalk/pens
feel welcome, interested or curious? If yes, which
ones? Why? ■■ Pencil and paper for each student
›› Did any of the displays of language make you Steps
feel unwelcome, suspicious or nervous? If yes,
1. Ask students to list all the places they visit regularly
which ones? Why?
that might have an interesting linguistic landscape.
›› How might other people feel in these places, You can share these ideas on the board.
for example your parents, your grandparents,
2. Ask students to draw up a new blank observation
someone who doesn’t know one or more of
table (or give them new copies of the handout),
these languages or someone who has trouble
with room for four to six examples.
reading?
3. Students choose a place with an interesting
›› If you had a business or service in this area, what
linguistic landscape. Over the next two days, they
kinds of language displays would you create?
are to visit that place and write down examples
Why?
of language they see or hear. They can write
If using a handout (see Preparation on page 38), their notes in their home language, or the regular
these questions could form Part 2. language of the classroom, and/or English.
Students could discuss their ideas in groups, using
home languages and English, and write down their
responses.
It may be helpful to teach sentence structures
for responses to these questions in English. For
example, you could focus on reviewing conditional
forms by asking the students to complete sentence
stems or creating their own complete sentences
starting with ‘If’:

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 39

 Activity 4: Results of individual investigation Activity 5: Poster exhibition

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students consider how their chosen linguistic ■■ Students learn from each other about different
landscape influences their own and others’ linguistic landscapes in their community.
experience.
Time
Time 1 hour
1–2 hours (may be completed over two or three
lessons) Materials
■■ Students’ linguistic landscape posters
Materials
■■ Students’ own linguistic landscape observation Steps
tables 1. Have students display their posters in the
classroom. They could stick them to the walls or lay
Steps them on tables.
1. Lead students in analysing their chosen linguistic
2. Half the students stand beside their posters and
landscape. They should look at their completed
explain their investigations to their peers. The other
observation tables and think about the same types
half of the class walk around, reading the posters
of questions as in Activity 2. Students can write
and asking questions. This conversation could be in
their responses using their home language or
home languages or English. If possible, you could
English.
invite the students’ parents/families to be part of
2. Ask students to suggest changes or improvements this exhibition.
to their chosen linguistic landscape. Guiding
3. Swap groups so that the first group walk around to
questions might include:
read the posters, while the second group explain
›› Who could be made more welcome here? Why is and answer questions.
this important?
4. Students write a reflection about what they learned
›› What changes to the language displays do you from their peers. You could provide prompts such
suggest? Why? as:
Students can record their responses in their home ›› I already knew about …
language or English at this stage. ›› I learned that …
3. Students prepare a poster to share with the class, ›› I was surprised that …
using their observation table and their ideas from
Steps 1 and 2. The poster could be mainly in ›› I would like to know more about …
English, with examples given in different languages.
The poster could include:
›› a description of their chosen linguistic landscape
›› images showing some important features of their
linguistic landscape
›› detailed description of some important or
interesting features of their linguistic landscape,
from their observation table
›› analysis of how different groups of people might
feel in this place
›› suggestions about how to improve or alter the
linguistic landscape to make it more inclusive.

40 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Taking it further
Assessment
Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity
set through one of the following activities:
■■ Students’ posters from Activity 4 can be used for
assessment. You could consider the following
aspects in your assessment: visual appeal,
description of the linguistic landscape, analysis of
why different languages are used, suggestions for
how the landscape could be improved to be more
inclusive, accuracy of language used.

■■ You might also include peer feedback or the

reflection from Activity 5 in your assessment
scheme.

Supplemental activities
Work with your students to create a more diverse and
welcoming linguistic landscape in your classroom or
school. What ideas do your students have about how
to use written language to make students, staff and
visitors feel more welcome at school?
Adaptations
For students with lower English levels: The
activities can be adapted to use images, keywords
and discussion in both the home language and
English, without as many extended written responses.
For older students: Expand the written tasks in
Activity 5 into guided or free writing to describe the
location they visited – this could be in the form of a
news article or short report, with recommendations
for how it could be improved to make it more
inclusive.
Encourage students to use three of their languages.
In addition to the home/local language and English,
students can be encouraged to also use the regional
or national language.
If resources are available: Students may be able to
take photographs during their field trip or individual
investigation to share in class/on their posters.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ Which of your students’ home, local, regional and
national languages were more visible or less visible
in the linguistic landscapes? How do you think this
affects these students?

■■ How does using home languages alongside English

for discussion and note-taking help students to
understand ideas clearly and in depth?

■■ In what ways can linguistic landscapes contribute

to students’ language learning and learning about
economic, social and urban environments?

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 41

 Notes

42 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 43

44 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 3: Our multilingual class

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Most people in the world speak more than one language, and that includes students and teachers
in most classrooms. However, teachers may not have many strategies for using students’ languages
for learning. A good starting point is to learn about and show respect for students’ languages, and
to give students ways of thinking and talking about their languages (Lamb 2011). When students’
languages are an active part of the classroom, they can be valuable resources for connecting with
prior knowledge and learning new concepts and additional languages (Moll et al. 1992). Teachers
can help students build strong identities by acknowledging and respecting their language.

Overview

Grade Upper primary

Listening, speaking, reading and writing in home or local languages and English; English grammar; visual
Focus
communication; can include regional or national language

Content focus Social studies, multilingualism

These activities help students understand what multilingualism is and how multilingualism is present in the
Description
classroom with their peers, their teacher and themselves.

This project includes four activities:

1 Prefixes ‘multi’ and ‘bi’ 3 ‘Find someone who’ for guided writing

2 Being multilingual 4 My language map

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 45

 Teacher notes Classroom activities
Activity 1: Prefixes ‘multi’ and ‘bi’
Preparation
■■ Think about your own linguistic profile. What
Objectives
languages can you understand, speak, read
■■ Students learn the prefixes ‘multi’ and ‘bi’ in English.
or write? What do they mean to you? How did
you learn them? How do you use them in your ■■ Students think about how words are made up of
life? different parts in English and their home languages.
■■ If possible, find out what you can about
multilingualism and languages in your school’s Time
community. This might include history, 40 minutes
statistics, contexts of language use or people
Materials
in the community who are experts in certain
languages. ■■ Board and chalk/pen
■■ Prepare a list of words which use ‘multi’ or ■■ Writing materials for each student
‘bi’ as a prefix, for Activity 1. You can create a
handout for these or write up the list on the ■■ A list of words using ‘multi’ or ‘bi’ as a prefix
board.
■■ Bilingual dictionaries if available
■■ Create a handout for Activity 3 with a list of
language skills students have and space to Steps
write their names and additional details. If you 1. Explain that ‘multi’ is a prefix. When you see a word
can’t copy handouts, students can copy this starting with ‘multi’ it has something to do with ‘a
from the board. lot’ or ‘multiple’.
■■ Prepare a language map showing your
2. Give examples of words in English that use ‘multi’.
own linguistic repertoire/the way you use
You could have a handout or write a table on the
languages. To demonstrate a range of options,
board for students to copy. Ask students to match
you might like to prepare two or three different
the definition with the word. If you have bilingual
formats, for example with illustrations, as a
dictionaries, you could include words that students
diagram, as a graph.
may need to look up.
References
Examples of words using ‘multi’
D’Warte (2014)
French and de Courcy (2016) Match these words to the definition:
Lamb (2011) multilingual | multicoloured | multiply
Moll et al. (1992)
Word in my
Somerville, D’Warte and Sawyer (2016) Definition Word in English
language
Has a lot of colours

Increase in number
many times, ‘X’ in
maths
Speaks two or more
languages
(Add more examples)

Invite students to suggest any other ‘multi’ words

they know in English, and words in home languages
TEACHER FEEDBACK that might have a related meaning. Add these to
the table. Students may use Roman script to write
Neeru home-language words phonetically if needed.
There was an openness among the students to
learn new phrases in languages not known to 3. Explain that another prefix is ‘bi’. This relates to
them. The diversity of language helped in building ‘two’ or ‘twice’. Give examples of ‘bi’ words and ask
connect among learners. The activity also helped students to match the definition with the word.
to broaden the perspective of students and
respect diverse backgrounds of fellow students.

46 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Examples of words using ‘bi’ 2. Ask students about what languages they know.
Have this discussion using a mix of home languages
Match these words to the definition: and English. Choose questions that will involve
binoculars | bicycle | bilingual everyone in the class, for example:

Word in my ›› Put your hand up if you know at least one

Definition Word in English
language language. Keep your hand up if you know at least
A vehicle with two two languages … (and so on)
wheels
›› Ask a student to name a language they speak.
A person who
Ask the class to put their hand up if they also
speaks two
languages speak that language. Continue until you have
Magnifying glasses
included all the languages in the class.
for both eyes ›› Ask students how they use languages differently
(Add more examples) with different people, for example with friends or
strangers, siblings, parents or grandparents, in
the classroom or the playground.
Ask students to suggest more ‘bi’ words to add to
the table. You can keep a tally or notes of the answers on the
board.
4. Ask students if they can see any patterns in
their home-language vocabulary. This is a good 3. Teach key ideas about multilingualism, including:
opportunity to compare how words are constructed ›› Global multilingualism – e.g. there are more
in students’ different languages.
than 7,000 languages in the world; about one
third of these are in Africa, one third in Asia; in
Africa, Asia, the Pacific and Central and South
Extra resources
America multilingual speakers outnumber
Find out more about different ways of presenting monolingual speakers.
new vocabulary to students in this article: https:// ›› Multilingualism and languages in the
www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/presenting- local community – as the world becomes
vocabulary increasingly globalised, some languages are
given more power/status than others. However,
all languages are equal and are gateways into
specific communities and cultures. Therefore,
Activity 2: Being multilingual all languages should be valued and appreciated.
There are global movements that seek to
Objectives
preserve languages to ensure they don’t
■■ Students understand key ideas about disappear. In 2018, National Geographic reported
multilingualism. that ‘between 1950 and 2010, 230 languages
became extinct, according to the UNESCO Atlas
■■ Students develop some vocabulary related to
of the World’s Languages in Danger. Today, a
multilingualism.
third of the world’s languages have fewer than
Time 1,000 speakers left. Every two weeks a language
20 minutes dies with its last speaker, 50 to 90 per cent of
them are predicted to disappear by the next
Materials century.’2
■■ Board and chalk/pens ›› Benefits of multilingualism in life, learning
and work – there are many benefits to speaking
■■ Writing materials for each student
two or more languages. You will be able to make
Steps more friends and you will be able to understand
1. Talk to the class about the languages you know. and enjoy music and films that use the languages
Discuss your level of fluency in the languages you you know. The world of work recognises the
know, who you use the language(s) with and why. importance of being able to speak more than
During this introduction you can speak using the one language, as employees and employers can
different languages you know. Encourage students reach out to different markets.
to ask questions.
2
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/04/saving-dying-
disappearing-languages-wikitongues-culture/

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 47

 4. Students also write sentences about themselves,
Activity 3: ‘Find someone who’ for guided
for example:
writing
›› I am multilingual. I know three languages.
Objectives
›› I can speak Xironga, Portuguese and English.
■■ Students learn about the different languages their
classmates know. ›› I can read and write in Portuguese and English.
Older or more advanced students can write
■■ Students write sentences in English and/or their
paragraphs.
home languages, building on information collected
during Activities 1 and 2. Each student reads out their sentences (or
paragraphs) in front of a small group or the whole
■■ Students read sentences aloud in English and/or class.
their home languages.

Time Activity 4: My language map

60 minutes
Objectives
Materials
■■ Students represent their linguistic repertoires
■■ Table as a handout or for students to copy from the visually.
board
Time
■■ Writing materials for each student
60 minutes, plus extra time at home
Steps
Materials
1. Give out the table as a handout or write it on the
■■ Examples of language maps, including an example
board for students to copy.
from the teacher
Example table
■■ Large sheet of paper or card for each student
Find someone Other
Name Language(s)
who … information ■■ Writing materials, including coloured pencils, pens
Speaks more than Boia Xironga, Likes songs in or markers if available
one language Portuguese English
Reads and writes Maria Chwabo, Learning
Steps
more than one Swahili, English 1. Show the example language maps to the students.
language Portuguese Get students to identify different languages, roles
Knows the same and activities that appear in the examples. Ask
language as you
students what they think of the maps, and whether
(Add more prompts or leave space for students to add) their maps would be similar or different.
2. Place students in groups of four to six and ask the
2. Explain the activity to the students. They will: groups to brainstorm how they can best present
their maps – encourage the students to be as
a. move around the room and ask other students
creative as possible. Get the students to list on
about their languages
paper what languages they use every day, where
b. fill in the table without speaking to the same and how they use them and the type of language
student twice they use (what languages or varieties, how formal),
using home languages and English. Display the
c. speak and write their answers in any language,
group lists on the classroom walls and get students
even though the table is written in English.
to walk around and look at them.
This could be a game or competition if you like.
3. Students work on their own language maps. They
3. Using the completed table from Step 1, students should include as much detail as possible in a way
write sentences about six of their classmates, for that represents their personality and feelings. While
example: students are working, go around the class and
›› Maria speaks Chwabo, Swahili and Portuguese. one-to-one with each student discuss their ideas,
She is multilingual. encourage them and help solve any problems.

›› Boia speaks Portuguese at home. 4. Ask students to take their language maps home
and share them with their families. They can add
›› Sammy speaks Xironga at home and Portuguese more ideas or make changes at home.
at school.

48 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 5. Students share their language maps in their 6. Display completed language maps in the classroom.
groups/class. They explain/describe their maps and You could invite other teachers, students and
ask and answer questions using home languages parents to view them.
and English.

Example language map (see also the photo on page 45)

Me and my languages

English
Persian
School Friends Irani
Friends Hazaragi Family TV shows
Family Friends School Family
Social Network Family Overseas
school Dari
Study Pakistani
Family
Everyday life Friends
Friends
24/7 Family
school

Indian
Korean Taiwanese
TV shows
TV shows TV shows Urdu
friends
TV shows

Karimeh’s language map

French and de Courcy 2016, p. 159.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 49

 Taking it further Teacher reflection questions
Assessment ■■ What did you learn about the different languages
Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity and language skills your students have?
set through one of the following activities: ■■ When you analyse the students’ language maps,
■■ Completed texts from Activity 3 – ‘Find someone what similarities and differences do you notice
who’ for guided writing. You assess the accuracy between the students? What similarities and
of the language used (grammar, punctuation, differences do you see between their language use
vocabulary) along with the content. at home and at school?

■■ Completed language maps from Activity 4 – My ■■ Are there ways in which you can make school more
language map. You can assess them in terms of accessible to the students and their parents by
their visual appeal, content, use of language, etc. using some of their home-language practices?

Supplemental activities
■■ The activity set for ‘Maths – language survey’ is a
good follow-up to this set.

■■ Invite an older person in the community who is

an expert in a language or languages. They could
talk to the class about how they learned their
languages, how they use them and how languages
in the community have changed over time.

■■ You could ask the students to do some further

practice with the words beginning with ‘bi’ and
‘multi’ by asking pairs or small groups to write
sentences with gaps for the target words, then
share with another pair/group who have to guess
which word they have learned completes each
sentence.

Adaptations
For younger students: Activity 3 can be completed
in a simpler way with younger students, for example
ticking their classmates’ names if they speak a certain
language. Alternatively, it could be a physical game
similar to ‘Simon says’, where students move to a
certain area or complete an action if they are able to
speak the language suggested by the teacher.
For students with higher English levels: Activity
3 can be adapted into an extended writing task.
After writing sentences, teach students how to
connect these into a paragraph. Students could
write one paragraph about their classmates and
one paragraph about themselves. Teachers could
download a useful resource that gives students
information about multilingualism to use for this
task: the ‘Salzburg Statement for a Multilingual World’
https://www.salzburgglobal.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Documents/2010-2019/2017/Session_586/EN_
SalzburgGlobal_Statement_586_-_Multilingual_World_
English.pdf
If resources are available: Students may be creative
and artistic with their language maps in Activity 4 if art
materials are available.

50 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 51

52 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 4: Maths – language survey

© British Council

Why are these activities useful?

Multilingualism, home languages and English can be a part of mathematics teaching. Language learning
extends beyond the language classroom. It is equally important in teaching and learning across the
curriculum. Learning to read and write (literacy) in the language class is important for learning to use
reading and writing across the curriculum. In bilingual and multilingual societies, students need to
develop their biliteracy and multilingual literacy in order to learn across the curriculum.
In this set of activities, we focus on bilingual and biliteracy development for learning to think in a
mathematical way and to demonstrate the connections between language, literacy and mathematical
thinking. This set of activities can be used together with Project 3: Our multilingual class.

Overview

Grade Primary (Grades 4–6)

Language focus Writing in home language, English; English grammar

Content focus Mathematics and social studies

Students analyse and report numerical data and create graphs while also learning about the different
Description
languages spoken by their classmates.

This project includes three activities:

1 What languages do we know? 3 Writing about our languages

2 Graphing our languages

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 53

 Teacher notes Classroom activities

Preparation Activity 1: What languages do we know?

■■ Find out the range of languages spoken in the
Objectives
class.
■■ Students learn about the different languages
■■ Pre-teach or prepare to teach: column graphs, represented in their class.
comparatives, superlatives, adjectives of
quantity, conjunctions. Note: The activities have a different purpose and
focus from those in Project 3: Our multilingual class.
■■ It would be useful to teach these concepts in The focus here is on a mathematical perspective and
both the local/home language and English. using language to express mathematical thinking.
Time
30 minutes

Materials
■■ Board and chalk/pens

Steps
1. Talk to the students about the languages you
know. Tell them about what languages you can
understand but can’t speak, those you can read
and write, those you want to learn in the future.

TEACHER FEEDBACK 2. Ask students what languages they know. Make a

table, with all the languages listed across the top
Sivapriya and students’ names down the side.
The topic itself is very interesting to children.
They got to know what all languages they speak. 3. Students come and tick the cells/boxes that
Earlier we never knew that there is a language
represent languages they know.
called Marwari, but now we got to know that there
are so many languages other than Telugu and
4. Students copy the table into their notebooks.
Hindi. The children were excited to know about this.
I would like to do graphing again on different
things. Maybe next I’ll do the music profile of the
class, or a sports profile.

© British Council

Example chart – what languages do we know?

54 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 2: Graphing our languages Activity 3: Writing about our languages

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students present information collected from ■■ Students identify patterns in data
Activity 1 in a graph.
■■ Students write sentences in their home language
Time and English
30 minutes
Time
Materials 30 minutes
■■ Survey chart from Activity 1
Materials
■■ Paper and coloured pens to make graph posters ■■ Survey chart from Activity 1

Steps ■■ Graphs from Activity 2

1. Ask the students to look at the table they have
Steps
copied into their notebooks.
1. Lead a discussion about the data. Ask what students
2. Ask them to add a row in their notebooks at the find surprising. What is interesting? What patterns do
bottom of the table so that they can calculate the they notice? Discuss in home languages and English.
total number of speakers in the class for each
language. They write the total for each column. 2. Grammar: comparatives (more/less, higher/lower),
superlatives (most/least, highest/lowest), adjectives
3. Ask the students to add a column at the end of of quantity (few, some, many, most, all), conjunctions
the table so that they can calculate the number of (because, but).
languages each student knows. They write the total
for each row. 3. Students write sentences:
›› More students speak … than … because …
4. Teach the students to make a column graph using
the data from the table. They don’t need to use all
›› … speaks … languages but can write in …
of the information. Some suggestions for graphs languages.
are: ›› Most students can speak … or … languages.

›› Five most common languages in our class ›› Students use different languages to speak to …

›› Five least common languages in our class

›› Number of students who speak two, three, four Extra resources
or more languages.
Have a look at these ideas for practising
5. Display graphs around the classroom. comparative and superlative forms:

6. If possible, the labelling of the languages on the https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/

graphs should be in the students’ languages and comparatives-superlatives-through-pictures
English. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/
superlative-noughts-crosses
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/
superlative-questions

© British Council

Illustrating the languages we know in our class

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 55

 Taking it further
Assessment
Confirm students’ understanding and learning of the
mathematical process of developing a graph in this
activity set through the following activities.
■■ Activity 2 – graph

■■ Activity 3 – developing sentences to explain

mathematical thinking in two languages (i.e.
developing biliteracy for learning across the
curriculum).

Supplemental activities
A similar set of activities could be used to investigate
other practices in the class, such as hobbies, modes
of transport to school, responsibilities outside of
school, future aspirations and so on.
Adaptations
For older students: Instead of ticking in the chart
in Activity 1, students can write S for languages they
speak, R for read and W for write. Then, in Activity 2,
students can choose to make a graph about speaking,
reading or writing.
For younger students: Activity 1 is still very valuable
for younger students who may not be ready to create
graphs or find patterns in the information.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ What did you learn about your students and their
multilingual abilities? Did you notice that students
learned something new about each other?

■■ How did discussion in home languages affect

students’ confidence to contribute or the types of
ideas they expressed?

■■ What are some other ways to bring students’ life

experiences into mathematics?

56 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 57

58 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 5: Cultural artefacts

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Understanding culture is an important part of learning language. Culture is a living part of people’s
daily lives and it helps with socialising and relationships (Scarino & Liddicoat 2009, p. 16). Using
students’ cultural knowledge can make them feel accepted in the classroom, and all students benefit
from learning more about their own and each other’s cultural practices.
An artefact is an object that has been made by a person and has an important meaning to someone.
It might represent people, stories, communities, identities or experiences. A personal artefact is
meaningful to one person, while a cultural artefact represents culture that is shared by a group.
Artefacts may look interesting and can sometimes be displayed in a home or a public place or be
worn on the body. Artefacts are useful in teaching because they bring students’ experiences into the
classroom. They can help students understand a topic, can be a focus for discussion or can inspire
new ideas (Pahl & Rowsell 2010).
The ‘I see, I think, I wonder’ routine is useful when teaching with artefacts (see Activity 1). It supports
students to understand the difference between their observations, interpretations and new ideas. The
routine also stimulates curiosity and creativity. It can be used when students have a lot of background
knowledge or none at all. Many teachers use this routine at the start of a lesson or as a first step in a
more extended activity. (For more information see: http://pz.harvard.edu/resources/see-think-wonder-at.)

Overview

Grade Lower secondary (Grades 7–9)

Language focus Listening, speaking and writing in home languages and English; English grammar

Content focus Social studies, cultural studies

Artefacts (or objects that have symbolic value) are used to help students talk about cultural practices.
Description This project can also be combined with Project 12: Festivals. Students discuss and write about these
topics in their home language(s) and English.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 59

 This project includes three activities: Classroom activities
1 What is an artefact? Activity 1: What is an artefact?

2 Showing my artefact
Objectives
3 Writing about my artefact ■■ Students understand what artefacts are and their
connection to culture.

Teacher notes ■■ Students use their home languages and English for
listening and speaking.
Preparation Time
■■ Select a cultural artefact of your own to show
30 minutes, and additional homework time
your students. Choose something that will be
safe and easy to take to school. Materials

■■ Select other artefacts related to a festival to

■■ Your personal artefact
show your students. ■■ Board and chalk/pens
■■ Prepare a table or template for students to Steps
record information about their artefact in
1. Explain to the students what an artefact is. Ask
Activity 2: Showing my artefact. This could be
them to identify artefacts they can see in the
prepared as a handout or written on the board
classroom. This may include artwork, items of
during the activity.
clothing, books. This discussion can be in home
■■ Pre-teach or be ready to teach grammar languages or English.
points for Activity 3: Writing about my artefact.
2. Show the students your artefact but don’t talk
You could use this activity to consolidate
about it yet. Let students admire it and prompt
grammar the students have already learned,
them to comment by asking them questions:
or to introduce new structures.
›› What do you see?
References
Moll et al. (1992) ›› What do you think about this?

Pahl and Rowsell (2010) ›› What do you wonder about?

Students may respond in their home languages or
English.
3. Focus on questions and ideas that tell about the
personal and cultural meanings of the artefact, for
example:
›› What is its name?
›› Who gave it to you?
›› What is it used for?
›› Can anyone use this object or only some people?
›› Why is it important to our culture?
TEACHER FEEDBACK 4. In groups, students brainstorm the types of
artefacts they have around their homes that
Deepti
This activity allowed students to bring in their lives represent their culture or way of life. They may
to the classrooms. It gave them freedom to explore discuss and record their ideas using home
cultural resources and wisdom and gave legitimacy languages or English.
to their knowledge and experience. It began from
what the students knew instead of telling them 5. Homework task – students bring a cultural artefact
what they don’t know. from home to share in the next class. They should
choose something sturdy and not too valuable, for
example a toy, picture, copper or bronze jewellery,
hair comb, item of clothing, cooking utensil or
garden tool. If they’re unable to bring in the object,
they can draw a picture of it instead.

60 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 2: Showing my artefact Activity 3: Writing about my artefact

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students express ideas about artefacts, experience ■■ Students write an extended text, using their home
and culture. language(s) and English.

■■ Students write in their home languages and English. Time

40 minutes
Time
60 minutes Materials
■■ Students’ table of responses from Activity 2
Materials
■■ Students’ own artefacts ■■ Writing materials for each student

■■ Table template for responses as a handout or to be ■■ Coloured pencils, pens or markers if available
copied from the board
Steps
■■ Pen/pencil and paper for each student 1. Students draw a picture of their artefact on one
piece of paper.
Steps
1. Working individually, students answer questions 2. On a separate piece of paper, students write about
about their artefact using the table format. their artefact in their home or local language and
They can write their answers in their home in English, using information from their discussion
language or English. and response table in Activity 2. This piece of
writing is a draft and they can use purposeful
My artefact My language English
translanguaging here. This means that they can
write part of the task in their home language and
Name of artefact Boneka de Doll from Ataúro part in English. Depending on their confidence and
Ataúro
readiness for the next part, they could try to redraft
What is it? Brinkedu ida It’s a toy
this in English (only or mostly), or they could try to
write two versions: one entirely in the home or local
Who gave it to you? Ha’u nia biin, My older sister,
language and one in English. This writing task is an
Teresa Teresa
opportunity to revise some sentence structures or
What does it look
to teach new grammar. Useful language in English
like?
for this writing includes:
What is it made of?
›› classification: My artefact is a …; It is a …; It is
Why is it important? used for …

[You can add more ›› identification: I got it from …; My … gave it to me;

questions suitable It belonged to …
for your students]
›› description: ‘wh’ questions; It is made of …; It is
important because …
You might ask students to keep their artefacts
hidden during this step. ›› adjectives: for family, size, colour, texture.
2. In small groups, students take turns to share 3. Give feedback on students’ draft writing and ask
their artefact either in front of the whole class them to write a final copy.
or in smaller groups. Encourage students to ask
4. Display completed texts in the classroom.
questions as they did in Activity 1.
3. After they have finished sharing, students add to
and edit the written responses in their table.
Extra resources
4. Students swap papers to compare each other’s
work and give feedback. When giving feedback, Read this article to find out more about why asking
they can look at use of vocabulary, whether or questions is such an important teaching tool:
not the message/content is clear and easy to https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/
understand and whether there are any other asking-questions
questions they would also like answers to.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 61

 Taking it further
Assessment
Confirm the students’ understanding, learning
and development of their biliterate and bilingual
development through the extended writing from
Activity 3.
You can include a focus on criteria including fluency
and accuracy or use of grammar and/or vocabulary.
Supplemental activities
■■ You could ask the students to interview people in
the local community to find out about artefacts
that are important to them, and why, using the
questions from Activity 2.

■■ You could number the pictures of the artefacts

and display them around the room, then randomly
distribute the students’ texts so that they have a
new one each. The students then walk around the
room and try to find the picture of the artefact that
their text describes. This activity would support the
development of reading comprehension skills.

■■ This project can also be combined with Project 12:

Festivals.

Adaptations
For students with varied English levels: Vary the
English grammar and vocabulary you teach according
to the abilities and needs of the students.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ What have you learned about students’ life
experiences and their abilities in the languages
they know?

■■ How did working in pairs or groups help students

with their speaking and writing?

■■ How can you connect students’ life experiences

when teaching in other areas of the curriculum?

62 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 63

64 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 6: Translation study

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Translation is the conversion of a written text from one language into another language. Interpreting
is the ‘translation’ of spoken text from one language to another. Any type of translation is a complex
task which requires us to think about two (or more) languages, to consider different ways of
expressing meaning and to think about the meaning, context and culture of the texts. It is also a task
that we and our students may be doing every day. Learning about the process of translation can
help our students to focus on particular aspects of language and can support them as multilingual
learners and communicators.

Overview

Grade Lower secondary (Grades 7–9)

Language focus Multilingualism, translation, comparative grammar

By learning about the process of translation, students develop sensitivity to grammatical similarities and
Description
differences in English and other languages they know.

This project includes three activities:

1 What is translation? 3 A meaningful translation

2 Translation practice

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 65

 Teacher notes ›› Have you ever listened to a song in a different
language?
Background ›› What do you do if you are reading something in a
For this project, we can consider two main types language that is difficult for you to understand?
of translation (see Heugh, Li & Song 2017):
›› Which languages do you translate in your head
■■ Word-for-word translation: changing each word when you hear or read them, so that you can
into the target language, but keeping the same understand or respond?
word order as the original text. This type of
As the questions are answered, write on the board
translation might result in some ungrammatical
the different times and ways that translation is used
or unusual expressions.
by your students in everyday life.
■■ Versioning or adaptation: adapting the
2. Ask students to suggest different steps or skills
vocabulary and expression of the text so that
they use when they translate. Some of their ideas
it suits the text type or idiom of the target
might include:
language. This requires greater consideration
of meaning and expression, and results in ›› understanding the text in the original language
improved understanding. ›› thinking about the overall meaning of the text in
the target language
Preparation
■■ Find three suitable short texts in English to ›› writing down a translation for new words or
use as the translation examples in Activity 2. It difficult words in the text
might help to choose texts that students are
›› translating one word at a time from the original
familiar with from previous lessons or a current
language to the target language
class topic. The best texts for these activities
are simple texts with a cultural aspect, such ›› saying the target sentence out loud to check if it
as a poem or story, rather than a factual or ‘sounds right’ before writing it down.
informational text. Three or four sentences will
be sufficient.

Reference
Heugh, Li and Song (2017)

Classroom activities
Activity 1: What is translation?

Objectives
■■ Students understand the role of translation in their TEACHER FEEDBACK
lives.
Ekta
■■ Students identify the different skills used in This activity I think worked very well in my
translating. classroom as we were free to choose the text as
per the difficulty level of our students. Also giving a
Time familiar text worked as students had familiarity with
this text and they were comfortable working on it.
20 minutes
Students said that translation was not very easy
Materials to do but it was fun trying to translate where they
■■ Board and chalk/pens had to negotiate each and every word to make
meaning and go left and right to make meaning
Steps out of a sentence.

1. Lead a discussion with students about the role

of translation in their lives. This might include
questions like:
›› Do you always speak one language at a time?
›› What do you do when you are talking to two
friends who each have a different language?

66 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 2: Translation practice Activity 3: A meaningful translation

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students notice the difference between word-for- ■■ Students apply their translation skills to change a
word translation and versioning/adapting. home-language text into English.

■■ Students practise different translation techniques. Time

60 minutes
Time
60 minutes Materials
■■ Students’ own texts in English for translation (3–5
Materials
sentences)
■■ Short example text in English
(3–4 sentences is enough) ■■ Pencil and paper for each student

■■ Board and chalk/pens ■■ Bilingual dictionaries, if available

■■ Pencil and paper for each student Steps

1. Students choose a short text in English. This could
■■ Bilingual dictionaries, if available
be a story or text they have written or read in a
Steps previous class or something new. Students may be
1. Put students into pairs or small groups with their motivated in this activity if they use something they
same-language peers. have written themselves or something that a family
member has shared with them. Remember that if
2. Write three example texts on the chalkboard and their home language doesn’t have a script, they can
ask each group to choose one and copy it out, write it down using the Roman script.
leaving space to write above and below each line.
2. Students write a word-for-word translation in their
3. Students write a word-for-word translation in their home language for each sentence.
home language for each sentence. The students
should translate one word at a time and write it 3. Students record any problems with this translation
down, without thinking about the correct word – these may be related to grammar, vocabulary,
order. nuance, cultural meaning or sense. You might ask
students to complete this step in a group with their
4. Ask the class to suggest any problems with their same-language peers, using their home language
translation – these may be related to grammar, or English.
vocabulary, nuance, cultural meaning or sense.
Record these problems on the board. Students may 4. Students use the versioning/adaptation approach
give their responses in their home language or to rewrite the text in English, using suitable
English. grammar, vocabulary and expression to give the
same ‘sense’ as well as literal meaning.
5. Students rewrite the text in their home language,
focusing on meaning. They should use suitable 5. Students write down (in their home language
grammar, vocabulary and expression to give or English) the steps they took to create this
the same ‘sense’ as well as literal meaning. For translation.
example, if the sentence being translated is It’s 6. Students can share their original text and
raining cats and dogs, the students should write a translation (or both the word-for-word and the
phrase in their home language which has the same adapted translation) with their same-language
meaning, rather than a direct translation of the six peers or with the whole class, either by reading
words. This is the versioning/adaptation approach aloud or displaying the written texts as a poster
to translation. If students are not familiar with their with some illustrations as appropriate.
home language script, they can use Roman script
to write out the sounds of their language.
6. Ask the students to share their best translation
with the class. Ask them to explain the steps or
skills they used to make this translation successful.
Students may use their home language or English
to give their explanation.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 67

 Taking it further
Assessment
Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity
set through the following activity.
■■ Activity 3 can be used for an assessment task. It
is important to include the student’s reflection on
their translation process in the assessment, along
with the translated text. This can be written in
either English or their home language.

Supplemental activities
■■ Activity 2 and Activity 3 can be repeated, using a
text in the student’s home language, translating
into English. This could also be a possible
assessment activity.

Adaptations
Activity 2 and Activity 3 can be adapted for students
with higher or lower proficiencies in English and their
home language by using shorter or longer texts, texts
with simpler or more complex sentences and texts
with different content.
You could also do a whole-class activity, where pairs
of students take responsibility for different parts of
a single, longer text. Then all the translations are put
together and you can discuss how well the text was
translated as a whole.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ What did you learn about the way students use
different languages for thinking and communication
in other areas of their lives?

■■ What differences did you observe in the way

students worked in groups and independently?

■■ What benefits or challenges might there be if

students use these translation techniques in other
areas of the curriculum? Is this something that you
can encourage the students to consider doing?

68 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 69

70 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 7: Proverbs

© Kunling Liu
Why are these activities useful?
Through proverbs, we can explore the relationship between language, culture and wisdom. Translating
proverbs is not straightforward, because they embody a lot of cultural and social knowledge in only
a few words. The process of translating proverbs can help students think deeply about similarities
and differences between languages and cultures. Creating multilingual displays of proverbs can make
students feel welcome in the classroom, as well as reminding them of useful life lessons. The set of
activities in this project could be used together with Project 6: Translation study.
Look at this example of a proverb from Afghanistan: Naan wa Piaaz, ba Qaashi Waaz.
Literally, this translates as ‘Bread and onions, open eyebrows’. Knowledge of English vocabulary does
not help us understand this proverb. Cultural knowledge is needed to understand the lesson: even if
you only offer simple hospitality (bread and onions), do so with a smile on your face (eyebrows open,
not knitted together in frustration).

Overview

Grade Upper primary (Grades 6–8)

Language focus Translation; translanguaging; biliteracy; home or local languages and English; multilingualism

Content focus Cultural studies

Students explore the connections between language and culture by creating meaningful translations of
Description
familiar proverbs.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 71

 This project includes three activities:
Activity 2: Translating proverbs together
1 What are proverbs?
Objectives
2 Translating proverbs together
■■ Students consider the different factors involved in
3 My favourite proverb translating proverbs.

■■ Students learn different ways to express

Teacher notes imperatives or advice in English and other
languages.
Preparation
■■ Create a list of proverbs in a local language
Time
with an illustration or explanation for each. 40 minutes (which could be extended)
Choose proverbs that are relevant and
Materials
interesting to your class.
■■ Board and chalk/pens
■■ You could include some proverbs in the home
languages of your students.
■■ Pencil and paper for each student

■■ Bilingual dictionaries, if available

Classroom activities Steps

1. Ask the class whether they know any English
Activity 1: What are proverbs? language proverbs. Write their proverbs on the
board. If the students are not familiar with any, write
Objectives
a few on the board, e.g. Actions speak louder than
■■ Students understand what proverbs are and the words; Blood is thicker than water; The early bird
different forms they may take. catches the worm; Give them an inch and they’ll
take a mile. Discuss the meanings of the proverbs.
■■ Students generate a list of proverbs they know in
different languages. 2. Ask the class to choose/vote for one proverb from
the board they are most interested in.
Time
3. Students work in pairs or small groups to rewrite
20 minutes
the proverb in the other languages they know.
Materials Encourage students to write in the proverb style of
the other languages. They might be able to find an
■■ Board and chalk/pens
equivalent proverb in their language, or they might
Steps create a new one which draws on knowledge from
1. Write a well-known national proverb on the board. their own culture. If students do not know how to
Use students’ home languages at this stage, if write a language, they can use Roman (or other)
possible. script to write phonetically and then read it aloud.

2. Discuss with students the meaning of the proverb, 4. Ask the students to read out their translations, and
who might say it to whom and why. record these on the chalkboard. Discuss how the
different versions are effective. Consider questions
3. Ask students to tell any proverbs they know, in such as:
any language. Record these on the board. You can
use Roman script to write proverbs phonetically if ›› How clear is the language?
needed. ›› What cultural or social knowledge is needed to
4. Ask students to identify whether there are any understand the meaning?
similarities or differences in the way proverbs are ›› How effectively does the proverb communicate
expressed in these different languages. the meaning?
5. Choose a few proverbs and discuss their meanings. ›› How memorable is the proverb?
Have the students identify what additional
knowledge is needed to understand what the 5. Ask students to combine the best aspects of each
proverb means beyond the meaning of the translation on the board to create the best version
individual words. of the proverb in their home language. Discuss why
each aspect selected is the most effective.
6. Ask students to vote on which proverb on the
board gives the best life advice and say why.

72 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 3: My favourite proverb Taking it further

Objectives Assessment
■■ Students apply their translation skills to a favourite Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity
proverb. set by reviewing the poster produced by students in
Activity 3. You could assess this according to criteria
■■ Students create a multilingual display of their including accuracy of vocabulary, grammar and
favourite proverbs for the classroom. sentence structure. You could also consider the visual
appeal of the poster.
Time
40 minutes Supplemental activities
■■ You can extend Activity 2 and give students more
Materials practice at translating proverbs by asking students
■■ List of proverbs in English, with illustrations or to translate additional proverbs. Students can
meanings translate from English to home language, from
home language to English, or between different
■■ Pencil and paper for each student
languages in the class.
■■ Bilingual dictionaries, if available
■■ Students could give oral presentations or conduct
Steps short lessons to teach their translated proverbs to
the class or a group of peers.
1. Working alone, students choose an English
language proverb they find particularly appealing Adaptations
and write it down.
For students with higher English levels: Students
2. Students use the skills they have practised in can translate proverbs from their home language into
Activity 2 to create a translation for this proverb English. This can be quite demanding on students’
in their home language or another language they knowledge of English language as well as their cultural
know. As an extension, some students might like to and social knowledge.
create translations in more than one language.
3. Students seek feedback from their language peers
(and teacher, if you know their home languages) to Teacher reflection questions
check their translation. ■■ What did the students (and you) learn about each
4. Students make a small poster or page including other’s cultures and languages?
the English language proverb, their home language
■■ What types of strategies were useful for students
translation and an illustration showing the meaning.
to work together and negotiate meaning using
These posters could be displayed on classroom
different home languages and English?
walls or compiled into a folder or book for a class
library. ■■ What other opportunities can you create in your
classroom for students to use their cultural and
linguistic knowledge?

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 73

 Notes

74 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 75

76 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 8: Procedure texts

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
A text type is a form of writing with a particular purpose, structure and language. As students develop
their literacy, they need to progress from learning to read and write to using reading and writing for
learning across the curriculum. From about Grade 4 onwards, students come across many different
text types (genres) in writing. Examples of common text types in schools include narratives and
essays. Narrative texts include elements such as a storyline or plot, character development, a scene
or setting. Essays have an introduction, a body with details or examples, and a conclusion. Many text
types are written, but they may be spoken or include images.
The ‘procedure’ text type is used in many contexts. Examples of procedures include recipes, science
experiments, teaching a new skill, and instructions at school or work. A procedure text can be a useful
starting point, because it has a clear structure and simple language. In this activity set, students will
use their existing interests and knowledge to help them write a procedure text for teaching a skill to
their classmates.

Overview

Grade Primary (Grades 4–6)

Listening, speaking and reading in home language and English; developing biliteracy; writing in English;
Language focus
learning how to write procedure text type for use (academic literacy) across the curriculum

Content focus Student interest

Description Students teach their classmates a skill, using the procedure text type.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 77

 This project includes six activities:

1 Your special skill 4 Writing a procedure together

2 Putting the steps in order 5 Writing your own procedure

3 Procedures in different languages 6 Presenting your procedure

Teacher notes

Preparation
■■ Observe and listen to your students to find out

their home languages and their special areas

of knowledge and interest, so that you can
draw on them in this activity.

■■ Ask students to prepare for this set of

activities by thinking about an activity TEACHER FEEDBACK
they know well enough to explain to their
classmates. Ekta
I limited the procedural text to recipes only.
■■ Collect examples of procedure texts in as I did it in groups. First in groups I asked students to
share one recipe each in their groups and choose
many of the students’ home languages as
the best recipe to share with the class. Students
possible, and some in English. These could were fully engaged in this activity and I could see
include recipes, instruction sheets, rules for each and every student participating in this.
games or safety instructions. Next, I pasted some simple recipes around the
class for making tea, lemonade, a sandwich and
■■ Write or find an example of a simple procedure asked them to look at them. Later in groups they
text in English for an activity students already were asked to choose any one recipe and write
know, for example a school activity or a the steps similarly. They wrote one recipe and then
read it out to their classmates. They again asked
popular game. Label each section of the text
for questions and clarifications.
and give a brief description.

Example of a procedure text

Heading – this tells the reader what they
■■ How to enter the classroom in the morning will learn about.
■■ You will need: school bag, pencils, books.
Sub-heading – other ways of writing this
■■ Arrive at school before the bell. include: Equipment, Materials, Ingredients.

■■ Hang up your bag on the hook outside the

door.

■■ Play outside until you hear the bell. Steps

■■ You can number these: 1, 2, …
■■ Line up at your classroom door.
■■ Start each instruction with a verb.
■■ Walk into the room quietly when the teacher ■■ Write in the present tense.
says to enter. ■■ You can add information about:
›› when (‘before the bell’)
■■ Find your seat carefully. ›› where (‘outside the door’)
›› how (‘quietly’, ‘carefully’)
■■ Sit quietly.

■■ Wait for the teacher to start the lesson.

■■ The teacher can start the lesson now because

all students are ready and listening. Conclusion – this explains how to know
that the procedure is successful.

78 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Classroom activities Steps
1. Each group chooses one student who can explain
Activity 1: Your special skill
their activity to the class.
Objectives 2. That student tells the class each step of the activity.
■■ Students demonstrate their knowledge of a process The focus here is the structure of their instructions,
through their home language or English, or both not language choices, so the student may speak in
home language and English. home languages or English. Alternatively, they can
mix languages or they can switch between two or
■■ Students will explain a procedure orally in their
more languages (translanguage).
home language or English.
3. As the student speaks, record the steps on the
Time
board in the order they are explained.
30 minutes
4. After the student has finished, ask the class to
Materials suggest any changes to the order of the steps, and
■■ Students’ own equipment or materials for record these on the chalkboard.
demonstrating their process

Steps Activity 3: Procedures in different languages

1. Put students into small groups. It may be useful
for students to be in same-language groups, but Objectives
students can use actions (gesture) as well as ■■ Students will begin to identify the features of a
language to communicate. procedure text in their home languages and English.

2. In their group, students choose an activity they Time

know well, for example:
30 minutes
›› how to play a game
Materials
›› making something as part of a hobby ■■ Samples of procedure texts in students’ home
›› getting ready for school languages and English
›› fixing their own equipment, e.g. changing a bike Steps
tyre
1. Display the samples around the room.
›› a job at home, e.g. feeding chickens, cooking a
2. Draw students’ attention to the key features of each
meal
sample and ask questions to focus their attention:
›› tasks to look after themselves, e.g. brushing
teeth, styling hair. ›› What is the same about the samples?

3. In their groups, students work out how they would ›› What is different about each sample?
explain this activity to another person. Walk around 3. Lead students to think about who each text is
the room and listen to the groups. Help them with written for (the audience) and how this affects the
expression and vocabulary where needed. way it is written. Students may notice things like:

›› how pictures, diagrams or photographs are used

Activity 2: Putting the steps in order
›› how formal or complex the language is
Objectives ›› how headings or lists are used.
■■ Students will understand how the text structure
helps communicate to the audience.

Time
45 minutes

Materials
■■ Board and chalk/pens

■■ Students’ own equipment or materials for

demonstrating their process

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 79

 Activity 4: Writing a procedure together Activity 5: Writing your own procedure

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students will understand the parts of a procedure ■■ Students will draft their own procedure text using
text in English. their home or local language and English, and revise
and edit the final draft in English.
■■ Students will work together to create a procedure
text in English. Time
40 minutes
Time
40 minutes Materials
■■ Writing materials for each student
Materials
■■ Example of a simple procedure text in English for ■■ Completed example procedure text from Activity 4
an activity students already know
■■ A template showing the parts of a procedure text
■■ Large paper or chalkboard for each group to write (on the board or as a handout)
on
Steps
Steps 1. Each student chooses an activity or skill they know
1. Write the parts of the procedure text in the wrong well. This could be the same as in Activity 1 or a
order on the chalkboard. You could give this out as new idea.
a handout, if possible. You could use the example
given in the preparation section of this project or 2. Students identify the steps in their procedure. They
another one that you create yourself. can note these down using simple drawings or
notes in their home language or English.
2. Put students into small groups. It may be useful
for students to be in same-language groups. 3. Using their notes, and following the example text
These could be the same groups as in Activity 1 or and the template, students write their procedure
different. text in English.

3. Students put the parts of the text into the correct Students may help each other or ask the teacher
order. They may discuss the text using home for help to write sentences. It can be useful for
languages or English. As you walk around to students to focus on writing verbs in English and
different groups, ask questions which prompt use home language for other parts of the sentence
students to think about the structure of the text. if needed.

4. Students label each section of the text and explain

its purpose, in a similar way to the example given in Extra resources
the preparation section of these teacher notes.
Do you have students with different levels of ability
5. Display the completed text in the classroom as a in your class? Have a look at this article for some
model. ideas on how to manage this when working on the
four skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/
blogs/ingrid-mosquera-gende/managing-
differentiated-learning-traditional-language-
skills-activities

80 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 6: Presenting your procedure Taking it further

Objectives Assessment
■■ Students will read aloud in English. Confirm the students’ understanding of and learning
in this activity set through their corrected written
■■ Students will practise feedback and editing skills. procedure texts from Activity 6, focusing on their
use of imperatives, present simple and appropriate
Time
vocabulary.
40 minutes
Adaptations
Materials For older students: Students can create their texts
■■ Each student’s written procedure text more independently. They can attempt more difficult
language, including increased vocabulary, range of
■■ Students’ own equipment to demonstrate their skill,
adverbs, focus on inferred second person.
if necessary
For students with higher levels of language
Steps expertise: Students who have greater vocabulary and
1. Each student reads out their procedure text to grammar control can create procedures for abstract
a small group. Their group members follow the ideas, e.g. ‘How to get on with your parents’, ‘How to
instructions and try to complete the activity. get all your study done on time’ or ‘Steps to a happy
Students can have fun trying to follow instructions friendship’, in the home or local language and/or in
that are confusing or out of order. English.

2. Students help each other to correct any errors in

their written procedure texts.
Teacher reflection questions
3. Display corrected procedure texts in the classroom.
■■ In what ways do you think home-language
procedure texts helped students speak and write in
English?

■■ What did students (and you) learn about each other

by sharing their special skills?

■■ How might you use some of these kinds of activities

to teach other text types?

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 81

 Notes

82 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 83

84 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 9:
Science – growing grass heads

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Scientists ask questions about the world and design experiments to find and check the answers.
In this project, students’ prior knowledge or experience of growing plants can help them think
scientifically about how grass grows. Using the students’ home language(s) for following instructions,
asking questions and discussing their observations helps students develop a strong understanding
of both scientific methods and how plants grow. Then, students are well prepared to express their
knowledge in a science report using English.

Overview

Grade Upper primary (Grades 4–6)

Language focus Asking questions, making observations, science report structure

Content focus Science

In this project, students grow grass from seed. They use their home languages to develop scientific
Description
thinking and can then prepare a science report partly or wholly in English.

This project includes five activities:

1 Preparing the experiment 4 Collecting data

2 Asking scientific questions 5 Finishing the report

3 Writing a science report

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 85

 Teacher notes Classroom activities
Activity 1: Preparing the experiment
Preparation
■■ Prepare for the science experiment. This
Objectives
includes the instructions (see below), materials
■■ Students use their experience and home languages
and report template.
to interpret instructions in English.
■■ Used or recycled items can be used for the
■■ Students carry out a science experiment.
fabric, string, pots and decorations. You could
ask students to bring in some old pieces of light Time
cotton material that are not thick or tightly woven.
60 minutes
■■ You could ask students to collect grass seeds
Materials
before the experiment, or you may be able
■■ Science experiment instructions in students’ home
to acquire or purchase enough for the class.
or local language and English as a handout or on
If printing is available, prepare copies of the
the board.
science experiment instructions and the
science report template. ■■ All the materials for the science experiment – piece
of material, seed, soil, string, pots and decorations

Science experiment instructions – grass heads Steps

Purpose 1. Give students a copy of the science experiment
Make a head with ‘hair’ that grows. procedure or write it up on the board.

Observe and record plant growth. 2. Demonstrate the experiment to students. As you
demonstrate each step, ask students to explain
You will need
what is happening, using their home languages.
■■ Fabric: old pieces of coarse material are easiest Encourage students to record home-language
■■ Soil, sand or compost terms next to new vocabulary in the instructions.

■■ Grass seeds (use a local grass that grows 3. In pairs, students carry out the experiment. As
quickly or any other locally available seeds) students complete each step, they discuss it with
their partner, using their home language as well as
■■ String, thread or rubber band the English from the instructions.

■■ A small pot (could be the bottom of a plastic

bottle, a cup or an old tin) Activity 2: Asking scientific questions

■■ Decorations (natural items like dried beans, Objectives

paper shapes or paint)
■■ Students ask scientific questions and design a
What to do method of testing them.
1. Pour about 1 tablespoon (20 grams) of seeds Time
into the middle of the piece of material.
45 minutes
2. Add damp soil.
Materials
3. Tie this up using the string. Leave a tail long ■■ Students’ grass heads
enough to reach into the pot of water. Shape
the soil into a ball. ■■ Board and chalk/pens

4. Decorate the ball like a head – add eyes and Steps

other details. 1. Lead a discussion in the home or local language
about factors that might affect how the grass
5. Put some water in the bottom of a pot. Place the seeds grow. The discussion should be in students’
grass ‘head’ in the pot. Make sure the tail is in home languages and include some English
the water. words. Students can use their prior knowledge
Observe and record what happens. Many fast- to suggest questions about how grass grows. For
growing seeds will take about 12 days before each question, ask students to think of a method
they need a ‘hair cut’. for finding the answer. Some examples in English

86 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 that you can translate into the appropriate local
language are: Example science report template
Investigation to find out about grass seeds and water
›› Does grass grow better in sun or shade?
- Put some heads in the sun and some in the How much water do grass seeds
Our question
shade. need to grow?
• six grass heads
›› Does grass grow towards light?
• water
- Put heads in various places where the light
• ruler
comes from one side only. We need
(Students can draw the
›› Does grass grow better in soil or sand? equipment they need and label
- Make half the heads using soil and half using it in their home language and
English.)
sand.
1. Draw a line on the pot to
›› How much water does grass need? mark the level of water.
- Each time you add water to the pot measure 2. Every day, measure how
and record it. much the plant grows.
3. Measure how much water has
›› How quickly does grass grow? What we will do
been used.
- Measure daily. After ten days, calculate the 4. Fill the pot with water up to
average daily growth. the line.
(Students can also draw a
2. Ask students to form groups of at least six – three
picture with each step.)
pairs. Each group should choose one scientific
• putting the grass heads in the
question they want to answer and the method for same position with the same
finding the answer. amount of sunlight
• measuring the water and
3. In groups, students set up their experiment. plants at the same time each
We will make it a fair
test by day
• filling the pot carefully to the
Activity 3: Writing a science report same level every day
• writing down the
Objectives measurements every time.
■■ Students begin writing a science report using their
home languages and English. Our results (Complete this in Activity 4)
Day Height of grass Amount of water used
Time
1
45 minutes 2

Materials (Students might record their results using a table,

pictures or written notes.)
■■ Students’ experiments
We measured the grass for 12
■■ Writing materials for each group days.
The grass grew [measurement]
Steps each day.
We found out We added [measurement] of
1. Write up a template for the science report, or give (Complete this in water each day.
a handout to each group. Activity 5)
The grass grew a total of …
2. Students use their home languages to discuss the The grass needed … of water.
information for rows 1–4 and make notes. (Students can also draw a
picture with each step.)
3. Students fill in the template in English.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 87

 Activity 4: Collecting data Taking it further
Assessment
Objectives
Confirm the students’ understanding and learning
■■ Students observe and record data for their
at different stages in this project through one of the
experiment using their home language or English.
following:
Time ■■ Activity 1: ask several students to explain how the
15–20 minutes each day for 12 days set-up of the experiment allowed the seeds to grow.

Materials ■■ Activity 4: evaluate students’ observation journals.

■■ Each group’s grass heads ■■ Activity 5: ask groups to complete their science
■■ Each group’s equipment for measuring their data reports using as much English as possible.

■■ Science report template and writing equipment Supplemental activities

Steps ■■ Students can continue to look after their grass
heads and observe the life cycle of the grass.
1. Each group uses its home languages and English
to discuss how to measure the data and what units ■■ As the grass grows longer, students can trim and
to use. If learning measurements in centimetres style it into different ‘hairstyles’ for a classroom
or millilitres is important, use them. Otherwise, display.
students can choose a local form of measuring or
a consistent-sized object. Adaptations
For students with higher English levels:
2. Each group designs a useful way of recording its
data. This might include using pictures, a table or ■■ Students can write a more complex and longer
written notes in home languages or English. This science report and include labelled diagrams.
goes in row 5 of the science report template.
■■ Students can use more advanced features of a
3. Each day, students make their measurements science report, such as headings, sub-headings,
and record their results. They can use their home hypothesis, errors and graphs.
languages, English or pictures to record results.
For older students: Students can ask more complex
questions for their experiment, such as ‘What
Activity 5: Finishing the report nutrients are needed for plants to grow?’

Objectives If resources are available: Students could take

photographs of their growing grass to help record
■■ Students summarise their experiment and draw
their results.
conclusions.
■■ Students write a scientific report in their home or
local language, with at least one part in English. Teacher reflection questions
Time ■■ What did you notice about the ways students
40 minutes demonstrated confidence, leadership or expertise
while working in their groups?
Materials
■■ Each group’s results of the science experiment ■■ What kinds of tasks and topics did students use
their home languages for?
■■ Science report template and writing equipment
■■ How might you incorporate group work and
Steps
discussion in students’ home languages to support
1. After collecting data for 12 days, ask each group learning in other subjects?
to identify three or four important findings to share
with the class.

2. After sharing and explaining their findings, students

write their conclusions in row 6 of their science
report template.

3. Students check each section of the report and

rewrite at least one section in English.

88 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 89

90 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 10: Science – nature walk

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Scientists use skills such as predicting, observing, recording and reporting. Students’ existing
abilities to think this way, and their prior knowledge about their local environment, can be used as
a basis for developing scientific thinking. Likewise, students’ abilities to speak and write about their
local environment using home languages and additional languages form a strong foundation for
developing scientific language in English, where this is required. Learning how to write reports is
useful not only in science but in other subjects, such as social studies, health or mathematics.

Overview

Grade Upper primary (Grades 4–6)

Writing in students’ home language and English; vocabulary in home language and English; science
Language focus
report; classification

Content focus Science (nature and biology), environmental studies

Through this project, students use their home languages to record observations and descriptions. They
Description learn to express this information and complete a science report in English. For this activity, the example of
birds is used; however, other aspects of nature may be used as appropriate.

This project includes five activities:

1 Nature names in many languages 4 Habitat

2 Nature walk 5 Writing a scientific report

3 Appearance, actions and behaviour

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 91

 Teacher notes Classroom activities
Activity 1: Nature names in many languages
Preparation
■■ If it is not easy to observe birds in your locality,
Objectives
consider other items which can be observed,
■■ Students will use their local knowledge and home
classified and described:
languages to identify and name birds or the other
›› varieties of insects, lizards, cows, chickens, aspect of nature you have chosen to study (e.g.
monkeys insects, animals or plants, etc.).

›› trees or other types of plants Time

›› flowers growing naturally, for sale at markets 20 minutes (If you give a handout to students rather
or visible at places of worship than have them create their own, this might be much
shortened and could be done in the same lesson as
›› forms of transport, building materials or
the nature walk described in Activity 2.)
rubbish
›› people’s clothing, activities or methods of Materials
working. ■■ Board and chalk/pens

■■ Plan a nature walk excursion where students ■■ A field guide of local birds (or other selected item)
can observe birds or the other aspect of nature may be useful, but is not essential
that you are looking at. Consider factors such
as: Steps
1. Ask students to predict which birds (or other
›› a safe area where a variety of birds/nature selected item) they will see on their nature walk.
can be observed
2. Record the names in all languages offered by
›› time of day (e.g. birds may not be active in
students.
heat, so morning may be best)
If students do not know how to write in their home
›› opportunity for students to visit this area or language, write phonetically in Roman script until
a similar environment out of school hours to an expert (parent or colleague) can help.
add their own observations, with their family.
3. Create one or more sentences in English together
■■ Before Activity 5: Writing a scientific report, at various levels of difficulty, for example:
prepare an example text with one or two
sentences under each heading and a simple ›› We might see: [list].
labelled diagram. It may be easiest to do this ›› We think we will see these birds on our nature
using example sentences used with the class in
walk: [list].
Activities 3 and 4.
›› We predict we will observe the following birds:
Reference [list].
ACARA (2019)
4. Ahead of the nature walk activity, draw this
observation table on the board. Fill in only the first
column with some of the bird names predicted in
Steps 1 to 3. Add as many lines to the table as you
need, with a few extra.

Tally of birds
Name Draw
you see on your
(in any language) each bird
nature walk
Ground Tree Sky
|||| |||| ||||

92 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 5. Discuss vocabulary associated with using the table, Steps
using English and home languages (for example: 1. Discuss vocabulary associated with appearances
tally (count), row, column). and actions/behaviour, using English and home
languages (for example: colours, feathers, beak,
6. Ask the students to copy the observation table
feet, head, tail, wings, behaviour, call, sing, fly, dive).
from the board onto paper before the nature walk.
Make sure they leave enough room to do their 2. For each bird recorded, discuss what it looks like
drawings and tally the number of birds seen. and how it acts. Use pictures and words in any
language to record points from the discussion on
Activity 2: Nature walk the board.

3. Students add detail to their drawings on their

Objectives
nature walk observation tables.
■■ Students will practise scientific behaviour by
recording their observations about birds (or 4. Write these sentences on the board:
another item) while taking a nature walk.
›› The lorikeet is a small bird with a green and
Time orange body and green wings.
30 minutes or longer, depending on where the nature ›› The African fish eagle is a very large bird with
walk takes place a hooked beak and black, brown and white
feathers.
Materials
■■ A copy of the observation table and pen/pencil
›› The Indian roller is also known as the blue jay or
‘Neelkanth’ in Hindi.
■■ If available, binoculars can enhance this activity
›› The cuckoo sings in an interesting way, but it also
■■ A field guide of local nature (birds, insects, animals steals other birds’ nests.
or plants) may be useful, but is not essential ›› The kite dives very quickly to catch its prey.
Steps 5. Show the students how you have used different
1. Explain to the students that the class will now take vocabulary to describe the birds’ appearance and
a nature walk. During the walk, they should write behaviour. Ask the students to write the sentences
down their observation of any birds they see. down and underline the most important words. For
They keep a tally of where they saw each bird. example:
Their observations can use their home languages,
›› The lorikeet is a small bird with a green and
English or quick drawings/sketches.
orange body and green wings.
2. Take the students on a walk that is appropriate to ›› The African fish eagle is a very large bird with
the environment where the school is located. Select a hooked beak and black, brown and white
a location to sit or stand where students will be feathers.
able to observe birds (or any other aspect of nature
selected for this project). ›› The Indian roller is also known as the blue jay or
‘Neelkanth’ in Hindi.
›› The cuckoo sings in an interesting way, but it also
Activity 3: Appearance, actions and behaviour
steals other birds’ nests.
Objectives 6. Ask the students to compose at least three
■■ Students will represent the appearance and sentences in both English and their home language
actions or behaviour of birds using illustrations and to describe each bird they have seen. Make sure
sentences in their home languages and English. they focus on appearance and behaviour only.
They will be looking at other aspects of the birds in
Time another lesson. Encourage them to help each other
30 minutes with language and translations as necessary as well
as giving input yourself. The students can discuss
Materials
as much as they need to in their home language.
■■ Nature walk observation tables

■■ Coloured writing materials if available (pencils,

pens, paint)

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 93

 Activity 4: Habitat Activity 5: Writing a scientific report

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students will describe the habitat of birds (or other ■■ Students use the structure and language of a
types of animal) using their home languages and scientific report in English.
English.
Time
Time 40–60 minutes
30 minutes
Materials
Materials ■■ Example scientific report
■■ Nature walk observation tables
■■ Nature walk observation tables
■■ Pencil and paper for each student
■■ Sentences from Activities 3 and 4
Before the lesson, think about what words the
students will need to describe the habitat of the
■■ Pencil and paper for each student
birds or other animals they have seen on their Steps
nature walk. Be ready to introduce these words to
1. Students choose one bird (or other aspect of
your students. Some examples for birds are given
nature that you are focusing on) to write about.
below.
The teacher may choose the same one for the
Steps whole class or each student may choose their own.
1. If possible, show the students a photo of a bird they
2. Show students an example report with headings
are familiar with (or other animal you are studying).
and sentences that have been used in class.
Otherwise, try to draw a picture of it before the
See the example below.
lesson. Ask the students, ‘What is this bird? Where
does this bird live?’ Discuss vocabulary associated Appearance: A lorikeet is a small bird with a green
with habitat, using English and home languages. and orange body and green wings.
Some useful words are: nest, egg, ground, bush,
Labelled diagram: (example labels: head, body or
trees, tree trunk, flight, hole, roof, etc.
trunk, tail, wings, beak, feathers, feet)
2. Use pictures and words in any language to record
Habitat: Lorikeets make nests in hollows in old
points from the discussion.
trees.
3. Help students compose sentences in their home/ Behaviour: Lorikeets are noisy at sunrise and
local language and English to describe each bird’s sunset, when they look for fruit and seeds to eat.
habitat. For example:
Special features: They have a specially shaped
›› The lorikeet lives in hollows in old trees. beak for eating seeds and fruits.
›› The lorikeet builds nests in old trees. 3. Ask students to write their own report, following the
›› Storks live in big nests on the tops of trees and structure of the example and using the information
roofs of buildings. from their nature walk and Activities 3 and 4.

4. The students can write their sentences in two 4. If possible, invite the students to write their report
languages side by side or one after the other on a in both their home language and English, or at least
page. part of the report in both languages.

Extra resources

Have a look at this short classroom film for some

ideas to help children learn new vocabulary:
https://tinyurl.com/y33owosj

94 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Taking it further Teacher reflection questions
Assessment ■■ In what ways did students’ existing knowledge of
Confirm the students’ completion and understanding nature and their local environment help them in
of this activity set through one of the following these activities?
activities: ■■ What helps make excursions and learning outside
■■ Activity 1 – completion of the observation record of the classroom effective for you and your
sheet, including names for birds, pictures and other students?
observations
■■ What are some effective ways to help students
■■ Activities 3 and 4 – completion of simple sentences develop technical knowledge and language in
in English their home languages at the same time as they are
learning it in English?
■■ Activity 5 – completion of jointly constructed or
independent simple science report.

Supplemental activities
■■ This project can be connected to visual arts.
Students could complete larger and more detailed
drawings of birds/other aspects of nature or
represent what they have seen through other
means, including sculpture or craft. This art can
include details about appearance, habitat and
behaviour.

■■ The reports could be combined into a class book

which could be displayed and/or shared with other
classes.

Adaptations
For students with higher academic writing skills in
either the home/local language or English:
■■ Students can develop a deeper understanding of
each area of the report.

■■ Students can create more complex written

descriptions in each section (in one or two
languages).

■■ Students can use more complex grammar and

vocabulary to link sections of the written report.

■■ Students can write independently.

For older students:

■■ Help the students identify the scientific names of
the birds and/or map migratory patterns through
additional research.

If resources are available: The teacher or students

may be able to take photographs during the nature
walk.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 95

 Notes

96 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 97

98 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 11: Maths – graphing

© British Council
Why are these activities useful?
Often it is more helpful to learn maths concepts through physical experience since they may be
hard to grasp in the abstract. Using objects in the real world, that students see on a regular basis,
can help bring their learning to life. Likewise, using home languages, especially in the younger
years, can eliminate the complexity of trying to learn something new in a language that is less well
known. Making connections between knowledge in a home language and new ideas can improve and
precipitate understanding in subject matter lessons, such as maths.

Overview

Grade Lower primary (Grades 1–3)

Language focus Counting and vocabulary in students’ home language and English

Content focus Mathematics – counting, graphing

This activity set introduces students to counting and simple graphs through experience, their home
Description language and English. For this activity, the example of flowers is used; however, other objects may be
used as appropriate.

This project includes five activities:

1 Collecting objects 4 Copying your own graph

2 Counting the objects 5 Writing about your graph

3 Making a graph together

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 99

 Teacher notes Classroom activities
Activity 1: Collecting objects
Preparation
■■ Think of an object that students can find in the
Objectives
playground or near the classroom. This could
■■ Students group the same type of objects together.
include leaves or stones. Alternatively, students
could collect objects on the way to school or on Time
an excursion – for example, seashells or flowers.
30 minutes
The important thing is that these objects can be
classified into a small number of groups. Materials
■■ A selection of one type of object in or near the
■■ For this activity, the example of flowers is
classroom (the example here is flowers)
used; however, other objects may be used as
appropriate. Steps
■■ Create a graph template on a large sheet of 1. Tell students that you are going to find out what
paper or on a few sheets stuck together. This colour of flower (or other object selected for the
could be a grid with two axes (each labelled task) they like. Ask students to go outside and pick
in students’ home language and English), and just one flower in their favourite colour and bring
each square numbered for each column. it back into the classroom. (Or you might have
some flowers to choose from at the front of the
Example graph template classroom.)

2. When the students have returned to the classroom,

5 5 5 5 5
ask all the students with the same coloured flower
Number, also in
local language

4 4 4 4 4
(other object) to stand together in a group.
3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2
Activity 2: Counting the objects
1 1 1 1 1

Objectives
Colour of flower, also in home/local
language
■■ Students count in their home language and English.

Time
The grid should be large enough for each 20 minutes
object to fit inside one square. This may be
quite large for leaves or litter, but smaller for Materials
beans or shells. ■■ Students in groups with their objects from Activity 1
You might leave the labels blank until students
have collected their objects. Steps

■■ Also create a smaller graph template as a 1. Ask one group to come to the front of the
handout. It should be exactly the same as the classroom and line up against the board, holding
large template. Leave space underneath the their flowers. Tell the class you are all going to count
graph for writing. the number of people who like this colour of flower.

■■ Prepare some cloze (gapped) sentences (in 2. Ask the first student to step forward and say ‘one’
both the home/local language and English) in English. Then the next student says ‘two’ and so
about the graph. You may need to do this on. After the group has been counted, ask students
after Activity 3 is complete. Depending on the to tell you how many people there were. Write the
English sentences your students have learned, colour and the number on the board.
some examples might be: 3. Ask students if they can count the group in another
language. If a student volunteers, ask them to
›› There are ____ red flowers.
count the group aloud in their language. Add this to
›› There are two _______ flowers. the board.
›› There are more _______ flowers.
4. Repeat this with each group. Count in the home/
›› There are fewer _______ flowers. local language first and then in English. You could
try to count in a different language for each group.
›› I had a _______ flower.
Record each total on the board.

100 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 7. After all the flowers are placed, discuss the graph
Activity 3: Making a graph together
with the students, using their home languages and
Objectives English. Ask questions like:

■■ Students make a simple column graph together. ›› How many (colours of) flowers are there?
How do you know?
Time
40 minutes
›› Which colour of flower is there most/least of?
How can you tell?
Materials
8. If you have a camera, you could take a photo of the
■■ Large graph template completed graph.
■■ Objects from Activity 1

Steps Activity 4: Copying your own graph

1. Tell the students you are going to show their
Objectives
counting in a picture or diagram.
■■ Students draw a simple column graph
2. Lay out the graph template. You may need to independently.
clear some space on the floor at the front of the
classroom to do this. Ask students to gather around Time
the graph template, holding their flowers carefully. 30 minutes

3. Talk about the labels for each axis. These may Materials
already be written in English, so ask students how ■■ Large graph from Activity 3
to say these words (number, colour, flower) in other
languages. Write these on the axes next to the ■■ Smaller graph handout
English words. Use Roman script to write the words ■■ Writing materials for each student, including
phonetically if needed.
coloured pencils if available
4. Fill in the labels for each column. Ask students,
Steps
‘What colour flowers do we have?’ Write the colours
1. Give each student a graph and smaller graph
in English and in any other languages the students
handout. Ask students to sit so that they can read
know.
the writing on the large graph. You may need to
Example graph template help them rotate their paper so that it is aligned
with the large graph.

5 5 5 5 5 2. Check that students understand that the large

Number, also in local

graph and their handouts are the same. Point to

4 4 4 4 4
different parts of the large graph and ask students
3 3 3 3 3 to point to the same position on their sheet.
language

2 2 2 2 2
3. Help students fill in the axes labels. They should
1 1 1 1 1 write in English and their own home language, and
Red Yellow Orange Blue White
add other languages if they wish.
Colour of flower
4. Next, students fill in the column labels.

5. Tell the students you are going to count the flowers 5. Students copy the columns onto their sheets. They
again. Ask the first group (with red flowers) to bring may like to draw flowers accurately in each box or
their flowers and line up behind the red column. to put a coloured circle in each box. The important
The first student should place their flower in box 1, thing is that the position and number of flowers is
the next in box 2, and so on. Ask the class to count the same.
aloud as each flower is placed. 6. Check each student’s graph. You can also get
6. Repeat for each colour of flower. students to compare graphs with each other to
check that they look the same.

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 101

 Activity 5: Writing about your graph Taking it further
Assessment
Objectives
Confirm the students’ understanding of this activity
■■ Students complete simple sentences about the
set through one of the following activities:
graph.
■■ Ask several students to count the objects aloud in
Time both the home language(s) and English.
20 minutes
■■ In small groups, have the students describe
Materials aloud their individual graph from Activity 4, using
■■ Graph handout from Activity 4 sentences similar to the cloze sentences from
Activity 5.
■■ Writing materials for each student
Supplemental activities
■■ Cloze sentences for students to copy from the ■■ A process like this could be used for surveying
board the class and learning more about your students.
Steps For example, you could make a graph of students’
favourite subjects, how they travel to school or the
1. On the board, write the cloze sentences that you
languages they speak.
prepared earlier (in the home or local language and
English) about the graph. Depending on the English Adaptations
sentences your students have learned, some For students with lower English levels: For students
examples might be: who are not ready to write sentences, the activity set
›› There are ____ red flowers. could be completed without Activity 5.
›› There are two _______ flowers. For older students: More independent students can
create graphs like this in small groups at their desk.
›› There are more _______ flowers.
They could use more complicated sets of objects,
›› There are fewer _______ flowers. such as mixed beans that need to be sorted, counted
and arranged as a graph.
›› I had a _______ flower.
If resources are available: Students could repeat
2. Read each sentence aloud (or ask a student to read
the activities with another object to demonstrate
it) and ask students what the missing word is.
that their understanding of the concepts can be
3. Students copy the cloze sentences underneath their transferred to a different situation.
graph and fill in the correct words.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ What parts of these activities were fun and
engaging for students? Why?

■■ In what way did counting and speaking in their

home language help students understand and
engage with these activities?

■■ What other ideas do you have for activities for

teaching maths concepts?

102 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 103

104 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom
 Project 12: Festivals

© University of Cambridge
Why are these activities useful?
Festivals are important and happy social events that are held regularly to remind people that
they belong to a community of people who share similar beliefs or faith; a cultural heritage that
includes history, stories (spoken and written literature), music, song and dance; traditional practices,
knowledge and values; and often also the same language. An important purpose of holding regular
festivals is to remind people that they belong to this cultural group, and the festival is associated
with a social event that is joyful.

Overview

Grade Lower secondary (Grades 7–9)

Language focus Listening, speaking and writing in home languages and English; English grammar

Content focus Social studies, cultural studies

Festivals are important social events that are shared by people who belong to cultural and faith-based
Description communities. This project can also be combined with Project 5: Cultural artefacts.
Students discuss and write about these topics in their home language(s) and English.

This project includes four activities:

1 Introducing a local festival 3 Writing about a festival

2 Talking about a festival 4 How my family celebrates

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 105

 Teacher notes language. Ask students to copy this from the board,
leaving room to add more vocabulary.
Preparation
Example vocabulary chart (table format)
■■ Before Activity 2: Talking about a festival,

prepare a list of questions and model answers.

You could use questions from Activity 1: Words in
Words in
[home Words in
Introducing a local festival. Use sentence Category [home
language English
patterns in the model answers that match and language 2]
1]
extend your students’ English language levels. Greetings
This list could be a handout or you can write it
Special
on the board.
foods
References Games
Moll et al. (1992)
…
Pahl and Rowsell (2010)

Classroom activities Extra resources

Activity 1: Introducing a local festival Do your learners have access to computers
or mobile phones? Try these online games for
Objectives
practising using adverbs of frequency in English:
■■ Students ask and answer questions using their
home languages and English. https://tinyurl.com/y6pvws65

■■ Students develop vocabulary associated with

festivals in their home languages and English.

Time
20 minutes

Materials
■■ Artefacts associated with a festival

■■ Vocabulary chart as a handout or written on the

board

■■ Board and chalk/pens

TEACHER FEEDBACK
■■ Writing materials for each student
Jyothi
I have taken three different festivals and related
Steps
to those festivals there are some key words which
1. Bring in one or more artefacts associated with can be understood only in their mother tongue.
a festival. This could include pictures, clothing, So I have used those words in Telugu, also in Hindi
objects or food. Show the students your artefacts because some of the students can only understand
but don’t talk about them yet. Let the students Hindi, so that the children can be more involved in
the topic.
examine the artefacts and express their ideas and
questions.

2. Ask students questions about the festival. Prompt

them to tell you what they know about aspects of
the festival, such as its name, when it is held, the
reason for it, how their family celebrates, food and
drink, clothing, gifts, music and dance. Students can
answer in their home languages or English.

3. Create a vocabulary chart of words related to the

festival. Include home languages and English by
using a table format or a different colour for each

106 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Activity 2: Talking about a festival Activity 3: Writing about a festival

Objectives Objectives
■■ Students ask and answer questions in their home ■■ Students write sentences in their home or local
languages and English. language(s) and English.

■■ Students develop vocabulary associated with ■■ Students read aloud in both their home or local
festivals in their home languages and English. language(s) and English.

Time Time
40 minutes 40 minutes

Materials Materials
■■ Model questions about festivals ■■ Vocabulary chart from Activity 1

Steps ■■ Questions and answers from Activity 2

1. Give out or display questions with model answers ■■ Writing materials for each student
(examples below). Include a variety of questions as
in Activity 1. Steps

2. Put students into pairs. One student asks questions 1. Prepare prompts to help students write sentences
based on the prompts. The other student answers, about the festival. The vocabulary chart from
in English where they are able, using words in their Activity 1 and the questions and answers from
home language where needed. Students can swap Activity 2 may be very useful here. Also, look at the
roles halfway through. Walk around the room and example below. You might want to share this with
listen to the pairs. Help them with expression and your class before they start.
vocabulary (in both the home/local language and 2. In pairs, students write six sentences each about
English) where needed. their festival. The students can use translanguaging
3. After their discussion, students add to their between their home language and English when
vocabulary chart from Activity 1 in their home they draft their sentences. Then they help each
languages and English. other to edit and translate where necessary
to rewrite the sentences in English. They work
Example questions with model answers together to write sentences with interesting detail
and accurate expression. Students may use the
same sentence structures as their partner, but may
Question Model answers choose to include different information. As you walk
The festival is called … around the classroom, help students with grammar
What is the festival called?
The festival’s name is …
and spelling.
We celebrate this festival in
When do we celebrate this [month].
festival? This festival is celebrated
every [season].
We celebrate this festival
Why do we celebrate this because …
festival? The reason for this festival
is …
We go to [place] and
How does your family [activity].
celebrate this festival?
We like to celebrate by …
What do you eat and drink? We eat … and drink …
…

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 107

 3. Students take turns reading their sentences aloud Taking it further
to their partner. They give each other feedback on
grammar and pronunciation. Students can continue Assessment
reading aloud to improve their pronunciation and Confirm the students’ understanding, learning and
gain confidence. the development of their biliteracy and bilingualism
through one or more of the following activities:
4. This writing activity may be a good opportunity to
teach adverbs of frequency, such as never, rarely, ■■ written sentences from Activity 3
sometimes, often, usually, always. Students can ■■ oral presentations from Activity 4.
go back to their sentences and insert adverbs of
frequency, for example: You can include a focus on criteria including fluency,
accuracy, presentation skills.
›› We often eat haleem, kebabs and delicious
sweets. Supplemental activities
›› We sometimes drink cola, water or fruit juice. ■■ The sentences written in Activity 3 can be used
as the basis for extended writing. Students can
write a connected text using a range of sentence
Activity 4: How my family celebrates structures.

Objectives ■■ You could invite a visitor from the local community

to come into class to talk to the students about
■■ Students speak to the class in English.
the festival, its origins and its significance to the
Time community. This might work well before Activity 1
30 minutes, plus 2–3 minutes per student or after Activity 4.
presentation ■■ You could display the pictures and the texts from
Materials Activities 3 and 4 separately in the classroom. Give
all the texts numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc., and the pictures
■■ Students’ writing from Activity 3
letters, A, B, C, etc. Ask the students to walk around
■■ Writing materials for each student the room and match the texts and pictures by
reading the descriptions. Write down the number/
■■ Coloured pencils, pens or markers if available. letter combinations. Then check whether they were
correct as a whole class. Make sure you tell your
Steps
students you will be doing this before they draw
1. Based on their writing from Activity 3, students their pictures, though, to ensure they have enough
draw a picture of their family celebrating the detail.
festival.
■■ This project can also be combined with Project 5:
2. Students display their picture in front of the Cultural artefacts.
whole class or a smaller group. Using their written
sentences from Activity 3 as prompts, students talk Adaptations
about their family celebration in English. For students with varied English levels: Vary the
English grammar and vocabulary you teach, according
3. You can display the pictures and sentences in the
to the abilities and needs of the students.
classroom.

Teacher reflection questions

■■ What have you learned about students’ life
experiences and their abilities in the languages
they know?

■■ How did working in pairs or groups help students

with their speaking and writing?

■■ How can you connect students’ life experiences

when teaching in other areas of the curriculum?

108 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

 Notes

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 109

 2.3 Projects reference list
ACARA (2019). Science Year 3 Investigation: Local Birds, available at https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/
resources/curriculum-connections/samples/investigation-local-birds/
D’Warte, J. (2014). Linguistic Repertoires: Teachers and students explore their everyday language worlds.
Language Arts, 91, 5: 352–362.
French, M. (2018). Multilingualism as the Medium: Learning and life in an Australian secondary school, unpublished
thesis. Doctor of Philosophy, University of South Australia, Adelaide.
French, M. & de Courcy, M. (2016). A place for students’ multilingual resources in an Australian high school. In
C. Snowden & S. Nichols (eds), Languages and Literacies as Mobile and Placed Resources, pp. 153–169. Oxon:
Routledge.
Heugh, K. (2015). Epistemologies in multilingual education: Translanguaging and genre – companions in
conversation with policy and practice. Special issue, Language and Education 29: 280–285.
Heugh, K. (2018). Multilingualism, diversity and equitable learning: Towards crossing the ‘Abyss’. In P. Van
Avermaet, S. Slembrouck, K. Van Gorp, S. Sierens & K. Marijns (eds), The Multilingual Edge of Education, pp.
341–367. London: Palgrave.
Heugh, K., Li, X. & Song, Y. (2017). Multilingualism and Translanguaging in the Teaching of and Through English:
Rethinking Linguistic Boundaries in an Australian University. In B. Fenton-Smith, P. Humphreys & I. Walkinshaw
(eds), English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific, pp. 259–279. Netherlands: Springer. http://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0
Laitin, D. (2007). Language repertoires and state construction in Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Lamb, M. (2011). A ‘Matthew Effect’ in English language education in a developing country context. In Dreams
and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language, pp. 186–206 (20). London: British Council.
Moll, L.C., Amanti, C., Neff, D. & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative
approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory into Practice, 31: 132–141.
Pahl, K. & Rowsell, J. (2010). Artifactual literacies: Every object tells a story. New York: Teachers College Press.
Scarino, A. & Liddicoat, A.J. (2009). Teaching and learning languages: A guide. Melbourne: Curriculum
Corporation.
Somerville, M., D’Warte, J. & Sawyer, W. (2016). Building on Children’s Linguistic Repertoires to Enrich Learning:
A Project Report for the NSW Department of Education. Research report. http://www.uws.edu.au/__data/assets/
file/0009/1086831/LingReps_CER_site300516.pdf

110 |  Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom

Strategies, activities and projects for the classroom | 111

112 |  Further resources
Part 3:
Further resources

| 113

114 |  Further resources
 Part 3
Further resources
Compiled by Mei French and Kathleen Heugh

3.1 Overview
The following describes some types of further resources currently available for the promotion of multilingual
education. However, these themes are not necessarily exclusive nor are they fully comprehensive. We do not
include literature on multilingual education policy in this overview unless it includes explicit information that
contributes to teacher education and teaching and learning resources.
■■ Resources to support multilingual education, particularly in contexts where English may be taught as a
subject and/or where English may also be used as a medium of instruction: these can be categorised as
follows:

›› Storybooks: There are multiple repositories of digital storybooks, which often include English and
languages spoken at national, regional and local levels in different parts of Africa and Asia.
›› Curriculum and assessment materials: There are limited examples of materials or activities that support a
range of curriculum areas. However, there are some examples for mathematics, science and health. There
is also a small body of literature on multilingual assessment that is of relevance in Africa and Asia.
›› Pedagogy: There are resources that offer different explanations of appropriate classroom pedagogy to
suport multilingual education. These include numerous documents on pedagogies used to support the
different approaches to bilingual education. They include a range of different perspectives on code-
switching, translation, grammar, communicative language teaching, translanguaging, and so on.
›› Teacher education/development programmes: although these have been developed (for example by
PRAESA at the University of Cape Town and the Education Department at the University of the Western
Cape in South Africa; the NMCR at Jawaharlal Nehru University in India; and at LABE in Uganda), published
documents that provide detailed explanations of the processes adopted by each of these have been
limited. UNESCO Bangkok’s MTB MLE resource kits may be the most easily and widely accessible materials
that contribute to teacher support and teacher development for multilingual education.
■■ Literacy and reading programmes: there are multiple projects focused on literacy, with an emphasis on
reading, in either English or a national, regional or local language. Many of these are government-supported
and NGO-run. The lifespan of many of these projects is often restricted to between two and five years.
They may have limited opportunity for community engagement, broader development for teachers, locally
developed resources, connection across the curriculum, and qualitative, longitudinal data. These projects
may be seen as focusing on improving certain measures of literacy, but not impacting on holistic learning or
educational development. Partly because of the limited lifespan of many of the interventions, we cannot track
students’ achievements over the whole of the primary years and also their achievement in secondary school.
We therefore cannot really report on the degree of success of many of the reading or literacy programmes
that are trialled. Many of the claims of success cannot be supported through reliable evidence (e.g. Heugh
2006 in the Alidou et al. report).

Further resources | 115

 ■■ A substantial 120-year body of research publications related to multilingual education: this includes
evaluations and analyses of the outcomes of different kinds of mainly English/French/Portuguese mother-
tongue, bilingual and multilingual education programmes in Africa. Most of the research evidence of which
kinds of multilingual education programmes are likely to be successful are found in sub-Saharan Africa and
can be found in several chapters in the following collections: Alidou et al. (2006), Ouane and Glanz (2011) and
Skutnabb-Kangas and Heugh (2012).

■■ Countries that have implemented system-wide multilingual education programmes: this includes Ethiopia,
South Africa and several countries across Africa and Asia that have implemented multilingual education
programmes at various times, but not necessarily continuously (e.g. Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Namibia,
the Philippines, India and Nepal). Several countries in Central Asia and South-East Asia are currently
considering trilingual education programmes, and/or are busy working to implement these to some degree.
Implementation remains a challenge in most countries.

■■ Alternative multilingual education projects: examples such as the Project for the Study of Alternative
Education in Africa (PRAESA), based at the University of Cape Town in South Africa (especially in the years
1993–2005); Literacy and Adult Basic Education (LABE) in Uganda since 1989; the National Multilingual
Education Resource Consortium (NMRC) at Jawarharlal Nehru University in India since 2008; Eklavya in
Bhopal; the Vidya Bhawan Society in Udaipur in India and the Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South
Africa (LOITASA). These projects have been able to demonstrate how they work with communities, teachers
and students to develop local curriculum, resources and pedagogies. Projects such as LABE in Uganda and
NMRC in India may be seen as having more sustainable approaches to longer-term educational development
because of their ongoing close association with communities particularly in rural and remote areas, which
government agencies find difficult to support.

■■ Research papers and publications focusing on the advantages of multilingualism and using multilingualism
in the classroom: these usually include implications for one or more of policy, implementation of policy
(sometimes called planning) and pedagogy. They often include recommendations for local-, provincial-, state-
and national-level programme structures, recruitment and general training of teachers. However, papers with
recommendations for or examples of curriculum, pedagogy or teaching materials are either less frequently
produced or often limited to internal working documents that are not widely circulated or disseminated.

116 |  Further resources

 3.2 Sources containing teaching materials: organised by teaching activity domain
Sources referring to high-resource contexts are indicated in green.

Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Teacher Materials to support inclusive MIET Africa Some reference to languages in the materials
Development teaching; resources for https://www.mietafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Handouts-
teachers include references to for-participants.pdf
language and general inclusive
https://www.mietafrica.com/celebrating-differences-guide-
pedagogies
differentiated-lesson-planning/
https://www.mietafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/DL_booklet_
wr.pdf

Pedagogy handbook for National Curriculum Development Centre, LABE Examples of activities in local language, teacher-made resources, advice
teaching in local language, https://www.labeuganda.org/reports/Pedagogy%20Book-1.pdf for teachers, sample literacy lesson plans, example storage options in
Uganda low-resource schools
(Resource for teachers using
local language within Ugandan
EMI system)

Teacher training videos World Vision

http://www.wvi.org/education-and-life-skills/unlock-literacy-teacher-
training-video-modules

(High- Professional learning materials Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership: Video and document giving overview of multilingual stance and
resource https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-resources/resource/multilingual- strategies in Aboriginal primary school
context) approaches-to-teaching-and-learning-illustration-of-practice

(High- Professional learning for CUNY-NYS Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals Translanguaging guides including activities linked to curriculum
resource teachers https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/
context)

(High- Training programme for European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) Maledive Project A comprehensive programme including videos, activities, resources
resource teachers in multilingual https://maledive.ecml.at/
context) education

(High- Description of multilingual Little, D. & Kirwan, D. (2019). Engaging with Linguistic Diversity. London: Illustrates the important role of the school principal and teachers’ own
resource school practice Bloomsbury. reflective practices – and evolving confidence as teacher researchers.
context)

Further resources | 117

 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Various resources and TeachingEnglish website – British Council Includes illustrations from student and teacher practice and experience
publications https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/ and powerful quotations from students, many of whom have escaped
teachers/multilingual-approaches from places of conflict around the world

Community Community engaged in National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium, (Jawaharlal Photos and videos give examples of community and multilingual
engagement learning and teaching Nehru University), http://www.nmrc-jnu.org/nmrc_photo_gallery.html approaches

Engaging community members Save The Children Suggests methods for engaging L1 and community pp. 13–14

118 |  Further resources

as language mentors https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/content/dam/global/reports/steps- Developing local language resources p. 23
towards-learning-lr.pdf

Engaging community and Literacy and Adult Basic Education (LABE) Uganda Mother-tongue programmes, methods for community involvement and
parents https://labeuganda.org/web/ developing resources

Parents engaged in home World Vision

language reading https://www.wvi.org/education-and-life-skills/article/world-vision-india-
helps-children-learn-read-language-they

(High- Asking parents to introduce Espinosa 2013 in EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning in Brief description only
resource concepts and vocabulary in MT Multilingual Classrooms (p. 61)
context) https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1

Planning for Five techniques to support FHI360 Briefly described examples of using L1 in the classroom
learning second language learners in https://www.fhi360.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/resource-
the classroom five-techniques.pdf

* also other Use of local language in Gyan Shala Very detailed explanation of use of local language in teaching, also
categories teaching http://gyanshala.org/design-and-curriculum/ maths and science
Includes description of classroom activities: storytelling, language
subject teaching, worksheet, group activities, using translated versions
of national texts

How first languages can be Save The Children Place of L1 in the teaching cycle p. 19
used at different stages https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/content/dam/global/reports/steps-
towards-learning-lr.pdf
 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Example unit of work on TESS-India resource Connected activities and case study examples
multilingual learning http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/145491/mod_
resource/content/2/LL12_AIE_Final.pdf

Add MTB MLE goals to existing UNESCO 2018 (Bk4 p. 5) MTB MLE resource packs are specifically designed for low-resource
curriculum https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246278 classrooms

Guide for developing materials World Vision Includes guidelines

in local language https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/Approach%20to%20
Teaching%20and%20Learning_FINAL.pdf

(High- Range of bilingual educational de Jong, E.J. & Freeman Field, R. (2010). Bilingual Approaches. Examples described include preview-view-review, identity texts,
resource approaches adapted to In C. Leung & A. Creese (eds), English as an Additional Language: vocabulary and concept learning, brainstorming, writing, assessment,
context) multilingual settings Approaches to teaching linguistic minority students, pp. 108–121. scaffolding transfer
London: Sage.

(High- Review of multilingual and French, M. (2018). Multilingualism as the Medium: learning and life in an Example classroom strategies include participation, content learning,
resource translanguaging teaching and Australian secondary school. Unpublished thesis. Doctor of Philosophy, language and literacy, integrated units
context) learning approaches University of South Australia, Adelaide.

(High- Reference for understanding, García, O., Ibarra Johnson, S. & Seltzer, K. (2017). The Translanguaging Includes lesson-planning tools and examples of translanguaging units,
resource planning, implementing and Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning. Philadelphia: lessons and activities; content-based and language-based examples
context) evaluating translanguaging for Caslon.
learning https://www.caslonpublishing.com/titles/21/translanguaging-
classrooms/

(High- In-depth discussion of García, O. and Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism Useful summary table p. 120, some classroom examples from p. 127,
resource translanguaging in education and education. London, Palgrave. recommendations p. 131.
context) But these may not be the best examples for students in Africa and
Asia, where they still do need to develop high-level proficiency in an
international language like English

Class Suggestions for multilingual TESS-India resource Alphabet chart, word wall, greetings, labels
environment classroom displays and http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/145491/mod_
resources resource/content/2/LL12_AIE_Final.pdf

(High- Visual displays of language, Espinosa 2013 in EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning in Brief description only
resource culture, family practices Multilingual Classrooms (p. 61)
context) https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1

Further resources | 119

 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Classroom Translanguaging strategies TESS-India resource Example questions and instructions p. 7

interactions http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/145491/mod_
resource/content/2/LL12_AIE_Final.pdf

Storybooks Open-access multilingual African Storybook Digital storybooks

storybooks for children and https://www.africanstorybook.org/ Log in to create, translate and adapt
some support resources,
Currently 179 languages, 1,112 books, 5,690 translations
including Primary Maths Stories

120 |  Further resources

Liberian stories EDC Many different storybooks online
http://idd.edc.org/resources/publications/liberian-stories-youth-i

Storybooks in Hindi and English EKLAVYA Available online

https://www.eklavya.in/books

Storybooks Global digital library Available online

https://home.digitallibrary.io/
■■ Global partnership including UN, government agencies and NGOs

■■ Graded readers in different languages and some with audio

Storybooks in multiple International Children’s Digital Library Foundation Digital storybooks in different languages
languages http://en.childrenslibrary.org/

Local language children’s Mango Tree Images on website, but some links broken
books in Uganda http://mangotreeuganda.org

Readers in Indian languages National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium, (Jawaharlal Bilingual early readers (PDFs) in Saora-Oriya and Kui-Oriya
Nehru University),
http://www.nmrc-jnu.org/nmrc_mle_primary.html

Storybooks Room To Read Four books available with sign-in and downloadable promotional
https://www.roomtoread.org/global-book-collection/ and materials

https://www.roomtoread.org/take-action/resource-hub/
 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Storybooks in multiple Storybook Canada Digital storybooks

languages, including written http://educ.ubc.ca/storybooks-canada-a-digital-resource-for-
text and audio multilingual-education/

Storybooks in multiple StoryWeaver Digital storybooks in multiple languages – levelled, some with audio
languages https://storyweaver.org.in/search

Developing MT dictionaries, UNESCO 2018 (Bk 3 p. 15)

identifying artefacts and https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246278
people

Decodable, levelled and World Education Mozambique Learn to Read project Decodable, levelled and multilingual books, digital storybooks
multilingual books https://www.worlded.org/WEIInternet/inc/common/_display_related_ (Portuguese + three local languages: Emakhuwa, Echuwabu, Elomwe)
objects_of_base_object.cfm?thisSection=international&thisSectionTitle
=International&thisPage=project&tid=40&id=12301&rtid=10

Teaching Developing storybooks and UNESCO 2018 (Bk2 p. 26)

materials texts https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246278

Education programme for UNESCO. Mother Tongue-based Education in Northern Uganda Based on the LABE mother-tongue education programme, includes
children, parents, teachers https://uil.unesco.org/case-study/effective-practices-database-litbase-0/ activities for adults, children and both in interaction at school and at
mother-tongue-based-education-northern-uganda home; teacher training and community programmes

See also the LABE website: Examples of resources including storybooks, parent resource packs,
cards, board games, jigsaws, magazines written by children
https://labeuganda.org/web/

Content Teacher guides for weather Centre for Education Innovations. Northern Uganda Literacy Activities and worksheets for teaching in Lublango and English
learning and environment content Programme.
https://www.earlylearningtoolkit.org/node/6497?s=strategy-3-img
Includes an outline of the programme and some printable resources to
teach Leblango and English.

Daily language in the classroom EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Classrooms PS in France – MT greeting, counting, days of week
(p. 67)
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1

Botswana health and AIDS EDC ‘Living: Skills for Life, Botswana’s Window of Hope’ Worksheets
education http://idd.edc.org/resources/publications/living-skills-life- Includes Setswana and English resources in Grade 1–2
botswana%E2%80%99s-window-hope

Further resources | 121

 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Numeracy stories in English FHI360 Stories and questions

and Hausa https://www.fhi360.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/resource-
rana-read-aloud.pdf

Mathematics in a cultural Rampal, A. & Subramanian, J. (2012). Transforming the Elementary Includes example pages from texts, assessments, exam activities
context – primary maths Mathematics Curriculum: Issues and Challenges. Ch. 4,
textbook building on Indian http://mathedu.hbcse.tifr.res.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/INP-
children’s life experience Book_Mathematics-Edu-in-India_2012_KS-RR.pdf

122 |  Further resources

Maths concepts of ‘more’ and Save The Children Example maths lesson on p. 18
‘less’ https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/content/dam/global/reports/steps-
towards-learning-lr.pdf

Students in groups practise UNESCO 2018 (Bk1 p. 4) Measurement activity described

and share one way of https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246278
measuring

Dual-medium science lesson at Westcott, N. (2004). Sink or Swim: navigating language in the Purposeful code-switching and translanguaging
Paarl Valley High School, South classroom. Cape Town: PRAESA.
Africa https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1bJt5FVJYis

(High- Multilingual teaching strategies Lin, A. (2013). Toward paradigmatic change in TESOL methodologies. Bilingual vocabulary tables, bilingual multiple-choice tests, home
resource in science TESOL Quarterly, 47(3): 521–545. language in homework journals
context) http://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.113
Ollerhead, S. (2019). The pre-service teacher tango: pairing literacy
and science in multilingual Australian classrooms. International Journal
of Science Education. DOE:10.1080/09500693.2019.1634852.

Multilingual Multilingual classroom practice Heugh, K., Siegrühn, A. & Plüddemann, P. (1995). Multilingual Education Ch. 1 student activities, teacher training
education – for South Africa. Johannesburg: Heinemann. Ch. 3 preschool/kindergarten
languages,
Ch. 4 grammar through comparative linguistics
programmes,
pedagogy, Ch. 5 students as language teachers, games
teacher Ch. 18 considerations and design of multilingual teaching and learning
education, textbooks
materials
design
 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Multilingual language activities Versfeld, R. & Crawhall, N. (1992). Yo dude, cosa wena kyk, a?: the Lesson plans for primary school class, including: languages debate,
multilingual classroom. Teacher’s Handbook. Cape Town: The National science vocabulary, language rights;
Language Project. ‘Focus on the Language Activity Class’
Accompanying film:
Achmat, Z. (1992). Yo dude, cosa wena kyk a? The Multilingual
Classroom. Documentary film (video). Directed by Zachie Achmat and
produced by Jack Lewis for the National Language Project, Cape Town.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhzhq46gLCo

Key issues in multilingual Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (LOITASA) – A collection of key papers from a ten-year collaborative project between
education and its Highlights from a Project. B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, M.A.S. Qorro and A. researchers in Tanzania, South Africa and Norway.
implementation identified Pitman (eds) 2010
over a ten-year period of the https://www.sensepublishers.com/media/567-language-of-instruction-
LOITASA project in-tanzania-and-south-africa-highlights-from-a-project.pdf

Text Multilingual development and EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Classrooms Description of activity in multilingual class in Greece
development translation of folk tales (p. 66)
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1

Making MT recordings of short EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Classrooms Described
stories (p. 67)
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1

(High- Example of professional Beverley Hills IEC (Sydney): Classroom video of translanguaging strategies in developing academic
resource practice https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37yrH2yCNAg text
context)

Multilingual Multilingual classroom activities TESS-India resource Class language survey

identity http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/145491/mod_
resource/content/2/LL12_AIE_Final.pdf

(High- Linguistic ethnography and art Gail Prasad I am Plurilingual Examples of primary student work
resource projects https://www.iamplurilingual.com/
context)

Further resources | 123

 Domain Activity Reference Examples?

Assessment Various multilingual Mott Macdonald/Cambridge Description but no tools

assessment activities http://www.camb-ed.com/download/file/127/105/hobbs-davidson-the-
described early-grade-literacy-assessment-ukfiet-2015pdf

Multilingual reading Williams, E. (1996). Reading in Two Languages at Year Five in African Comparison of English and local language reading ability in Malawi (local
assessment Primary Schools. Applied Linguistics, Vol 17, no. 2: 182–209. language medium) and Zambia (EMI); no significant difference in English
reading, but Malawian children did better in local language reading
Appendix includes extracts from tests in three languages.

124 |  Further resources

Multilingual assessment across Heugh, K., Diedericks, G., Prinsloo, C. & Herbst, D. (2007). Assessment Design, implementation and findings of a trilingual assessment in
an education system of the language and mathematics skills of Grade 8 learners in the mathematics and three languages (English, Afrikaans and isiXhosa)
Western Cape in 2006. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council across the Western Cape Department of Education system at Grade 8
http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/outputDocuments/4616_ Includes diagnostic analysis and reporting
Heugh_Assessmentofthelanguageandmathsskills.pdf.

(High- Portfolio approach Castellotti & Moore (2010) in EC 2015 Language Teaching and Learning Brief description of examples from UK and Netherlands
resource in Multilingual Classrooms (pp. 61–62)
context) https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/
c5673e19-c292-11e6-a6db-01aa75ed71a1
 3.3 Additional useful literature and content

Agnihotri, R.K., Gupta, A.S. and Khanna, A.L. (2017). Trends in language teaching. Hyderabad: Orient
Blackswan.
■■ Research in, and recommendations for, language teaching in multilingual contexts of South Asia that is
particularly sensitive to vulnerable communities and learners.

Alidou, H., Boly, A., Brock-Utne, B., Diallo, Y.S., Heugh, K. & Wolff, H.E. (2006). Optimizing learning and
education in Africa — the language factor. A stock-taking research on mother tongue and bilingual education
in sub-Saharan Africa. Paris: UNESCO and Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA).
http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/adea/biennial-2006/doc/document/B3_1_MTBLE_en.pdf.
■■ Study of 25 countries

■■ Provides research findings of different kinds of literacy and language education programmes across
sub-Saharan Africa

■■ Analyses different models, costs and outcomes, including teacher education

■■ Recommendations for implementation

Centre for Education Innovations. Mother Tongue Instruction. https://www.earlylearningtoolkit.org/content/

mother-tongue-instruction
■■ Describes teaching-learning materials, storybooks, orthography, teacher training, political engagement

■■ Includes resources for each topic, some links to resources which are examined separately

Coleman, H. (ed.) (2017). Multilingualisms and Development. Selected proceedings of the 11th Language and
Development Conference, New Delhi, India 2015. London: British Council. https://www.teachingenglish.org.
uk/article/multilingualisms-development
■■ This collection of papers, as with previous collections from the biennial Language and Development
Conferences, includes up-to-date information about interventions, projects and research on bilingual
and multilingual education that is relevant in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

Chapters of note:
›› 6 Carol Benson – Multilingual Education for All: Applying an integrated multilingual curriculum model
to low-income contexts
›› 8 Shivani Nag – MLE & MLE+ classrooms
›› 10 Noah Mtana, Kalafunja O-saki – legitimising Kiswahili in secondary EMI
›› 11 Stanley John – use of multilingual vocabulary lists
›› 19 Geetha Durairajan – discusses some L1 methods in EMI classrooms.

De Klerk, G. (1996). The Power of Babel. Support for teachers in multilingual classrooms. Project for the
Study of Alternative Education in South Africa, University of Cape Town.
■■ Includes frequently asked questions and answers.

EDC (https://www.edc.org/body-work/elementary-and-secondary-education)
■■ Multiple publications reporting on dual-language and multilingual projects: Language revitalisation, Basa
Pilipinas (Reading); Supporting Dual Language Learners

›› Basa Pilipinas with USAID: value of rich language resources, Blocks of Time (p. 27); mentions RRSP
(Reading Remediation Support Pilot) Toolkit (p. 30)
■■ Philippines Department of Education Learning Resource Portal https://lrmds.deped.gov.ph/ Philippino
languages: resources available to download once registered

Further resources | 125

 ■■ African Primary Science Programme http://idd.edc.org/projects/african-primary-science-program

■■ Bilingual reading and literacy programmes in different African countries, though reports focus on
outcomes rather than resources or processes, or the influence of language

■■ Interactive Radio Instruction programmes – broadcasts in instructional languages, teachers translate to

local language with/for students.

Heugh, K., Siegrühn, A. & Plüddemann, P. (1995). Multilingual Education for South Africa. Johannesburg:
Heinemann.
Edited volume. Classroom practice included in the following chapters:
■■ Ch. 1 Agnihotri: Multilingualism as a Classroom Resource – arguments for multilingual classroom practice
and brief examples for students and teacher training

■■ Ch. 3 Robb: Multilingual approaches in pre-school/kindergarten

■■ Ch. 4 Versfeld: Language is Lekker: A Language Activity Classroom – examples of learning grammar
through comparative linguistics using students’ languages, language awareness and attitudes

■■ Ch. 5 De Klerk: Three Languages in One School: A Multilingual Exploration in a Primary School –
strategies including students as language teachers, teaching about games, advice for multilingual
programmes in schools

■■ Ch. 18 McCallum: Publishing for multilingual education.

Jhingran, D. 2019. Early Literacy and Multilingual Education in South Asia. Kathmandu: UNICEF Regional
Office for South Asia.
■■ Provides excellent explanation of the role of literacy and early learning – early primary school years –
for teachers and teacher educators.

Kerfoot, C. & Simon-Vandenbergen, A.M. (2015). Language in epistemic access: Mobilising multilingualism
and literacy development for more equitable education in South Africa. Language and Education 29.3:
177–185.
■■ Focus on literacy and knowledge (epistemology)

Language and Language Teaching journal published by the Vidya Bhawan Society in Udaipur
and Azim Premji Foundation in Benglauru, India – https://azimpremjifoundation.org/foundation-
publications/1381#main-content
■■ Accessible journal with various ideas for teachers and evidence from research projects, mainly
undertaken in India.

Language and Learning Foundation, India https://languageandlearningfoundation.org/ (partner in MultiLila)

■■ Professional learning for teachers, teaching resources, including mother-tongue approaches

■■ Multilingual education training courses briefly described in annual report

■■ Resource links broken

■■ Videos of classrooms involving different languages

Makalela, L. (2015). Moving out of linguistic boxes: The effects of translanguaging strategies for multilingual
classrooms. Language and Education 29.3: 200–217.
■■ Uses translanguaging approaches developed in the USA and UK in South African classrooms

126 |  Further resources

 National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium, (Jawaharlal Nehru University) http://www.nmrc-jnu.org/
nmrc_about_us.html
■■ Publications, reports, policy documents, descriptions of activities, newsletters

■■ http://www.nmrc-jnu.org/nmrc_img/Resources%20for%20Multilingual%20Education%20in%20India.
pdf Description of print materials and resources in different Indian languages, resources, people and
institutions in India

Save the Children (UK) (mostly focused on reading; MTB MLE)

■■ First Read programme in Rwanda, Philippines and Cambodia – developing local language books and
supporting their use https://blogs.savethechildren.org.uk/2014/07/first-read-laying-the-foundations-for-
literacy/

■■ Lessons in Literacy: 8 Principles to Ensure Every Last Child Can Read https://www.savethechildren.org.
uk/content/dam/global/reports/education-and-child-protection/lessons-in-literacy-full-report.pdf but no
resources or classroom practice

UNESCO (2006). Promoting Literacy in Multilingual Settings. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/

ark:/48223/pf0000150704
■■ Includes background information, programmes in Asia, resource development and teacher training

■■ Chapter 6: Teaching Methods for Effective Multilingual Education Programmes

■■ Reading and writing activities (pp. 55–56)

■■ List of participatory methods, material types (p. 58)

UNESCO (2016). If you don’t understand, how can you learn? Policy Paper 24. Global Education Monitoring
Report. https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/if-you-don%E2%80%99t-understand-how-can-you-learn
■■ Summarises the main research evidence and rationale for multilingual education and strong bi-/
multilingual literacy development for all students. Very accessible for teachers

UNESCO (2018). MTB MLE Resource Kit: Including the Excluded: Promoting Multilingual Education.
Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246278
■■ Updated from 2007 advocacy document; includes four booklets – for policymakers, programme
implementers and community members; case studies

■■ Mother-tongue education supports Sustainable Development Goal #4

■■ Includes examples of activities

■■ Programme implementers:

›› Teachers use both MT and official school language from middle primary to Grade 6
›› Examples include preview-review, class and student notes
›› Consideration of language learning and concept learning is important
›› Examples of curriculum and instructional materials
›› Community members – write, illustrate, edit graded reading materials; engage community members
and leaders in school events to promote awareness
›› Literacy in MT first; progression from oral official school language to written
›› Reading and learning materials – books and materials developed by fluent MT speakers – interesting
content, clear language, relevant illustrations, graded, MT and bilingual (p. 27)
›› Teachers – need training and fluency in students’ MTs and official school language

Further resources | 127

 ■■ Community members

›› Examples include connecting to prior knowledge (measuring), MT storybooks, creative writing,

classroom instructions, introducing concepts, reviewing understanding

Van Avermaet, P., Slembrouck, S., Van Gorp, K., Sierens, S. & Maryns, K. (2018). The Multilingual Edge of
Education. In The Multilingual Edge of Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
■■ Several chapters discuss issues relating to teacher education and multilingual education – mostly the
gaps in teacher education and lack of adequate resourcing of teacher education for classrooms that are
becoming increasingly diverse across Europe and beyond.

Versfeld, R. & Crawhall, N. (1992). Yo dude, cosa wena kyk, a?: the multilingual classroom. Teachers’
handbook. Cape Town: The National Language Project.
Accompanying video: Achmat, Z. (1992). Yo dude, cosa wena kyk a? The Multilingual Classroom.
Documentary film (video). Directed by Zachie Achmat and produced by Jack Lewis for the National
Language Project, Cape Town.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhzhq46gLCo
■■ ‘The Language Activity Class’

■■ Lesson plans for primary school class, including:

›› Debate on languages
›› Multilingual vocabulary-building class activity for science
›› Inventing a language and discussing language rights.

World Education https://www.worlded.org

■■ Myanmar MTB-MLE https://www.worlded.org/WEIInternet/inc/common/_download_pub.
cfm?id=19388&lid=3 Fact sheet describes study of teacher competencies

World Vision (global site)

■■ stories about local language in education, some resources

■■ https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/Local%20Language%20Teaching%20and%20Learning%20
Materials%20Quick%20Guide.pdf Local languages T-L materials

128 |  Further resources

 3.3.1 Additional sources from high-resource contexts

CUNY NYSIEB CUNY-NYS Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/

■■ Materials for teachers including translanguaging guides and professional learning

■■ Translanguaging guides include examples of classroom practice linked to curriculum standards (New
York State?)

ENROPE – European Network of Junior Researchers in the field of Plurilingualism and Education
https://enrope.eu/project-summary
■■ Support for early career researchers focused on multilingual/plurilingual education, aiming to develop
more plurilingual mindsets and practices

FanTALES
https://www.fantales.eu/
■■ A platform for multilingual interactive stories

Integrate Ireland Language and Training. (2007). Together Towards Inclusion: Toolkit for Diversity in the
Primary School. Retrieved from https://www.ncca.ie/media/2030/assessment_toolkit.pdf
■■ A lot of transition activities, including some that we could consider adapting for multilingual teaching

WE https://www.we.org/
■■ https://www.we.org/gb/we-at-school/we-schools/teachers-resources/library/ Resource library – Global
Voices; Knowledge is Power (but for Canadian/American contexts – learning about language rather than
through)

■■ https://cdn.we.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GV-April-8-Elementary-.pdf https://cdn.we.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/04/GV-April-8-Secondary-.pdf Examples of activities to discuss language diversity

Zavala, V. (2019). Translanguaging pedagogies and power: a view from the South. Language and Education,
33(2). (174-177)
■■ Focus on translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy

3.3.2 Additional sources discussing multilingual education

Agnihotri, R.K., Gupta, A.S. & Khanna, A.L. (eds) (2017). Trends in language teaching. Hyderabad: Orient
BlackSwan.
■■ Focuses on language teaching for inclusive education, within the context of mutilingalism and
multilingual societies

Anderson, J. (2018). Reimagining English language learners from a translingual perspective. ELT Journal.
Advance Access: doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccx029.
■■ Describes learner profiles using a continuum from monolingual to highly translingual practices, in UK
EFL context

■■ Some suggested activities including use of L1 online, analysing translingual texts, producing bilingual
texts, interviews in L1, L1 curriculum resources

Anderson, J. & Lightfoot, A. (2018). Translingual practices in English classrooms in India: current
perceptions and future possibilities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism: 1–22.
http://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1548558
■■ Survey of teachers in English language classes in India

Further resources | 129

 ■■ Results show use of multiple languages by teachers, with attitudes shaped by policy and beliefs about
EMI; recommends more support for teacher control in developing translanguaging processes

Benson, C. & Kosonen, K. (eds) (2013). Language issues in comparative education: Inclusive teaching and
learning in non-dominant languages and cultures. Comparative and International Education: A Diversity of
Voices, vol. 1. Springer Science and Business Media. Rotterdam, Boston and Taipei: Sense Publishers.
■■ A collection of chapters in which the use of ‘non-dominant’ or minority languages is included in
education from different parts of the world

■■ Includes useful approaches towards inclusion for teachers

Benson, C. & Plüddemann, P. (2010). Empowerment of bilingual education professionals: The training
of trainers programme for educators in multilingual settings in southern Africa (ToTSA) 2002–2005.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(3): 371–394.
■■ Discusses a training of trainers of teachers and education officials in multilingual education – a
programme designed for senior educators in Southern and Eastern Africa, but eventually including
participants also from Central and West Africa

Bharti Foundation https://www.bhartifoundation.org/

■■ https://www.bhartifoundation.org/uploads/bhartifoundation/files/1540560507-bharti-foundation-fact-
5low-res.pdf reference to multilingual materials (English and Punjab)

Boruah, P. & Hughes, J. (2018). What resources do teachers need to enable them to more effectively
implement multilingual education (MLE) practices in their classes? In The languages of education in
multilingual India: exploring effects on reading and mathematics. New Delhi: British Council. https://www.
mam.mml.cam.ac.uk/Con/Conjuly18/breakout-sessions/padmini-boruah
■■ Useful for teacher resources and approaches to teaching – particularly for literacy and mathematics

BRAC (http://www.brac.net/program/education/)
■■ Reference to languages and multilingual education (MTB MLE) but no resources

■■ http://www.brac.net/education-programme/item/775-education-for-ethnic-children-eec mentions use of

local language by teachers in oral explanations

Cambridge Education https://www.cambridge.org/au/cambridgeenglish/

■■ Multilingual resources not apparent in EAL resources section

Canagarajah, A.S. (2013). Translingual Practice. New York, NY: Routledge.

■■ Discussion of translingual practice through a range of lenses, including characterisation of translingual
negotiation strategies, translingual English, translingual literacy, pedagogical implications

■■ Can support foundational understanding for multilingual stance, and some practical approaches

CARE – education stories but no resources re language; Cambodian bilingual education stories https://
www.care.org/blog/bilingual-learning-approach-sees-massive-success-cambodia, link to paper (Benson &
Wong 2016) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13670050.2017.1313191

CIDA (Canadian) – http://w05.international.gc.ca/projectbrowser-banqueprojets/?lang=eng

■■ https://code.ngo/ Global Literacy – resources available with sign-up, but links broken?

Coleman, H. (ed.) (2011). Dreams and realities: developing countries and the English language. London:
British Council. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/dreams-realities-developing-countries-english-
language

130 |  Further resources

 ■■ Several chapters with excellent research evidence of the aspirations for English and potential
disappointment for parents and students from across multilingual countries of South and South-East
Asia, and Africa

Coleman, H. (ed.) (2017). Multilingualisms and Development: Selected Proceedings of the 11th
Language and Development Conference, New Delhi, India. New Delhi: British Council. https://issuu.com/
britishcouncilindia/docs/multilingualisms_and_development?_ga=2.194127149.1469269230.1533445032-
155176112.1422283488
Chapters of note:
›› 6 Carol Benson – Multilingual Education for All: Applying an integrated multilingual curriculum model
to low-income contexts
›› 8 Shivani Nag – MLE & MLE+ classrooms
›› 10 Noah Mtana and Kalafunja O-saki – legitimising Kiswahili in secondary EMI
›› 11 Stanley John – use of multilingual vocabulary lists
›› 19 Geetha Durairajan – discusses some L1 methods in EMI classrooms

De Klerk, G. (1995). Three Languages in One School: A Multilingual Exploration in a Primary School.
In K. Heugh, A. Siegrühn, & P. Plüddemann (eds), Multilingual Education for South Africa, pp. 28–33.
Johannesburg: Heinemann.

Desai, Z. (2016). Learning through the medium of English in multilingual South Africa: enabling or disabling
learners from low income contexts? Volume 52, 2016 – Issue 3: English as a Medium of Instruction in
Postcolonial contexts: issues of quality, equity and social justice. Comparative Education, 52.3: 343–358.
Also available online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/03050068.2016.1185259?scroll=to
p&needAccess=true

Dhakal, D.N. (2015). Multilingual Education in Nepal: Retrospect and prospects. Education and
Development, Vol. 26: 78–92.
■■ This is a useful overview of the history of multilingual education developments in Nepal. The list of
references will take the reader to key contributors to the development of multilingual education (MLE) in
the country

■■ Also see Nurmela, I., Awasthi, L.D. and Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2012). Enhancing quality Education for All
in Nepal through Indigenised MLE: The challenge to teach in over a hundred languages. In T. Skutnabb-
Kangas & K. Heugh (eds) (2012), pp. 151–177.

D’warte, J. (2014). Exploring linguistic repertoires: multiple language use and multimodal literacy activities
in five classrooms. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 37(1): 21–30.
■■ Linguistic ethnography project with students in Australian schools

■■ Examples of multilingual work including language maps

■■ See also D’warte (2014, 2015)

Educate Girls https://www.educategirls.ngo/pdf/Girl%20Power,%20Dasra%20Report,%202010.pdf Report

mentions local language children’s literature in library (p. 20)

Education above all

list of partners – https://educateachild.org/our-partners-projects/all-partners#Implementing
■■ Many links have education projects, but little reference to multilingualism or language, no resources,
some refer to literacy programmes but without mentioning the languages, others focus on national
languages

Further resources | 131

 Erling, E., Adinolfi, L. & Hultgren, A.K. (2017). Multilingual classrooms: opportunities and challenges for
English medium instruction in low and middle income contexts. London/Milton Keynes/Reading: British
Council/The Open University/Education Development Trust.
https://www.educationdevelopmenttrust.com/~/media/EDT/Reports/Research/2017/r-english-medium-
instruction-in-low-and-middle-income-contexts.pdf
■■ Focus on policy rather than classroom practice

García, O. (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st century. In T. Skutnabb-
Kangas, R. Phillipson, A.K. Mohanty & M. Panda (eds), Social Justice through Multilingual Education.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
■■ Discussion of translanguaging and bilingual education models in a range of settings

■■ Some discussion and description of classroom translanguaging practice

GIZ (German Dev agency) https://www.giz.de/en/

■■ Educational projects, but no resources

Global Partnership for Education – Children learn better in their mother tongue. https://www.
globalpartnership.org/blog/children-learn-better-their-mother-tongue

Gorter, D. & Cenoz, J. (2017). Language education policy and multilingual assessment. Language and
Education. 31(3): 231–248. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09500782.2016.1261892
■■ Policy and assessment in bi-/multilingual programmes in USA, Canada, Basque Country; discussion of
some multilingual and translanguaging teaching approaches

■■ Discussion of multilingual assessment score calculation and some translanguaging approaches to

assessment

Hall, G. & Cook, G. (2012). Own-language use in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching. 45(3)
271–308.
■■ Review of research and different approaches to own-language use in language classrooms; does not
include most recent literature

■■ Some discussion of translation as a learning activity

Happy Readers http://www.happy-readers.com/

■■ Learn-to-read books used in Zimbabwe and Zambia; in English, Shona, Nyanja, Bemba

■■ Website includes descriptions and data from programmes, but no copies of books

Hayes, D. (2017). English language teaching in Nepal: research, reflection and practice. London: British
Council. https://www.britishcouncil.org.np/sites/default/files/web_text_english_language_teaching_in_
nepal_15.6_cm_x_23.3_cm_-_12_jan_2018.pdf
■■ Multilingualism discussed in terms of context and policy, but does not include classroom practice

He, An E. (2012). Systematic use of mother tongue as learning/teaching resources in target language
instruction. Multilingual Education. 2(1). https://multilingual-education.springeropen.com/track/
pdf/10.1186/2191-5059-2-1
■■ Comparative grammar-based instruction focused on similarities, differences, metalinguistic knowledge.
Could be used to design language-specific activities

132 |  Further resources

 Herzog-Punzenberger, B., Le Pichon-Vorstman, E. & Siarova, H. (2017). Multilingual Education in the Light
of Diversity: Lessons Learned. NESET II report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
https://online.unistrasi.it/Avvisi/MultilingualEducationintheLightofDiversity-LessonsLearned.All1pdf.pdf
■■ Policy discussion more than classroom practice

Heugh, K. (1999). Languages, development and reconstructing education in South Africa. International
Journal of Educational Development, 19: 301–313.
■■ Includes discussion of longitudinal study of student achievement in different approaches to multilingual
education

■■ Includes focus on Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Heugh, K. (2002). The case against bilingual and multilingual education in South Africa: Laying bare the
myths. Perspectives in Education, 20: 171–196.
■■ Includes a list of the arguments that are often used to dismiss bilingual and multilingual education as
possible

■■ Includes research-evidence responses to these arguments to show how bilingual and multilngual
education is possible and works

Heugh, K. (2009a). Literacy and bi-/multilingual education in Africa. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson,

A.K. Mohanty & M. Panda (eds), Multilingual education for social justice, pp. 103–124. New York and Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
■■ Focus on successful practices of literacy and bilingual education in Africa – that people seem to have
forgotten

Heugh, K. (2009b). Into the cauldron: An interplay of indigenous and globalised knowledge with strong and
weak notions of literacy and language education in Ethiopia and South Africa. Language Matters, Studies in
the Languages of Africa, 40: 166–189.
■■ Focus on why both Indigenous knowledge and globalised knowledge are important in a strong
education system.

Heugh, K. (2013a). Multilingual Education in Africa. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Published
online : 5 Nov 2012, DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0782
■■ Summarises the different kinds of multilingual educaiton in Africa – including over different historical
periods

■■ Argues that multilingual education is not new; it has always been practised in Africa and probably also in
all multilingual areas of the world

Heugh, K. (2013b). Multilingual education policy in South Africa: Constrained by theoretical and historical
disconnections. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 33: 215–337.
■■ Explains why people are confused about multilingual education in South Africa in the present times.

Heugh, K. (2014). Margins, diversity and achievement: System-wide data and implementation of multilingual
education in Ethiopia. In D. Gorter, Z. Zenotz & J. Cenoz (eds), Minority languages and multilingual
education: Bridging the local and the global, pp. 45–63. Educational Linguistics, Volume 18. Dordrecht:
Springer.
■■ What we have learned through regular system-wide assessment in Ethiopia since 2000 and in relation
to changes to the multilingual education policy in 2004 has important lessons for education systems
around the world, especially in relation to the teaching of English

Further resources | 133

 Heugh, K. (2015). Epistemologies in multilingual education: Translanguaging and genre – companions in
conversation with policy and practice. Special Issue, Language and Education, 29: 280–285.
■■ Explains why in Africa and Asia we may need to be careful about which kind of ‘translanguaging’ we use
in our classrooms

■■ Suggests that purposeful translanguaging, together with clearly signalled approaches to how students
need to learn to write different kinds of text (genres of text), is likely to be successful

Heugh, K. (2019). Multilingualism and education in Africa. In E.H. Wolff (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of
African Linguistics, pp. 577–600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■■ Gives a comprehensive overview of all large numbers of African scholars who have contributed to
international understanding of multilingual education

Heugh, K., Benson, C., Bogale, B. & Gebre Yohannes, M.A. (2007). Final report: Study on medium of
instruction in primary schools in Ethiopia. Commissioned by the Ministry of Education, Ethiopia. September
to December 2006. (Commissioned by UN Development Programme in conjunction with Pooled Donor
Consortium including Department for International Development (DfID), UK Government, Irish Aid, Royal
Netherlands Embassy and the Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA).)
http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/outputDocuments/4379_Heugh_Studyonmediumofinstruction.pdf
■■ Outlines the different kinds of bilingual and trilingual education implemented throughout Ethiopia

■■ Identifies issues that relate to English, teaching of English and preparing of teacher educators

■■ Provides recommendations for monitoring and evaluating language education policy and
implementation on a regular basis to ensure that the original intention is retained and/or changed if or
when conditions change

Heugh, K., Li, X. & Song, Y. (2017). Multilingualism and translanguaging in the teaching of and through
English: rethinking linguistic boundaries in an Australian University. In B. Fenton-Smith, P. Humphries & I.
Walkinshaw (eds), English medium instruction in higher education in Asia-Pacific: issues and challenges from
policy to pedagogy, pp. 259–279. Dordrecht: Springer
■■ Research evidence shows that it may take students longer than six to eight years to achieve adequate
academic proficiency in English in order to study through English

■■ Identifies the positive role that translation can play in bilingual learning

■■ Identifies purposeful translanguaging as including purposeful code-switching and translation

as a methodology that increases students’ proficiency in both their home language and English
simultaneously, with benefits to the learning of both languages

Heugh, K., Prinsloo, C., Makgamatha, M.M., Diedericks, G. & Winnaar, L. (2016). Multilingualism(s) and
system-wide assessment: a southern perspective. Language and Education, Special Issue, Education and
Multilingualism: Navigating Policy and Assessment. Published online: 15 Dec 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2016.1261894
■■ Includes research findings relevant to the advantages for students when multilingual forms of
assessment are used

■■ Demonstrates the positive potential of translanguaging in assessment

■■ Identifies implications for diagnostic assessment and reporting in system-wide testing at the macro-,
meso- and micro-levels (even at the individual level)

■■ Implications for teacher education

134 |  Further resources

 Lo Bianco, J. (2016). Synthesis Report: Language Education and Social Cohesion (LESC) Initiative in
Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. Bangkok: UNICEF.
■■ This extensive report addresses the complexities of multilingualism or language diversity in contexts
in which there is conflict among minority communities with different languages. This is an important
document for educators considering how best to include minority communities in decision making in
order to bring about change, inclusion and cohesion

McCallum, K. (1995). Educational publishing: a practical look at language policies. In K. Heugh, A. Siegrühn
& P. Plüddemann (eds), Multilingual Education for South Africa, pp. 127–140. London: Heinemann.

McIlwraith, H. (ed.) (2013a). Multilingual Education in Africa: Lessons from the Juba Language-in-Education
Conference. London: British Council. https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/continuing-professional-
development/cpd-managers/multilingual-education-africa-lessons-juba-language-education-conference
■■ Discussion at a policy level, not classroom focused

McIlwraith, H. (ed.) (2013b). Language rich Africa: Policy dialogue. The Cape Town Language and
Development Conference: Looking beyond 2015, p. 5. London: British Council.
■■ Various authors in this volume include a focus on policy from below (community-based project
initiatives) to support multiligual education

Mohanty, A. K. 2019. The Multilingual Reality. Living with Languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
■■ This is an important book that documents the history of multilingual education for Tribal communities in
India. It provides useful information for education officials and teachers.

MultiLila project – https://www.mam.mml.cam.ac.uk/

■■ Research into the impact of different factors on educational achievement of multilingual students in
India

■■ Resources from dissemination event workshops. Some links to Indian organisations

Nomlomo, V. (2003). Accommodating diversity in the isiXhosa classroom. In B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai & M.
Qorro (eds), Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (LOITASA), pp.69–79. Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania: E & D Limited.
■■ Includes important findings of the LOITASA project

■■ Particularly useful for illustrating the effect of using a ‘non-dominant’ or ‘minoritised’ language alongside
English for teaching and learning

Nomlomo, V. & Desai, Z. (2014). Reflections on the development of a pre-service language curriculum for
the Bed (Foundation Phase). South African Journal of Childhood Education, 4(3): 87–102.
■■ Useful text for pre-service teacher education in multilingual settings

NORAD (Norwegian) https://norad.no/

■■ Information including importance of mother tongue education, but no resources

■■ EduApp4Syria – Opensource Arabic Language Learning Game

Further resources | 135

 Norwegian Refugee Council https://www.nrc.no/what-we-do/activities-in-the-field/education/
■■ Mentions language support but no specific resources

■■ This is a general gap in the international literature on refugees and displaced persons

■■ Considerations for eduation are subsumed under general provision of some form of temporary
provision, and the specifics of language have not yet been developed. There is yet to be an international
set of agreements on how best to use students’ own languages in such circumstances. UNESCO
Bangkok is currently working on a draft policy document in this regard

Ouane, A. & Glanz, C. (2010). Why and how Africa should invest in African languages and multilingual
education. A policy and advocacy document. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. https://unesdoc.
unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000188642
■■ This document summarises the Alidou et al. (2006) study of different kinds of mother-tongue and
bilingual education across Africa, updates it with additional research undertaken in Ethiopia, and draws
up a set of policy recommendations for governments in Africa

Ouane, A. & Glanz, C. (eds) (2011). Optimising learning, education and publishing in Africa: The language
factor. A review and analysis of theory and practice in mother-tongue and bilingual education in sub-Saharan
Africa. Hamburg and Tunis Belvédère: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) and the Association for
the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA)/African Development Bank.
■■ This document is an edited and updated version of the Alidou et al. (2006) report. It includes the
additional data from the Ethiopian study (Heugh et al. (2007)) and updated assessment data from
Ethiopia

Person, K. (2018). Bridge to a Brighter Tomorrow: The Patani Malay-Thai Multilingual Education Programme.
Bangkok: UNICEF.
■■ This report provides a comprehensive overview of languages in education in Thailand, with specifc
reference to the Patani-Malay-Thai Multilingual Education Programme

■■ See also: Premsrirat, S. & Person, K. (2018). Education in Thailand’s Ethnic Languages: Reflections on a
Decade of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education Policy and Practice. In Education in Thailand: An
Old Elephant in Search of a New Mahout, pp. 393–408. Singapore: Springer.

Powell-Davies, P. & Gunashekar, P. (2013). English Language Teacher Education in a Diverse Environment.
New Delhi: British Council. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/english-language-teacher-education-a-
diverse-environment
■■ Includes discussion of policy and practice in different contexts, with data about practice but not
examples

Probyn, M. (2009). ‘Smuggling the vernacular into the classroom’: Conflicts and tensions in classroom
codeswitching in township/rural schools in South Africa. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 12: 123–136.

Probyn, M. (2015). Pedagogical translanguaging: bridging discourses in South African science classrooms.
Language and Education 29(3): 218–234.
■■ Probyn in several publications discusses how best teachers and students can make purposeful use of
code-switching or translanguaging in order to increase learning effectiveness and for inclusive teaching
and learning

Reeves, C., Heugh, K., Prinsloo, C.P., Macdonald, C., Netshitangani, T., Alidou, H. & Diedericks, G. (2008).
Evaluation of literacy teaching in the primary schools of the Limpopo Province. Pretoria: Human
Sciences Research Council. http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/outputDocuments/5715_Reeves_
Evaluationofliteracy.pdf

136 |  Further resources

 ■■ Research findings point towards the kind of literacy development that is needed in schools, particularly
in multilingual and low-resource contexts

■■ The findings emphasise the need for reading and writing (extended writing) to take place in every
classroom, each day

■■ The findings also indicate that teachers need to make the local language/s visible in the classroom
alongside English in order for students to develop strong reading and writing

Robb, H. (1995). Multilingual preschooling. In K. Heugh, A. Siegrühn & P. Plüddemann (eds), Multilingual
education for South Africa, pp. 15–22. Cape Town, South Africa: Heinemann.
■■ This is one of the few papers that specifically address how multilingualism can be encouraged in early
years education – even in very low-resource and low-income settings

■■ This is important for all school systems everywhere because strong foundations for early literacy occur
at this point and many children in the early years do not have the advantages of strong family literacy
practices. This means that early years education and multilingual education have particular importance

Save the Children https://www.savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/Hear%20it%20from%20the%20

Teachers.pdf.
■■ Report mentions multiple languages but no resources – focus on transitioning students to local
language of instruction; mention of MT support (p. 19)

Sentumbwe, G. & Heugh, K. (2014). Local languages and primary education in Northern Uganda: Post-
conflict community and local partnerships. In H. McIlwraith (ed.), Language rich Africa. Policy dialogue. The
Cape Town Language and Development Conference: Looking beyond 2015, pp. 132–135. London: British
Council.
■■ This paper focuses on the role of community engagement and the processes that a not-for-profit
organisation, LABE, has developed for multiple stakeholder collaboration – from national to local
government, and from school to village, in order to build sustainability and agency even at the village
level

Setati, M. (2008) Access to mathematics versus access to the language of power: The struggle in
multilingual mathematics classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 28: 103–116.
■■ Useful for teachers of mathematics

SIDA (Swedish)
Stroud, C. (2002). https://www.sida.se/contentassets/4dd1745d0376402bb3714f10dfa8efe0/towards-a-
policy-for-bilingual-education-in-developing-countries_622.pdf
■■ Twelve principles, pp. 53–70

■■ Key recommendations include developing curriculum, materials and teachers locally (contrast with BC
model?)

Simpson, J. (2016). Using multilingual approaches: Challenges for doing so and suggestions for addressing
these. Teaching for Success online conference, October 2016. http://www.viddler.com/v/a205bb1d and
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/john-simpson-using-multilingual-approaches
■■ Discussion of the place of students’ home languages in policy
■■ Brief examples of resources such as bilingual readers, textbooks, vocabulary lists, teacher guide
■■ Focus on majority community languages ‘everyone speaks Kinyarwanda’
■■ Code-switching and translanguaging: in textbooks (Look at x, talk about it in home language); by
teachers – preview, new concepts, clarify misunderstandings, comparing words, culturally meaningful
metaphors

Further resources | 137

 ■■ Scaffolding of language learning
■■ Policy gap, role of education officials, change in practice for teachers

Simpson, J. (2017). English language and medium of instruction in basic education in low- and middle-
income countries: a British Council perspective. London: British Council. https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.
org/sites/default/files/attachments/pub_h106_elt_position_paper_on_english_in_basic_education_in_
low-_and_middle-income_countries_final_web_v3.pdf
■■ Shifting focus on teaching English as a subject rather than English as medium of instruction – arguments
and evidence

■■ Importance of transition from L1 education in lower grades to EMI in higher grades – through ‘recoding’
of L1 knowledge into English, and ‘scaffolding’ of new English-based learning onto L1 knowledge (p. 12)

■■ Case studies refer to some classroom strategies (p. 25ff.)

■■ Low-income EMI contexts (p. 28ff.) identifies some key pedagogies: strategic code-switching, integrating
language and content, making connections between language and concepts explicit

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. & Heugh, K. (eds) (2012). Multilingual education and sustainable development work.
From periphery to center. New York and London: Routledge.
■■ Includes chapters from many countries of Africa, Asia and the Americas in which there are limited
resources for teachers and students

■■ Discusses policies, interventions, research findings and recommendations for multilingual education

■■ Demonstrates that multilingual education is possible, not only at the small scale but also at the system
level

Taylor-Leech, K. (2013). Finding space for non-dominant languages in education: language policy and
medium of instruction in Timor-Leste 2000–2012. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14.1: 109–126.

UNESCO videos promoting mother tongue use in the classroom: https://www.sil.org/literacy-and-education/

videos-promoting-mother-tongue-based-multilingual-education-mtb-mle
■■ Background information, process of developing MTB MLE programme and promotion

UNESCO (1953). The use of vernacular languages in education. Paris: UNESCO.

■■ This is the original UNESCO document that set out the need for the use of the mother language/mother
tongue in the education of African children in primary school

■■ The early assumption was that three years of mother-tongue-medium education would be sufficient
for students to develop their reading and writing and that they would be able to switch or transition to
English- or French- or Portugese-medium instruction from the fourth year

■■ This assumption was finally shown to be wrong and a serious underestimation of the number of years
required a) to establish strong literacy in the mother tongue and b) for learning the second language
(e.g. English) well enough to be able to learn through English (EMI)

■■ We now know that it takes a minimum of six years under the best conditions and a minimum of eight
years under less well-resourced conditions

UNESCO (2003). Education in a multilingual world: UNESCO education position paper. http://www.unesco.
org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/
publications/full-list/education-in-a-multilingual-world-unesco-education-position-paper/
■■ Underlying concepts, principles and documents in support of multilingual education.

138 |  Further resources

 UNESCO (2014). Multilingual education. Why is it important? How to implement it?
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000226554
■■ General arguments and principles for multilingual education

UNESCO. (2016). If you don’t understand, how can you learn? Policy Paper 24. Global Education Monitoring
Report. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000243713//
■■ The title of this document indicates its purpose

■■ The title emerges from the Alidou et al. (2006) report which informed the Ouane & Glanz (2010, 2011)
documents
United World Schools https://www.unitedworldschools.org/Pages/FAQs/Category/classroom-activities

■■ Resources for English (Western) classrooms

University of Washington – strategies for teaching international and multilingual students: http://www.
washington.edu/teaching/teaching-resources/inclusive-teaching-at-uw/teaching-im-students/strategies-for-
teaching-im-students/
■■ Mostly resources for supporting English and some culturally responsive teaching

US Peace Corps https://www.peacecorps.gov/educators/resources/global-competence-module-2-how-

learners-see-world/
https://www.peacecorps.gov/educators/resources/global-competence-training-educators/
■■ Goal – avoid stereotypes, understand and meet needs of learners

■■ Foundation training for teachers in considering cultural differences

■■ Teaching-learning cycle for global competence – investigate the world, recognise perspectives,
communicate ideas, take action

USAID (US) https://www.usaid.gov/vi/gsearch/teaching%20learning%20materials

■■ No multilingual programmes stood out

Versfeld, R. (1995). Language is lekker: A language activity classroom. In K. Heugh, A. Siegrühn & P.
Plüddemann (eds), Multilingual Education for South Africa, pp. 23–27. Cape Town, South Africa: Heinemann.
■■ Explains and illustrates her interpretation and adaptation of Agnihotri’s conceptualisation of multilingual
classrooms, as included in the Achmat (1992) documentary referenced elsewhere in this document

Williams, E. (1998). Investigating Bilingual Literacy: Evidence from Malawi and Zambia. Education Research,
vol 24.
■■ Comparison of reading ability in home language vs English

■■ Home language reading – higher levels of understanding and abstract thinking; application of reading
strategies

■■ Arguments for use of local language as MoI or in EMI contexts

■■ No examples of classroom strategies

Williams, E. (2007). Extensive Reading in Malawi.

■■ Evaluation of reading programme – not including multilingual approaches

Further resources | 139

140 |  Further resources
 3.4 Gaps in the literature and resources currently available
Many multilingual education programmes continue to emphasise transition from home language to local
language to international language over the primary years. Consequently, resources for multilingual practice
tend to focus on one-way transfer of learning from L1 to L2, rather than reciprocal and ongoing transfer
between languages.
The following do not appear to be a strong focus of the current literature, and it would be valuable to develop
resources that engage with:
■■ teacher development literature to support multilingual learners in low resource contexts:

›› including in-service and pre-service teacher development (professional learning) programmes

›› materials that support teachers to understand the principles and processes of multilingual teaching
›› how to develop and adapt curriculum, materials and assessment for their local context
■■ teacher agency in classroom level practice:

›› opportunities that teachers can take to adapt or develop curriculum, materials, pedagogies and
classroom interactions to suit students in their local context
›› building teacher confidence in what they already know, and how they can build on what they know
works well
›› confidence that teachers can gain from drawing on students’ knowledge and capabilities to engage
in peer-teaching and collaborative learning
›› building teacher confidence in reflexive teaching and taking action
■■ connected and comprehensive reading and writing:

›› literacy programmes that go beyond decoding and comprehension, but support meaning-making,
analysis, adaptation and creation of texts in home/local langauges
›› materials that transition from stories and familiar contexts into age-appropriate academic content (i.e.
progressing from ‘learning to read and write’ to ‘reading and writing to learn’)
■■ multilingual strategies and resources for subject content:

›› multilingual and adaptable teaching materials and activities that support content learning across the
curriculum (including maths, science, humanities, arts and other areas)
■■ multidirectional multilingual learning strategies:

›› interaction, rather than one-way transfer between home languages, community languages and school
languages
›› multilingual approaches for active learning of and through students’ multiple languages beyond early
primary
■■ multilingual pedagogies:

›› purposeful use of code-switching or translanguaging as a legitimate pedagogy in both spoken and

written communication
›› a carefully structured curriculum that includes building literacy development in the home or local
language and the second language of wider-school communication to achieve biliteracy for learning
to read and reading to learn
›› productive, interactive or reflective multilingual task-building that can be used in assessment of
language content and where appropriate, also other learning.

Further resources | 141

142 |  Appendix
Appendix

| 143

 Appendix
Notes on terminology1

Term Abbreviation Related term Meaning

Ability Abilities We try to signal ways for teachers to recognise different levels of
student ability, which could relate to grade or year level.

Formative Each country, state or provincial education authority will have

assessment; specific assessment policies to measure student knowledge,
Assessment Summative skills and progress. Where we have suggested assessment tasks,
assessment these can be adapted for formative (ongoing) assessment or for
summative (end-of-course/term/year) assessment.

Bilingual Dual-medium The use of two languages for teaching and learning across the
education education curriculum (e.g. home language and English).

Bilingual A person who can speak or use two languages.

student/person

Code-mixing CM Mixing of two or more languages usually involves including a word

or phrase from one language when speaking another.
For example, in South Africa, parents sometimes jokingly say things
like:
Moenie mix jou languages nie!
To mean: Don’t mix your languages!
There is a documentary film that uses language mixing in its title:
Yo dude! Cosa wena kyk a? The multilingual classroom.
Meaning: Hey dude! What are you looking at? (Includes isiXhosa,
English, Italian, Afrikaans – a title made up by students in the
documentary.)

Code-switching CS Systematic and CS involves switching between one language and another. It involves
unsystematic code- larger chunks of spoken language than CM. These can be clauses,
switching whole sentences or sequences of several sentences. For example,
one might begin a sentence in Yoruba or Punjabi and end the
sentence in English. Or one might speak in isiZulu when speakers of
the same language are together, but when someone from another
language joins the group, one might switch to a language that this
person understands.
Bilingual people, and teachers, often do this naturally. We sometimes
call this ‘informal’ use of code-switching.
‘Purposeful’ use of code-switching is used in formal education
where the teacher intends to use two or more languages and when
bilingual or multilingual teaching and learning are valued.

Early years Pre-school, The first three or four years of formal teaching of young children.
education kindergarten, early
primary, early
childhood education

English ELL Bilingual/multilingual In formal education, students who are referred to as English
language learner language learners or bi-/multilingual learners are already speakers
learner of their home, local, regional or national language. So, if they are
learning English, this means that they are developing their bi-/
multilingualism and could therefore be called bi-/multilingual
learners.

English-medium EMI English as MOI The term ‘English-medium instruction’ is a more recent name for
instruction English as a medium what used to be called ‘English as the medium of instruction’ in
of instruction many former British colonies in Africa, South and South-East Asia.
It refers to the use of English to teach subject content across the
curriculum and is different from English as a subject, where it is
taught as a language/skill in itself only.

1
Not all of these terms are used in this resource book/pack, but they are terms that teachers and teacher educators often come
across and they may be useful for you.

144 |  Appendix
Term Abbreviation Related term Meaning

Grade Year, Standard, Class In some countries the school systems use the term ‘Grade’ to mean
the year of student enrolment, e.g. Grade 1 = Year 1. Some countries
prefer to use a term that clearly links the year level to either primary
or secondary school. For example: Primary 1 = Grade 1 = Year 1. In
other countries, ‘grade’ can also be a synonym for marks or points
gained through assessment.

Interpreting Translation, When people explain what someone has said in one language
Translanguaging to someone who speaks another language, we refer to this as
interpreting from one language to another.

Mother tongue MT Mother language, There are many different names that people have given to the
First language, Home language that children grow up knowing and using best. You
Language are encouraged to use the term that is most commonly used by
students and parents in your school community.

Mother-tongue MTM Mother-tongue Mother-tongue medium (MTM) and mother-tongue education (MTE)
medium medium are two terms that are often used interchangeably. They refer to
teaching children through the medium of their mother tongue.

MTE Mother-tongue This term was added to and given a more precise meaning, MTB-
education MLE, for the South African context (1995–2000), in order to clarify
language education policy changes that were taking place at the
time.
MTB-MLE Mother-tongue-
After a 25-country study in Africa, UNESCO adopted this term
based multilingual
from 2010 onwards. The term has spread to South Asia and South-
education
East Asia. There are now different interpretations of this term,
and because it is being used to mean different things, it is more
important to understand the research findings about how long
it takes for students to develop academic literacy in their home
language and English before English can be used on its own for
learning across the curriculum.

Multilingual Plurilingual For many people, especially in Africa, multilingual and plurilingual
mean the same thing. People in former British colonies in Africa
and Asia have tended to use ‘multilingual’. People in the former
French colonies in Africa have tended to use the term ‘plurilingual’.
A multilingual person is someone who can use three or more
languages.

Multilingual MLE MTB-MLE Multilingual education (MLE) is more widely used than MTB-MLE
education and covers a wider range of possibilities in terms of which and how
languages are used.

Project A project refers to several activities that are linked either by topic,
theme or type (style or genre) of language use.

Purposeful Purposeful TL Teachers are now using purposeful translanguaging in their teaching
translanguaging of English and EMI. This is like purposeful use of CS, except that
it includes translation and other language activities discussed
below. ‘Purposeful’ refers to making specific choices about which
language(s) to use, how and when.

Roman script Latin script Originally used for writing in Latin, the Roman script is used for many
European languages, including English. It is also sometimes used
to write phonetically for languages that have no script of their own,
or a different script (e.g. writing Mausam kasia hai? for ‘How is the
weather?’ in Hindi).

Translanguaging TL Translation, Translanguaging includes a range of processes in which bi-/

interpreting, code- multilingual people make use of the knowledge they have of many
switching, code- languages and how to use these languages. It includes interpreting,
mixing translation, code-mixing, code-switching. It includes the way that we
make use of our language knowledge when moving between one
language and another, i.e. ‘in-between’ practices.

Translation Interpreting We usually use ‘translation’ when referring to changing written text
Translanguaging from one language to another. We use ‘interpreting’ for translation of
spoken text from one language to another.

Appendix | 145

146 | 
 | 147

This book aims to introduce important evidence relating to language learning in multilingual contexts and develop the
practice of using multilingual approaches in the classroom. It has been especially designed to support teachers who
teach English as a subject and for teachers who use English as the medium of instruction (EMI) in classrooms with
students in linguistically diverse and often resource-poor communities. The resource has three main parts.

1 A guide that explains relevant research evidence

2 Strategies, activities and projects that teachers can use in their classrooms

3 An abridged list of resources for multilingual education for further exploration

Drawing on the authors’ decades of experience, the practical ideas covered here are underpinned by research and
evidence from around the world. They have also been piloted with teachers in India, who in turn have tested them in
their classrooms and provided useful feedback and ideas.

There has been a lot of discourse about the psycholinguistic benefits of multilingualism,
multilingualism as a tool for social justice and it is getting accepted in academic circles. What
people don’t know is how to implement it. So, the best part is that we’re getting ideas about how we
can actually do this in our classrooms.
– Shefali Shrivastra

I was shocked to know that there more than 19 languages being used in my classroom. My whole
perspective was shifted towards the children […] knowing them better and using multilingual
[approaches] in context to improve the teaching and learning experience.
– Karamjeet Singh

I used to think the [children’s first language] is something that blocks the development of a new
language […] now I understand that it is something that needs to come along, be carried along to
develop the new language and also make the lesson clear no matter what subject or area we’re
talking about.
– Bushra Imam Khanam

I plan to share this with my colleagues so they won’t give me instructions not to use any other
language in the classroom. Of course, I’ll also try these activities and adapt them a bit and see what
levels I can use them with.
– Parul Sethi

ISBN 978-0-86355-958-7

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for cultural relations and educational opportunities.

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