OPTIMIZATION OF PRIMARY GYRATORY CRUSHING AT

HIGHLAND VALLEY COPPER

BY

PERSIO P. ROSARIO

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of Applied Science in

The Faculty of Graduate Studies
Department of Mining Engineering

We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

The University of British Columbia

Vancouver, B.C., Canada
October 2003
© Persio Pellegrini Rosario, 2003
Abstract

This thesis presents the work done in a collaborative research project between the

University of British Columbia and Highland Valley Copper. The research was aimed at

understanding gyratory crusher liner wear in the overall context of the crushing process.

Wear measurements were taken for in-service crushers during the research period using a

novel laser profile measurement device. Data from the wear measurements was

correlated with crusher production information such as current draw and throughput.

This work resulted in enhanced knowledge of crushing chamber characteristics and their

impact on crushing performance. In addition, an innovative and powerful way to

evaluate crusher liner profiles was developed and new mantle profiles were designed.

ii
Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Table o f Contents iii

List of Tables , vi

List of Figures vii

Nomenclature xi

Acknowledgements.: xii

1. Introduction 1

2. Research Objectives 3

3. Literature Review. 4

3.1 Crusher Machines 4

3.1.1 History 4

3.1.2 Crushers types and operation principles., 6

3.1.3 Gyratory crushers application 15

3.1.4 Gyratory crushers performance 20

3.2 Liner wear • 30

3.2.1 Mechanisms of wear 31

3.2.2 Liner materials 32

3.2.3 Wear measurements 34

4. Highland Valley Copper Project 40

4.1 Operations Background 40

4.2 Crusher Operations at H V C 47

5. Experimental Approach 54

iii
 5.1 Equipment 54

5.2 Data Collection 64

5.2.1 Crusher operational data 64

5.2.2 Liner information 64

5.2.3 Chamber profile data 70

5.3 Data Analysis 72

5.3.1 Crusher Operational Data , 72

5.3.2 Chamber Profile Data 82

6. Results and Discussion 93

6.1 Improvement in Measurement Process 93

6.2 Wear Determination 99

6.3 Correlation of Operational Data and Liner Characteristics 103

6.3.1 Issues during the end of concave life 108

6.3.2 Mantle and crushing performance 114

6.3.3 Liners that provided optimum performance 115

6.4 Liner Management , 117

7. Conclusions 127

7.1 Achievements 127

7.2 Future Work Opportunities 129

8. Reference List 130

Appendix A Drawings of the new support structure 137

Appendix B Description of the measurement program 139

Appendix C Example of a measurement drawing result 148

iv
Appendix D N e w mantle parts dimensions
List of Tables

Table 3-1 Increase in crusher throughput by changing feed characteristics (Burkhardt,

1982) : 22

Table 5-1 Example of a partial table result for a concave profile measurement generated

bytheLPD 57

Table 5-2 Liner rebuild/installation: labour and costs (Wolff, 2002) 65

Table 5-3 Mantle types 65

Table 5-4 Crusher 4 liners detailed information 68

Table 5-5 Crusher 5 liners detailed information 69

Table 6-1 Crusher 4 - Measurement information 95

Table 6-2 Crusher 5 - Measurement information , 96

Table 6-3 Summary of liners information for 6 recent concave life periods 124

Table 6-4 Liner costs (parts, rebuilt and installation) and current total cost per ton 124

Table 6-5 Specific downtime per liner and current total liner downtime 125

Table 6-6 Liner costs (parts, rebuilt and installation) for one concave life and projected

cost per ton 125

Table 6-7 Specific downtime per liner and projected total liner downtime 126

vi
List of Figures

Figure 3-1: Blake Jaw Crusher (Flavel, 1982) . 5

Figure 3-2: Gates Gyratory (Flavel, 1982) 5

Figure 3-3: Common j a w crusher's mechanisms (Zandee, 1989) 8

Figure 3-4 Cross section of a Gyratory Crusher (Courtesy o f Svedala-Metso) 12

Figure 3-5: Typical cone crushers (Zandee, 1989) 14

Figure 3-6 Effect of Feed Size on A G M i l l Tonnage (Dance, 2001) 16

Figure 3-7 Effect of Feed Size on S A G M i l l Tonnage (Dance, 2001) 17

Figure 3-8: Medium-size Crusher Product Effect on M i l l (Dance, 2001) 18

Figure 3-9: Comparison between manual and automatic control o f C S S (Moshgbar, 1995)

25

Figure 3-10 Crusher Feed & Product % Course - Constant Setting (Dance, 2001) 26

Figure 3-11: Straight versus non-choking concaves (Westerfeld, 1985) 28

Figure 3-12: C L P liners (Svensson and Steer, 1990) 29

Figure 4-1 H V C Simplified milling flowsheet ( H V C , 2000) 42

Figure 4-2 Camera Image and Boundaries Recognition (Dance, 1998) 45

Figure 4-3 T w o 84" 0 Mantle Cone Crushers Test Comparison (Flavel, 1982) 48

Figure 4-4 Automatic Crusher Control Graphic (Dance, 2001) 50

Figure 4-5 Gap measurement results and analysis performed at H V C 52

Figure 5-1 Major components of the L P D 55

Figure 5-2 L P D Installation schematic 55

Figure 5-3 Schematic o f the laser measurement 58

vii
Figure 5-4 Calibration procedure schematic 59

Figure 5-5 Concave profile generated by CDI software 60

*

Figure 5-6 Mantle profile generated by CDI software 60

Figure 5-7 Laser profile final output.. 61

Figure 5-8 Original support / New support 62

Figure 5-9 Partial example of crusher-mantles report 66

Figure 5-10 Report from Technical Development Dept 67

Figure 5-11 Measurement Spots 71

Figure 5-12 Example of the complete data file of Crusher #5 (records 5075 to 5714 are

hidden to facilitate visualization) 72

Figure 5-13 - Example of a graph with product quality plots 75

Figure 5-14 - Selected liner information for Crusher 5 from October 2001 to January

2002 : 77

Figure 5-15 - Example of mantle position plot with average line 78

Figure 5-16 - Example of the representation of data problems in product quality (circles

indicate areas of noisy data where the weighted average of product quality was not

calculated) 79

Figure 5-17 - Example of current draw plots 80

Figure 5-18 - Current draw adjusted plot 81

Figure 5-19 Deviations in laser measurements ; . 84

Figure 5-20 - Section view of two chambers and their slices 86

Figure 5-21 Chamber volume by height 90

Figure 5-22 - CSS versus vertical mantle position 91

viii
Figure 6-1 Time spent in measurement tests (tests 5 to 8 were performed using the new

support) 93

Figure 6-2 Chamber Volumes graph (using M P equals to A M P W ) for measurement 7.. 97

Figure 6-3 C S S versus M P graph for measurement 7 •' 98

Figure 6-4 Concave and mantle wear rate by slices for measurement 7 98

Figure 6-5 Average concave-wear rate 100

Figure 6-6 Simulated concave wear after 8 megatonnes 101

Figure 6-7 Graph #1 - Concave C002 at crusher #4 (29 June 2001-7 Feb. 2002) 104

Figure 6-8 Graph #2 - Concave C004 at crusher #4 (9 Feb. 2002-25 Sep, 2002) 105

Figure 6-9 Graph #3 - Concave C003 at crusher #5 (5 Jan. 2001-27 Sep, 2001) 106

Figure 6-10 Graph #4 - Concave C005 at crusher #5 (30 Sep. 2001-7 June 2002) 107

Figure 6-11 Example of 3 measured chambers that resulted in "good operation" 110

Figure 6-12 Example o f 3 measured chambers that resulted in "bad operation" 110

Figure 6-13 Cross-section view o f two similar but not identical chambers Ill

Figure 6-14 Comparison between chambers with different radius 112

Figure 6-15 - The difference between the discharging areas resulted from the wear of the

concaves 114

Figure 6-16 Number o f mantles used per concave and their total tonnage 117

Figure 6-17 Comparison of chamber condition for under size mantles 120

Figure 6-18 Comparison o f C S S - M P relationship for under size mantles 120

Figure 6-19 Comparison o f chamber condition for over size mantles 121

Figure 6-20 Comparison o f C S S - M P relationship for over size mantles .....122

Figure 6-21 Suggested replacement policy 123

ix
F i g u r e B-l L o c a t i o n o f the o r i g i n o f the " t r a c k " coordinate system 141

F i g u r e B-2 S c h e m a t i c o f the t r i g o n o m e t r i c relationships b e t w e e n the o r i g i n a l coordinate

system a n d the " t r a c k " coordinate system 142

F i g u r e B-3 Snapshot o f the A u t o C A D d r a w i n g w i t h the measured p r o f i l e s a n d the

o r i g i n a l parts 143

F i g u r e B- 4 G r o u p o f l i n e s a n d arcs that represents a mantle o r i g i n a l p r o f i l e ; 144

Nomenclature

AG Fully Autogenous Grinding

AMWP Average Mantle Position for the Week

CDI Conveyor Dynamics, Inc

CLP Constant Liner Performance

CSS Closed Side Setting

FMV Feed Material Variables

GPS Global Positioning Systems

HB Brinell Hardness

HVC Highland Valley Copper

LPD Laser Profiler Device

MDV Mechanical Design Variables

MOV Machine Operating Variables

MP Mantle Position

MTPH Metric Tonnes Per Hour

OSS Opened Side Setting

ROM Run-of-mine

SAG Semi Autogenous Grinding

TPH Tonnes Per Hour

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to HVC for all their support for the work

presented in this paper. In particular, Arnie Adams for his confidence in the author since

the beginning of the project. The author would also acknowledge all the other

participants of the HVC project team for their kindness.

The author is deeply thankful to his thesis supervisor Dr. Robert Hall and his co-

supervisor Dr. Daan Maijer for all the guidance and support. In addition to their support,

the author appreciates the bond that has been developed.

Of course, without my wife's support and patience, and the love shown by her and my

son, this thesis would not be completed. I am also thankful to my family, who always

demonstrated trust in my capacity even from far away.

The author would also like to acknowledge the financial support from the Natural

Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

xii
1. Introduction

Canadian mining operations are facing competitive pressure from offshore high grade,

low labour cost mines. To remain competitive, companies have introduced larger and

more complex equipment. Complexity has been added through the addition of

electronics and in some cases partial or full automation. Larger haul trucks, primary

crushers and process plants are now commonly used in open pit mines. The increase in

mine equipment size and operational improvements has resulted in higher production

rates. For the successful integration o f these operations, it is important that increased

production levels from the mine still provide a consistent product in terms o f grade and

size to the m i l l . M a n y companies are looking for ways to better evaluate the relationships

between blasting, primary crushing and milling efficiencies in order to develop new

processing strategies to be applied in the optimization o f the overall process.

A t the present, it is known that the optimization of primary crashing provides a great

opportunity to enhance the overall operational efficiency in high tonnage mines.

Increasing throughput and product quality at the primary crushing phase improves the

productivity throughout the rest o f the comminution process (Burkhardt, 1982). In

addition to reduced processing costs through the gains obtained in the crushing and

milling stages, maintenance costs are reduced by better machine availability and by

enhanced reliability o f its components.

1
This thesis presents research aimed at understanding the influence of liner profiles and

liner wear on gyratory crusher performance. Once a better understanding about these

relationships is achieved, the mines may be equipped with better tools to optimize

processing operations.

2
2. Research Objectives

The primary objective of this research is to improve the understanding of liner wear in

primary gyratory crushers. In other words, how chamber geometries and their

modification impact on crushing capacity and product quality. In pursuit of the primary

objective the following secondary objectives are targeted:

Determine an efficient methodology to monitor liner profile wear over time. This

work involves the assessment of a prototype laser-based methodology recently

introduced in the supporting mine.

- Establish an approach to accurately determine the dimension of crusher closed

side setting (CSS) replacing the current "bucket test" test methodology. An

online methodology is the ultimate goal.

- Develop a database of wear information linked to other monitored crushing

parameters such as: current draw, product size distribution and production rate.

- Evaluate the liner profiles currently available at the mine and, if necessary,

develop new profile designs. The .concurrent enhancement of crushing

performance and the extension of liner lives is desired.

3
3. Literature Review

3.1 Crusher Machines

3.1.1 History

Many centuries ago, weights were raised and dropped onto heavy rocks to crush them in

order to enable minerals processing. The crushing process has evolved with the addition

of different power sources to the process, beginning with the use of animal and

waterpower. However, development of "modern" crushing machines only took place

during the 19 century (Utley, 2002). The first crushing machine appeared in English
th

mines in the early 1800's. During the Industrial Revolution, the "Cornish Rolls" device

was developed, and though a very limited device, it started the process of miriimizing

handwork (Flavel, 1982).

Two kinds of crushing machines, not so different from the ones in operation nowadays,

were invented in the second half of the 19 century. The Blake Jaw Crusher was the first
th

in 1858 and the Gates' Gyratory Crusher was patented in 1881 (Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2

respectively).

4
Figure 3rl: Blake Jaw Crusher (Flavel, 1982) Figure 3-2: Gates Gyratory (Flavel, 1982)

The industrial revolution in the early 1900's promoted a growth in mining volumes. This

growth resulted in an increase in crusher size as well as the invention of other types of

crushers (the hammermill and the single sledging roll crusher). In 1919, the first 1.5 m

(60 in.) gyratory crusher was manufactured by Traylor Engineering which remained the

largest gyratory crusher for 40 years. In 1969 the same company introduced the largest

machine to date at 1.8 m (72 in.) of feed size opening. Although the reasons are unclear,

only one unit was made (Utley, 2002).

In addition, as mining complexity increased, the number of comminution phases grew

which led to the development of other types of crushers. Cone crushers were first

developed in the mid 1920's by Edgar B. Symons to supply the demand for efficient fine

crushing machines. Cone crushers are basically a small-scale gyratory crusher with

chamber modifications and higher operation speed (O'Bryan & Lim, 2002).

5
3.1.2 Crushers types and operation principles

Jaw crushers and gyratory crushers are the most commonly used machines for primary

crushing due to their capability and robustness to handle great volumes and high strength

materials. Primary crusher feed, the run-of-mine ( R O M ) ore, may contain lumps as large

as 1.5 m across (Utley, 2002). Usual reduction ratios for primary crushing are around 8:1

(Major, 2002).

Other types of crushers that can be employed in the primary comminution phase are:

rotary breakers ( M M D sizer), impact crushers, high-speed roll crushers, and hammer

mills. These machines are usually used for ores with specific characteristics such as: low

compression strength, low abrasion index, and/or high clay content.

In order to achieve the desired particle size necessary to process the ore by methods such

as flotation or leaching, other stages o f crushing and/or grinding are commonly applied

after primary crushing and though several different processes exist for finer crushing,

cone crushers are typically part of these processes. Thus, cone crushers can be used for

secondary and tertiary crushing phases as well as for auxiliary phases in grinding m i l l

applications.

In order to fulfil the requirements for such a variety o f applications several types o f cone

crushers are available. They are: the standard cone crusher, the horizontal impact

crusher, the high pressure grinding rolls, the waterflush cone crusher, the disk crusher

6
(Telsmith Gyrasphere), the short head cone crusher, the Metso Gyradisk and the vertical

impact crusher.

Since this research is focused on optimization of the primary gyratory crusher operation,

more attention is given to the description of this kind of machine. Since the jaw crusher

was the basis for the development of the gyratory crusher and the cone crusher was

derived from the gyratory crusher, they are also covered in this work.

Jaw Crusher

In the Jaw crusher, two planer surfaces alternatively crush the rocks imitating the animal

jaw movement. One of the surfaces remains fixed and the other, the swing jaw, moves

according to an eccentric drive - directly or indirectly, depending on the machine type.

The way the swing jaw is pivoted and some other construction characteristics determine

the different types of Jaw crusher. Details about the different types of Jaw crushers are

shown in Figure 3-3. The dimensions of the rectangular receiving area are commonly

used to describe them; for example, a 2.1 by 3.0 m (84 by 120 in.) jaw crusher has a 2.1

m width and 3.0 m gape. Jaw crushers are available in a wide range of sizes and

capacities - from 50 to 1500 tonnes per hour (tph).

7
 (?)TOGGI.E (T)SWING JAW SPRING

Figure 3-3: Common jaw crusher's mechanisms (Zandee, 1989)

There are several types of jaw crushers, such as the Blake double toggle, the Single

toggle, the Dodge, the Universal, and the Telsmith (Gaudin, 1939). The types most

commonly found in mining operations are the Blake double toggle and the Single toggle.

The Single toggle has limited application for high abrasives ores because in this type of

jaw crusher the swing jaw moves elliptically resulting in greater liner wear (Utley, 2002).

The Blake double toggle is commonly used in primary crushing in both open-pit and

underground operations. The double toggle drive mechanism and the positioning of the

pivot point give a minimum displacement of the swing jaw at the inlet region as well as

provide a strong breaking action for large ROM rocks.

8
In the Dodge crusher, as opposed to other jaw crushers, the location of minimum swing

jaw movement occurs in the discharge region providing a more uniform product size.

The Dodge type is the simplest jaw crusher but shows efficiency limitations in large-scale

designs; hence, this type is restricted to laboratory-scale work (Wills, 1997).

Although the capacity is smaller than the capacity of a gyratory crusher, a jaw crusher has

the advantages of low cost, simplicity of operation and maintenance, and low head

clearance, therefore they are broadly used in underground primary crushing (Major,

2002).

Gyratory Crusher

In the gyratory crusher, rock flows through a chamber formed by two inverted conical

surfaces assembled one inside the other. The inner surface, the mantle, is movable and

sits on a shaft called the mainshaft; the outer surface, the concave (or concaves) is fixed

on the main frame of the machine. The mainshaft is guided by a concentric sleeve at the

top and an eccentric sleeve-assembly at the bottom; known as the eccentric. A motor-

pinion-gear set propels the eccentric, which in turn drives the mantle in a gyratory

movement. Crushing occurs by the circular approaching and receding movement

between the surfaces.

Eccentric dimensions determine the displacement (or linear moving distance) of the

mantle, also called the throw of the crusher. As a result of the assembly of the eccentric

9
at the bottom of the mainshaft, the maximum displacement of the mantle occurs at its

bottommost region. Both mantle and concave are cast using abrasion resistant iron alloys

and are designed to be replaced over time as they wear. They are also called mantle and

concave liners.

Gyratory crusher capacities can range from 350 to 10,000 metric tonnes per hour

(MTPH) (Utley, 2002). The radial receiving opening (in inches) is the characteristic

generally used to determine the size of a gyratory crusher, i.e. a 48 gyratory crusher has a

receiving opening measuring 1.22 m (48 in.). Some manufactures add the largest

diameter of the mantle to the size description, for example a 60-89 Superior (Metso) has

an 1.52 m (60 in.) gap and the largest recommended diameter for the mantle is 2.26 m (89

in.).

Since its invention, several different configurations of gyratory crusher have been

developed mainly related to the design and support mechanism of the mainshaft. The

different types of gyratory crushers include: the long-shaft spider-suspended type, the

fixed-shaft type, the short-shaft gearless type, the short-shaft spider-suspended, and the

hydraulic supported short-shaft; the latter being the one most commonly manufactured

today.

The hydraulic supported short-shaft gyratory crusher has the bottom extremity of the

mainshaft supported by a hydraulic piston allowing a limited vertical displacement of the

mantle. This vertical movement of the mantle, also found in spider-suspended types of

10
gyratory crushers, serves to compensate chamber wear. The hydraulic system gives an

additional advantage as it also serves as a quick relief system that is used when the

machine becomes blocked; this usually happens when the machine receives tramp

material or is operated "too tight", i.e. with a small CSS.

Another important aspect about the design of gyratory crushers is that thefreemovement

of the mainshaft inside the eccentric minimizes attrition between the rocks and the

surfaces; i.e. once the mainshaft, and therefore the mantle, isfreeto turn on its axis inside

the eccentric, horizontal attrition over its surface is negligible and the main type of

mechanical reduction is through compression; compression predominant crushers are

most suitable for crushing extremely hard and abrasive rock (Utley, 2002).

Figure 3-4 shows a cross-section of a gyratory crusher and the main components

mentioned before. Barry Wills (1997) refers to the cross-section representation of the

gyratory crusher not only for a better illustration of its mechanism but also to correlate its

operation principle with jaw crushers. He explains that at any cross-section, the gyratory

crusher can be compared to two double toggle jaw crushers operating at opposite phases.

Similarly K. Gauldie (1954) used the jaw crusher operational principle to explain the

gyratory crushing. He wrote: "The gyratory crusher may be regarded as a jaw crusher in

which a large number of elementary, V-shaped jaws operate in succession. Each of these

elementary jaws is advanced and retracted in each revolution and each contributes its

share to the total output of the machine."

11
 Figure 3-4 Cross section of a Gyratory Crusher (Courtesy of Svedala-Metso)

The most advantageous characteristics of the gyratory crushers are as follows:

12
 - the round shaped chamber provides higher capacities than jaws with the same gap,

- high capacities and the possibility of direct dump from haul trucks (Utley, 2002),

low maintenance cost per ton processed and high availability (Utley, 2002),

- suitable for crushing hard ores up to 620 MPa (90,000 psi) compressive strength

(Utley, 2002),

- tend to offer more flexibility with respect to moderating feed rates (Major, 2002),

a more even power draw when compared to jaw crushers (Gaudin, 1939),

- low starting power peaks (Zandee, 1989),

- more uniform wear on liners than jaw crushers (Zandee, 1989), and,

- allow setting adjustment even when operating in automatic mode (Zandee, 1989).

Cone Crusher

The cone crusher, or reduction gyratory crusher, is basically a small scale gyratory

crusher where the size of the mantle (head) is proportionally larger when compared to a

gyratory crusher, and its outer surface flares out from top to bottom. This configuration

results in a much flatter crushing angle than the one found in a gyratory crusher (Major,

2002) and provides an increased area of discharge to optimize throughput (Gaudin,

1939). The rotational speed is different too; cone crushers operate with speeds 2 to 3

times greater than the normal gyratory crushers.

13
The two most common types of cone crashers are the Symons and the Hydrocone, as

shown in Figure 3-5. The Water-flush crusher is a design of cone crusher modified to

allow the addition of water to the feed material.

Figure 3-5:Typical cone crushers (Zandee, 1989).

In the majority of cone crashers, a mechanism to release tramp material is provided. In

some cases the concaves are lifted, while in others the head is dropped momentarily - by

means of coiled springs arrangements in the first case and hydraulic support in the latter.

14
Cone crushers provide consistent product size, which is an important advantage for their

selection in the quarry industry. This aspect, and the reduced costs associated with this

smaller piece of machinery, explains the greater number of studies found regarding cone

crushers than for gyratory.

3.1.3 Gyratory crushers application

Gyratory crushers are the usual choice for primary cmshing in high tonnage open pit

operations. This trend is even stronger when the ore to be processed is hard and abrasive

and the downstream phase requires relatively coarse material such as the feed for

grinding circuits equipped with SAG mills (Major, 2002).

The gyratory crusher plays an important role in the link between the mine and the mill.

The flow of material from mine to mill involves blasting, loading, hauling, crushing,

milling and processing. Fragmentation and comminution occur during the blasting,

crushing and milling steps of the process. In the overall context of the comminution

process, the cost increases as the ore goes from blasting to crushing to milling (Wills,

1997).

Highland Valley Copper (HVC) has been closely analysing the parameters involved in

the comminution process as a whole and has been very active in assessing the

relationship between the mine and the mill operations. Experiments have been conducted

and served to confirm that there is a direct correlation between the amount of fines in the

15
mill feed and its throughput. Figure 3-6 and Figure 3-7 show examples of the

correlations that were observed at HVC in both SAG and A G mills during tests

conducted by Dance. As shown in both graphs the mill production rate (—Tonnage) is

closely related with the amount of fines (•Fines), (Dance, 2001).

60 1400

1200

• % Coarse ^ 'At
-Tonnage ^ %' L*rV*J
400

10
200

24 hours'

Figure 3-6 Effect of Feed Size on AG Mill Tonnage (Dance, 2001)

16
Another test conducted by Dance at HVC served to confirm that the medium-size

crushing product, also called critical size, plays an important role in ,mill productivity.

With the use of an image analysis system for particle size measurements (discussed in

detail in section 4.1), and tracking the flow of the materialfromthe crusher until the semi

autogenous grinding (SAG) mill, Dance confirmed the negative effect of the critical size

in mill throughput. The graph in Figure 3-8 confirms that the amount of medium-size in

the crusher product (•) and in the subsequent mill feed (•) are inversely correlated to the

SAG mill throughput (Dance, 2001).

17
 60 2400

46 i 2300

40 t 2200

336
2100 J.
#30
£

|26

* Crusher Product
20 ° Mill Feed (+24 hours)
—Mill Tonnage (+24 hours)
16
t 1700
'24 hours'
1600
10

Figure 3-8: Medium-size Crusher Product Effect on Mill (Dance, 2001)

The effect o f the critical size m i l l feed is so significant that doubts related to the design o f

previously accepted comminution flowsheets have arisen. Major (2002) underlines the

fact that it had been common for operations to select and implement circuits containing

gyratory crushers and S A G mills only; leaving out cone crushers i n their comminution

flowsheets. However, as he claims, the new trend seems to be the return o f the use o f

cone crushers even i n flowsheets containing S A G mills i n order to crush "recirculating

pebbles" (Major, 2002).

Major and Dance's work appears to suggest that the best way to solve the problems

involving primary crushing product (grinding demands) would be the addition o f more

secondary crushers into the flowsheet.

18
However, analysing different facts reported by Dance and other authors who have worked

on improving various crushing processes, there seems to be room for the alternative

approach o f optimizing primary crushing performance. This has been the focus o f

several authors (Flavel et al, 1988), (Svensson and Steer, 1990), (Burkhardt, 1982),

(Dance, 2001). Flavel (1988) listed examples o f successes obtained by several research

programs and operations that achieved gains i n grinding efficiency through improving

crushing product quality. Some o f these examples are listed below:

- Edmiston and Keller (1975) from Sierrita mine, Arizona, reported that the

performance optimization o f the crushing process, resulting from detailed

analyses o f the crushing parameters, increased the capacity o f the concentrators

from 65,336 to 78,040 tonnes per day.

E x c e l l and Fitzpatrick (1978) from Broken H i l l Proprietary C o . mine at Whyalla,

Australia, reported a 2 0 % increase i n grinding m i l l throughput attained by

changing the cone crushing settings which also enabled a 15% improvement i n

crushing and screening plant throughput.

- "In 1961 and 1962^ Bergstrom, et al hypothesized that, based upon research

findings by Boliden Allis (previously Allis-Chalmers), efficient crushing

processes could be used to significantly reduce overall comminution energy

usage."

Svensson and Steer pointed out that i n mining operations, many times, inefficient

crushing is easily "masked", i.e. coarser crushing product imperceptibly flows directly to

19
the grinding mills. In addition, they claim that on average crashing plants i n the mining

industry are less developed technologically than the ones i n the aggregate industry

(Svensson and Steer, 1990).

3.1.4 Gyratory crushers performance

Taggart (1927) discussed the capacity o f gyratory and j a w primary crashers and

concluded: "capacity depends primarily upon character o f ore, size o f feed and discharge

setting. Throw, speed, angularity o f jaws, and character o f crashing surfaces have a

material effect" (Taggart, 1927)

Detailed information about the factors influencing crashing performance is the object o f

Bearman and Briggs' work. They stated: "crushers operate within a performance

envelope encompassing throughput, product size and shape, and power consumed".

Though their work is based on cone crushers, the similarities between these types o f

crushers and gyratory crushers suggests that the results may be transferable to an analysis

using gyratory crashers. In the analyses o f crushing performance, Bearman and Briggs

group the variables into three different categories: "Mechanical Design Variables ( M D V )

which do not change with time, Machine Operating Variables ( M O V ) which can be

changed with time by the user, and Feed Material Variables ( F M V ) which may change

significantly over short periods o f time and are very difficult to control" (Bearman and

Briggs, 1998).

20
In the same work, Bearman and Briggs underline the effects o f liner material wear, wear

profile, feed size distribution^ feed type, and feed rate as time dependent factors that may

be included in M O V or F M V and that significantly impact crusher performance over

time.

Accordingly, following the above-mentioned categories some examples o f gyratory

crusher performance variables are:

- M D V : eccentric throw, fulcrum point position, speed (gyrations per time unit),

and original chamber design . 1

- M O V : feed rate and closed side setting (CSS).

- F M V : mechanical properties o f the ore, feed size distribution, and choke feed

level.

It should be noted that crusher feed is an important parameter to be assessed.

Fortunately, different approaches are available i n a number o f works (Tunstall and

Bearman, 1997), (Burkhardt, 1982), (Dance, 2000).

"Well-fragmented material passes easily through the primary crusher, maximizing

crusher productivity and minimizing power consumption, liner wear and mechanical

breakdowns" (Tunstall and Bearman, 1997). The amount o f fines generated by blasting

has a definite impact i n crushing performance (Burkhardt, 1982). Table 3-1 shows results

1
If considering wear profile, this parameter might be categorized as M O V (this variable is detailed later in

this section).

21
from tests done by Burkhardt that indicate that as the ratio o f fines increases i n the feed,

crusher throughput rises. Furthermore, it can be concluded that primary crushing

performance is intimately linked to the degree o f fragmentation achieved by blasting

(Tunstall and Bearman, 1997). In fact significant efforts have gone into optimizing blast

design for crusher feed quality control (Tunstall and Bearman, 1997) (Dance, 2000)

(Valery etal, 2001).

Table 3-1 Increase in crusher throughput by changing feed characteristics (Burkhardt, 1982)

1.1 m Gyratory Crusher -125 mm Open Side Setting -Biotite

Test No. Feed (mm) TPH Percent Change
1 -533+125 (No fines) 655
2 -508 + 0 (20% -125) 763 +16
3 -483 + 0 (40% -125) 887 +35

Since blasting costs are smaller than crushing and milling costs, crushing performance

can be improved by increasing the quality o f the feed (Wills, 1997), (Burkhardt, 1982),

i.e. increasing blasting effectiveness is a good way to optimize the overall process.

Following this suggestion, i n 1998 H V C conducted a field trial to evaluate different blast

patterns. A n area was divided i n two halves and subjected to different blast patterns, one

following the standard design and the other following a design with a higher powder

factor. The material was tracked and sent to the same milling line (C line). The results

were contrary to what was expected. The finer blasted material did not generate higher

tonnage at the m i l l , instead the inverse occurred (Dance, 2000).

22
By analysing what happened during the blast pattern trial it was realized that the finer

blasted product rapidly slipped through the crusher producing a courser product than the

one achieved with the coarser starting material from the standard design. Following the

trend in the mining industry, HVC had been operated the primary crushers to always get

maximum tonnage and avoiding a bottleneck condition, but this test served to bring more

attention to the reality of the trade off between tonnage and product quality.

After thorough analysis, HVC realized the importance of the gyratory crusher in the

overall process: "unless we can maintain the finest crush possible, any gains to be made

in blasting finer could be lost before it reaches the mill" (Dance, 2000). The blasting trial

served to exemplify product quality degeneration from loose operation of the crusher, i.e.

attention was given to one variable (feed size distribution) but others were forgotten (feed

rate and choke feed level).

Obviously one way to achieve choke fed crushing is by control of the feed rate. This is

done with apron feeders ahead of the crushers. Using this crushing configuration, the

feed rate can be considered an operating variable and its optimization is possible.

Taggart described the optimum feed rate as being one that brings the machine as near as

possible to its capacity (Taggart, 1927).

Burkhardt accepts Sheppard and Witherow's recommendation that constant choke

feeding increases the amount of finer product and adds that the maximization of gyratory

23
crasher product quality can be achieved by operating the machine at small CSS and

choke fed condition (Burkhardt, 1982), (Sheppard and Witherow, 1938). Choke fed

condition is also recommended for cone crashers, and "means that the volume above the

crashing chamber is always full of material which flows into the crashing chamber at a

pace decided by the crusher" (Svensson et al, 1996).

The accepted reasons supporting the choke fed condition for cone crushers are listed

below (Bearman and Briggs, 1998).

"develops a uniform wear profile;

gives a more consistent product sizing;

maximises throughput;

extends the liner life;

improves the cubicity of the product"

The gap or CSS is obviously an important variable, and is categorized as an MOV. Being

part of the control of the machine CSS adjustment should be done carefully to optimize

crasher performance.

Work on the control aspect of cone crushers for the aggregate industry has been done in

an attempt to predict and control the output product size (Moshgbar et al, 1995),

(Bearman and Briggs, 1998). This work has relied on a mathematical model developed

by Whiten to predict the rock breakage during crashing (Whiten, 1972). Using Whiten's

24
model Moshgbar developed a differential equation to describe the crusher product output

as a function o f wear and therefore gap variation.

Figure 3-9 shows the results using this model to simulate crushing with no control o f the

gap, manual control o f the gap and automatic control o f the gap. In this figure D S is the

wear effect on the gap, % C S is the percentage volume o f product with the required

optimum size and % O S is the percentage volume oversized.

II III
NO MANUAL AUTOMATIC
COMPENSATION COMPENSATION COMPENSATION

Figure 3-9: Comparison between manual and automatic control of CSS (Moshgbar, 1995)

The simulation results show that with no adjustment, the gap gradually increases, as

expected, due to crusher wear, and the product quality degrades with time. These results

demonstrate that manual adjustment o f the gap setting at predetermined intervals

25
improves the product quality, but at the cost of downtime. Finally, automatic control

provides the best product control and the most consistent gap setting (section 3.2 contains

more details about wear effect over gap adjustment procedures).

Tests conducted at HVC demonstrate that by operating the crusher with a fixed setting

the variation in feed size distribution results in similar fluctuation in product size

distribution. Figure 3-10 shows the effect of feed size on product sizing for the crusher

operating with a constant setting (Dance, 2001).

20

•Feed
° Product
16

12 H o %
• •
•4- **Vw
£ 4
V

"4 hours'

Figure 3-10 Crusher Feed & Product % Course - Constant Setting (Dance, 2001)

Chamber design, or cavity design, has been considered a key parameter in crushing

performance by both the manufacturers and users of cone and gyratory crushers (Gaudin,

1939), (Burkhardt, 1982). In addition, some of them also claim that with the right design

26
of the liners, wear may be minimized and made more uniform along the profile (Bearman

and Briggs, 1998), (Westerfeld, 1985), (Svensson and Steer, 1990).

Westerfeld discussed the advantages (including the ones mentioned above) of the design

of curved concaves also called non-choking concaves . He demonstrated that this design
2

of the concaves offsets the choke point to a higher position compared to the position

achieved with straight concaves. Thus it minimizes excessive level of stress at the

bottom of the chamber, which is responsible for localized and rapid liner wear in this

region (Westerfeld, 1985).

The drawings in Figure 3-11 were used by Westerfeld to explain the differences in

material flow between the two configurations of crushing chambers. It is assumed that

the two crushers have the same eccentric throw and the same discharge setting. The

difference between the chambers is provided by the different profile of their concaves:

the crusher on the left side (1) has a straight concave and the crusher on the right side (2)

has a curved profile. Crusher 1 represents a straight chamber and crusher 2 represents a

non-choking chamber.

To analyse the crushing action in these two chambers, it is first assumed that both

crushers are completely filled with a friable material and second, that the crushing action

occurs in steady steps as numbered. Thus, at each step (or complete gyration of the

2
"Even though the design is called non-choking it does not afford absolute insurance against choking" (or

blockage) "inasmuch as a choke point exists in the crushing chamber" (Westerfeld, 1985).

27
mantle) a volume of material is compressed in one region and then moves to a lower

region. As can be seen from the figures, in crusher 1 the volumes successively decrease

from region 0 to the bottommost region 19. So, region 19 has the highest probability of

packing the material and therefore the choke point in a straight chamber is at its discharge

level.

On the other hand, for crusher 2 the volumes successively decrease only from region 0 to

region 14. Thus, this region has the highest probability of packing the material and as

shown in the figure the choke point of a non-choking chamber is located above the

discharge level.

Figure 3-11: Straight versus non-choking concaves (Westerfeld, 1985)

28
Following Westerfeld's work, Svensson and Steer described the mechanisms of the

crushing process inside the chamber with the aid of slices and areas to introduce the

constant liner performance (CLP) crushing chamber concept that has been used in cone

crushers. They suggest that the advantage of this enhanced chamber design is that it

"controls" the liner profile wear in such a way that "the feed opening and the capacity is

maintained almost constant throughout the life of the liners" (Svensson and Steer, 1990).

Figure 3-12 shows this type of chamber when new and at the end of its life.

Figure 3-12: CLP liners (Svensson and Steer, 1990)

29
3.2 Liner wear

As described in the previous section liner wear directly impacts the gap dimension as

well as the chamber profile (Bearman and Briggs, 1998), (Svensson and Steer, 1990),

(Westerfeld, 1985). Hence, liner wear is an important variable in the overall crushing

operation as it is intimately related to product quality (size consistency and throughput)

and cost; The rate of wear and its distribution among the different regions of the chamber

results in profile modifications affecting liner life. Moreover, not only the replacement

cost of the liners but also the costs associated with the variations in crusher performance

can be attributed to liner wear.

In addition, lack of an effective real time measurement system for the wear during

operation complicates the application of a systematic adjustment of the gap over time.

This lack of accurate gap information may result in either running the crusher too tight,

causing a reduction in throughput, or running the crusher with a gap that is too wide,

resulting in poor product quality. As a result, unintentionally operating the machine too

tight may accelerate the deterioration of the crusher's drive components and once more

impact costs.

30
3.2.1 Mechanisms of wear

The mechanisms of crushing wear, the variables involved in it, as well as efforts in

modelling its behaviour have been the focus of other works in the application of cone

crushers (mainly in the quarry industry); (Delalande, 1986a), (Moshgbar et al, 1994),

(Moshgbar et al, 1995), (Bearman and Briggs, 1998). Since system kinematics for cone

and gyratory crushers are quite similar, the results from these studies are of great value

for an investigation of wear mechanisms in gyratory crushers.

During crushing, the rock particles are in rolling, impact and sliding contact with the

liners of the machine (Moshgbar et al, 1994). Hence the wear of the liners is inevitable

and is caused by gouging/ploughing (Bearman and Briggs, 1998). Following a more

comprehensive tribological study, it has been determined that the system has a dominant

open three-body abrasion wear mechanism, i.e. the type of wear "associated with the

abrasion of one or two surfaces of moderate separation by abrasive particles which can

move relative to each other as well as rotating and sliding over the abraded

surfaces"(Moshgbar et al, 1994).

In addition, as the three-body abrasion can be divided into gouging, high-stress and low-

stress regimes, Moshgbar concluded that in cone crusher systems there are basically two

wear regimes: low-stress at the top of the crushing chamber changing to high-stress as it

gets closer to the bottom region where the main crashing zone is located. This theory is

31
supported by the commonly observed larger loss of material in the main crashing zone

(Moshgbar et al, 1994).

There is general agreement between several researchers about the variables that affects

wear rate and the reasons for uneven-wear profiles (Parks and Kjos, 1991), (Bearman and

Briggs, 1998), (Moshgbar et al, 1995). Of main interest are those listed below:

- material properties of the liners,

- properties of the feed (i.e. chemical composition, strength and moisture content),

- operational parameters e.g. CSS, power, feed rate and crasher chamber.

3.2.2 Liner materials

Cone crasher liners are usually made of an austenitic 12% Manganese steel namely

Hadfield steel (Moshgbar et al, 1995), the same material had been exclusively used for

both concaves and mantles of large gyratory crashers since their invention until the late

1960's when the first upper row concaves made of martensitic cast steel were introduced.

Nowadays concaves and mantles can be cast from several different ferrous materials.

The alloys most used are: martensitic steels, martensitic Cr-Mo steels, Ni-Cr (Ni-Hard)

white irons and austenitic manganese steels (Parks and Kjos, 1991).

Chrome white irons are frequently preferred for gyratory crasher concaves because of

their high abrasion resistance, their high yield strength that minimizes plastic deformation

in service ("growth"), and their cost effectiveness (Esco, 2003), (Parks and Kjos, 1991).

32
Austenitic manganese or Mn-Cr steels and the martensitic Cr-Mo steels are the alloys

most recommended for gyratory crusher mantles (Esco, 2003).

During the design and/or selection of alloys to be applicable in sacrificial wear

components in the mining industry, the relationship between abrasion resistance and

toughness must be considered. Generally, materials showing high abrasion resistance are

hard and brittle. An exception is the austenitic manganese steel which combines both

requirements, originally austenitic manganese is relatively soft with 200 HB (Brinell

hardness) but under certain work conditions its hardness can increase to more than 500

HB which improves its abrasion resistance while retaining its desirable toughness (Parks

and Kjos, 1991); (Diesburg and Borik, 1974).

Suitable work hardening conditions as mentioned before seem not to be consistently

achievable for the concaves under normal operation conditions in gyratory crushers. This

limits the application of austenitic manganese steels for concave applications. The

martensitic steels and white irons commonly exhibit high hardness values (typically from

500 to 600 HB) even at normal work conditions and have been commonly used for

concave liners. Additionally, martensitic alloys have longer wear life than austenitic

manganese steels, though their impact toughness is much lower than the one exhibited in

austenitic manganese steels (Parks and Kjos, 1991).

For material assessment, several laboratory wear tests have been developed (pin-on-

drum, dry-sand rubber wheel, jaw crusher, and impeller drum) to assess abrasive wear

33
(ASTM, 1996); (Blickensderfer et al, 1985); (Wilson and Hawk, 1999). The US

Department of Energy has compared results for different materials from laboratory wear

tests to field test data developed using a "Planar array field test". Basically, a plate is

designed with various steel samples and placed in the conveyance section of a mineral

processing crushing circuit where it will be exposed to impact and sliding material at

different angles and velocities (Tylczal et al, 1999). Although interesting from a material

evaluation point of view, this paper does not provide a wear rate model that can be

applied to gyratory crushers. It does suggest that laboratory tests are beneficial in

evaluating material wear, but care must be taken to ensure that laboratory test mimics the

wear process occurring in the actual application. For example the crusher test, which is a

gouge test, does not correlate well with the "Planar array test" primarily due to the field

test being an abrasive wear test.

3.2.3 Wear measurements

As previously discussed, crusher liner wear influences product quality and is closely

linked to the overall effectiveness of the process, therefore impacting crashing total cost.

Moreover, the lack of accurate ways to measure the wear during operation, limits the

efficacy of automated adjustment of the CSS resulting in undesirable variability of

product quality over the lifetime of the liners.

Gyratory crushers are large-scale types of equipment, which contain robust moving parts

that gyrate eccentrically. In addition, the crushing feed usually contains large pieces of

34
abrasive tough rocks that are directly dumped at the top region of the machine. Currently

it is impossible to assess liner deterioration in real time for gyratory crushers. The

intrinsic characteristics of these types of machines and of the feed they process can

provide an idea of the limitations in achieving a desirable online wear measurement.

In the following sections descriptions of some examples of liner wear measurement

techniques are given. These procedures have been applied by research labs and/or by

industry and they serve to better describe the difficulties that are involved in this task.

D r i l l i n g Holes

Parks and Kjos describe the periodic use of profile measurements on worn liners as a way

to monitor wear behaviour and assist in the selection of mantle profiles to be used over

time (Parks and Kjos, 1991). They describe the technique of drilling holes of small

diameter at the seams in between the concave parts (through the soft backing-material

until the drill reaches the shell) to perform posterior measurements of the holes with the

aid of pieces of wire. The limitations of this procedure are quite straight forward: the

evaluation is only possible at discrete points, observation of scrap concave parts reveals

different thicknesses close to the edges, mantles are mounted in a maximum of three

pieces resulting in a low number of radial seams, large inaccuracy caused by the nature of

the procedure, and time consuming.

35
Mines use a similar technique with the main difference being that holes are drilled

directly into the liners (Adams, 2003). Although this technique can be better applied to

mantles and may avoid the error incurred when measuring thicknesses close to the edges,

it suffers from most of the disadvantages of the original procedure. In addition, it may

create stress concentrators and lead to the deterioration of liner life.

Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge

There have also been attempts to measure the thickness of worn liners with the use of

ultrasonic gauges (Parks and Kjos, 1991), (Adams, 2003). Difficulties and limitations

mentioned by Parks and Kjos include the necessity of selecting sections with known

parallel wear surfaces where the measurement is made to avoid loss of back reflection.

Adams (2003) reported that HVC performed some tests in the past but the results were

inaccurate and most of the problems were related to reflections and/or originated from the

backing materials.

Experiments to Measure Cone Crusher Chambers

Delalande first showed interest in determining the optimum operational period for cone

crusher liners following an observation of the degeneration in product quality over time

and an apparent opportunity for cost reduction when shortening the life of the liners

(Delalande, 1986a). In a later paper, Delalande reported that to continue the investigation

it was necessary to get an understanding of the dynamics of wear across liner lives, he

36
then described three different methodologies to obtain the chamber profile of the crusher

at the closest plane of use (Delalande, 1986b). Since the methods were designed for

laboratory scale tests there are obvious limitations for easy adaptation of the methods to

large primary crushers. However, the functional principles may serve to provide the

foundations for other novel approaches for large-scale gyratory crushers. The three

methods are briefly described in the following:

1- One method to obtain the chamber profile utilises a profiler device, this apparatus

contains a horizontal bar (fixed at the top of the crusher) that support a second

articulated bar which lies inside the chamber, a measure device similar to a tape

measurement which slides over the second bar, and an electrical system that reads

and records the inclination of the bar and the distance measurements over time.

Basically the functioning of this apparatus is in reading the length and the

inclination of the articulated set of measuring bars as its extremity travels

touching the surfaces of the two opposite walls (concave and mantle).

2- Another method is called profile by casting. In this procedure a cylindrical latex

bag is inserted inside the chamber and kept in a fixed position with the aid of a

metallic tripod fixed at the top of the crusher and a rod linked to the tripod and

kept inside the bag. The bag is filled with a pre-mixed two-component-resin

(approximately 50% in volume) and the mixture is let to expand and solidify. The

cast is cut in a predetermined manner, removed from the crusher and then the

profile can be analysed.

37
 3- The third method is called profiler by direct sketch. In this method a wood-board

is patterned in the approximate shape of the crushing chamber and placed in the

crusher. Once the board is in place, a compass with a fixed opening is drawn

along the profile of the concave or mantle and its shape is traced onto the board.

Sacrificial Sensors

An online methodology to monitor the wear in cone crusher liners for the quarry industry

has been the object of research and development for several years. The methodology

would complement the implementation of a full condition monitoring system in order to

achieve several operational benefits such as the optimum utilisation of the liners, product

quality enhancement with the use of an automatic adjustment of the gap and feed rate, as

well as the reduction of maintenance downtime (Moshgbar et al, 1995); (Yaxley and

Knight, 1999).

In this wear measurement methodology sacrificial sensors of approximately 0.5 mm

diameter are embedded in different regions over the liners. The sensors wear away at the

same rate as the metallic liners. Each sensor sends a signal that corresponds to its current

length which enables the system to give an accurate representation of the wear at real

time. Different prototype sensors have been developed using capacitive, resistive and

conductive principles, and for each configuration laboratory and field tests have been

performed. It was concluded that the most promising configuration is the one that applies

multiple surface mount resistive sensors. Although the field tests showed problems such

as short-circuiting of the sensors and signal spikes it is expected that with further

38
development the reliability and accuracy of the multiple surface mount resistive sensor

may be improved and this measurement methodology may be used in industrial

applications.

39
4. Highland Valley Copper Project

4.1 Operations Background

HVC is a Teck Cominco and BHP open-pit mine operation located near the town of

Logan Lake in the southern interior British Colombia, Canada. HVC is one of the largest

copper mining operations in the world. In 2002, HVC mill achieved 50 million tonnes of

total throughput (on average 137,000 tonnes per day), the largest throughput in 20 years

of operation (Teck Cominco, 2003).

At the beginning of 2000, ore reserves totalled 387 million tonnes at a grade of 0.417%

copper and 0.009% molybdenum - gold and silver are present in small quantities that

become noteworthy in the copper concentrate. On average, the strip ratio is 1:1 resulting

in 270,000 tonnes mined per day in two pits simultaneously. Valley, the main pit, is

located 3 km northwest of the mill plant and contains approximately 74% of the reserves;

the remaining ore comes from the Lornex pit, located 1 km southwest of the mill plant

(Richards, 2000).

Mineralization is bornite and chalcopyrite for both pits. Valley pit shows a higher ratio

of bornite to chalcopyrite and the reverse occurs in Lornex; Valley pit has a lower

molybdenum sulphide mineralization than the Lornex pit (MacPhail, 1992).

40
Being a high tonnage and low grade mine, H V C ' s existence relies heavily on economies

o f scale. H V C has always applied innovative technology to increase productivity and to

reduce operating costs. Some examples o f such advanced technologies in the history o f

H V C are the application of a computer based truck dispatch system, movable in-pit

crushers and conveyors for ore transportation in the Valley pit, Global Positioning

Systems (GPS) location technology on drills and shovels, shovel weighing system and

fragmentation image analysis system.

The overall milling process can be visualized in Figure 4-1. The R O M ore from the

Lornex pit is trucked and directly dumped into a fixed 1.52 by 2.26 m (60 by 89 in.)

Metso Superior Gyratory crusher; the crusher is driven by a 520 k W (697 hp) motor and

is equipped with a heavy duty hydraulic hammer at its top to deal with over size material

and to help clear blockages. The Lornex crusher is designated Crusher N o . 1.

41
 Figure 4-1 H V C Simplified millingflowsheet(HVC, 2000)

The ROM ore from Valley pit is trucked and dumped into two 1.52 by 2.26 m (60 by 89

in.) Metso Superior Gyratory crushers, No. 4 and No. 5. These crushers are semi-mobile

and located deep in the Valley pit. Differently from No. 1, the in-pit crushing layout

includes a dump hopper and a 2.44 m variable speed inclined apron feeder which avoids

truck direct feed and enables feed rate control.

Previously, all three gyratory crushers reduced the ore to app. 250 mm (~ 10 in.).

However, for the past few years, the crushers have been operating to reduce the ore size

42
to app. 150 mm (~ 6 in.) with the use of CSSs rangingfrom127 to 140 mm (5 to 5.5 in.).

As commonly described at the mine, the crushers were operating "loose" in the past but

now they have been operating "tight".

A network comprised of several kilometres of conveyor belts, feeders and surge piles is

used to deliver the crushed product to three stockpiles located just beside the mill plant.

Although there are limited crossovers between the different crushed products in the

conveying phase, some blending of the grinding feed is possible if desired. Three

variable speed apron feeders and two hydra stroke feeders are used to transfer the

material from the three stockpiles (1, 2 and 3) to five grinding lines (A, B, C, D and E).

The grinding lines were built at different times and consequently, there are substantial

differences between them. A and B lines are similar, each of them is comprised of one

primary SAG and two ball mills. C grinding line is similarly equipped with one SAG

mill and two ball mills. The mills in C are larger than the mills in A/B lines and line C

utilises a cluster of ten cyclones instead of seven for the A/B lines. Each of the other two

grinding lines, D and E, consists of one fully autogenous mill (AG) and one ball mill.

Each AG mill is equipped with one discharge grate and one vibratory double deck screen

for the removal of critical size rock particles. A 2.1 m (7 ft) Symonds short head cone

crusher is used in closed circuit to crush the oversize material from the screen in each

line, and the ball mill operates in close circuit with a cluster of ten cyclones.

43
After comminution,flotationcells are used to produce a concentrate that contains both

copper and molybdenum. Regrind circuits, comprised of ball mills and cyclones, are

additional components of the flotation cells. In the final processes, molybdenum is

separated from the bulk copper-molybdenum concentrate by flotation and leaching and

the final products are arranged for shipment.

As mentioned before, several advanced system are applied at HVC. The systems relevant

to this research are discussed next.

HVC utilises an image analysis system to monitor the size distribution of crusher feed,

crusher product and the feed of the grinding lines. The system consists of several video

cameras mounted in strategic locations and a PC-based fragmentation analysis system

developed by WipWare Inc. called WipFrag.

The software captures and digitises images of the material and isolates individual

fragment boundaries as shown in Figure 4-2. The results of this fragmentation

recognition are used to calculate particle areas, volumes, masses and the size distribution

by weight.

44
Figure 4-2 Camera Image and Boundaries Recognition (Dance, 1998)

The system has some limitations such as the inability to recognize fine particles (smaller

than 15mm) and the need for controlled lighting conditions (in some location this is

solved by the addition of halogen lamps). However, these restrictions do not compromise

the objective of its application at HVC, as WipFrag outputs are mainly used as control

signals. Even though the output accuracy is not the same as from lab screening analyses,

WipFrag output has proven to be repeatable and reliable for its designed application

(Simkus and Dance, 1998). The use of WipFrag output as a control signal is possible

because, in this case, relative changes in the distribution are more important than the

comparison of the signal to a "standard" sieve analysis (Simkus and Dance, 1998).

HVC relies on state-of-the-art systems to monitor ore properties. At HVC, all the drills

are equipped with GPS-based navigation and blasthole guidance systems as well as

material recognition system from Aquila Mining Systems. The Aquila material

45
recognition system provides rock characteristics by the analyses o f drill parameters such

as rate o f penetration and vibrations.

Since 1997, H V C has been utilizing the Citect process control system from Citect Pty

Ltd, Australia. Using Citect, operational data is gathered automatically from equipment

instrumentation and then processed and recorded at small time intervals. Citect facilitates

the search for real time and historical information as well as enables the overview o f the

entire operation from several workstations at the m i l l . The system comes with a detailed

graphic user interface and enables the creation o f tailor made reports.

Using Aquila, Citect, Dispatch, WipFrag and other technology systems H V C has

achieved the capacity to track ore properties throughout the crushing and grinding

processes. More details o f a study conducted at the mine with regards to the systems

mentioned can be found in (Simkus and Dance, 1998).

46
4.2 Crusher Operations at HVC

As described before, every day a massive amount of material is milled at HVC (on

average 137,000 tonnes). However, only three crushers are responsible for all the ore

processed from the two pits. This condition by itself underlines how crucial the

availability, maintenance and proper operation of the crushers is. Maintenance problems

like unscheduled shutdowns may affect the profitability of the entire operation, while

improper operation conditions at the crushers decrease the final throughput of the mill.

The dynamic nature of the crushing process is fundamental to a desired flow of material

from mine to mill. Though fragmentation and comminution occurs during blasting,

crushing and milling steps of the process, there is a better opportunity with regards to

costs in optimizing the first two processes since the cost increases as the ore goes from

blasting to crushing to milling (Wills, 1997).

HVC has been very active in enhancing the product quality resulting from both blasting

and crushing, aiming for an overall improvement in performance of the comminution

process. As discussed in section 3.1.4, in 1998 HVC initiated this optimization

development by the investigation of the effects in mill productive by application of

enhanced blasting designs. This work resulted in the recognition of the key importance

of the primary crushing process in the overall comminution process at the mine.

47
In 1999, drawing on advances in cone crusher technology, HVC initiated the

development of an automatic control system for the crushers working in the Valley pit.

Flavel demonstrated that the use of automatic CSS controls in a cone crusher

substantially improved both the capacity and .the quantities of finer sized product (Flavel,

1982). Figure 4-3 shows the difference between two similar sized cone crushers

operating with and without automatic CSS regulations. In this case, the crushers are used

in the secondary crushing process and they are equipped with screens to sieve the feed.

1
1210TPH- <>fc£V
fc
A

—
J.

852 TPH 519 TPH

500 ! 15 HP 255 : 45 HP

AUTOMATED SET FIXED S E T T I N G XJ

358 T P H 20-22 MM C S S 22 MM C S S 200 T P H

DISCHARGE % PASSING
435 T P H • 13 MM IN. 336 T P H • 13 MM
417 TPH - 13 MM 992 2 51 99.6 183 TPH - 13 MM
832 1 25 79.9
NET 65.9 75 18 532
PRODUCTIVITY 775 TPH 48.9 OS 13 35.3 383 TPH
• Vi" (13 MM) 35.4 0.38 9.5 26.4
27.1 0.25 64 205

0.586 0.491
POWER R A T E
KW/T

Figure 4-3 Two 84" 0 Mantle Cone Crushers Test Comparison (Flavel, 1982)

As shown in Figure 4-3, the machine equipped with automatic CSS control achieves a net

production of 775 tph and has 48.9% of the discharge product passing -13 mm (-0.5 in.).

On the other hand, the machine with fixed CSS achieves a net production of 383 tph and

48
has 35.3% of the discharge product passing -13 mm (-0.5 in.). Flavel explains that when

using a fixed CSS the average operating power drawn is usually restrict to app. 50

percent "of that connected to guard against crusher stalling and minimize mechanical

damage" and the application of the automatic control allows the machine to normally

operate at much higher average power rate. As shown in Figure 4-3, there is a

considerable difference between the operating power drawn for the two machines.

The control system of the crushers at HVC aims to maintain a constant choke fed

operating condition and to keep the product size distribution within a predetermined

quality range. The design and layout of the semi-mobile crushers, containing the dump

hopper and the variable speed apron feed, enables the application of such an automatic

control system.

A fuzzy logic-based control algorithm is the basis of the system. Based on a group of

operational parameters, the algorithm adjusts the apron feeder speed and the vertical

mantle position at 30 seconds intervals. The operational parameters that serve as inputs

for the system are as follows:

- dump hopper level,

- crusher pocket level,

- crusher motor power,

- product size distribution, and,

- tonnage.

49
Figure 4-4 shows the system graphical interface available for the operator and gives an

example of real measurements and outputs. In this example, it is possible to observe that

the dump level was at 46%, the pocket level at 36%, the tonnage was 4248 tph, the motor

power drawn was 77.0 amps and the product size distribution showed 30%-37%-30 %

moreover, the system outputs were: 31.1% for the apron feeder speed and 109 mm (4.3

in.) for the mantle position.

Figure 4-4 Automatic Crusher Control Graphic (Dance, 2001)

When a higher tonnage is requested in detriment of quality product, for example, when

one of the crushers is down and/or the level of the stockpiles are low, a special system

mode can be activated where the high tonnage is given priority and crushing is loose.

50
O n the other hand, when the two crushers are i n full operation and the frequency o f the

trucks is low, the control favours improved product quality and the crusher operates with

a "tighter gap" (small C S S ) . Motor power and oil temperatures frequently serve as

"health" parameters of the machine and, when extreme conditions are perceived, the

system lowers the mantle and decreases the speed o f the feeder until normal conditions

are restored.

Being a crucial determinant of crusher operational conditions, the vertical mantle position

adjustment varies only within predetermined limits when the crusher is set for automatic

control. To determine the mantle position limits, frequent direct measurement of the gap

is necessary. In practice, what must be verified, as frequently as possible, is the

relationship between a set of mantle positions (for example 50, 100, 150, and 200 mm)

and their corresponding C S S dimension. This assessment is valuable because it serves as

a tool to forecast which range o f mantle vertical positions would provide the acceptable

range of C S S s .

A s mentioned in the literature review, the wear that liners are subjected to modifies the

chamber shape and the gap over time (refer to section 3.1.4), therefore accurate forecasts

of C S S versus mantle position are virtually impossible unless online measurements are

available.

51
H V C has been assessing the relationship between C S S and mantle position every week

using a measurement procedure known as the "bucket test". In this procedure, several

metallic buckets (filled with sand) are thrown into the crusher while it is operating empty.

The process is repeated for two or three predetermined mantle positions. B y evaluating

the bucket size before and after, the gap variation as a function o f mantle position can be

estimated. Typical results o f this procedure are shown i n Figure 4-5. Although effective,

the method requires the crusher to be down, lacks accuracy, and does not provide

chamber profile information details.

C r u s h e r 4 Mantle Position v s C S S

Date 19-Aug-02 High Limit: 4.9 inches (5.0-CSS)

Mann*: instaled 2S-July-02 Low Limit 3.9 inches (5 5 CSS)
-

ConcavM: Instaled 8-Feb-CC

Wear Eat 0.16 inches/day
Comments: (move mantle up this much per day)

Figure 4-5 Gap measurement results and analysis performed at HVC 3

The units presented in graphs and in HVC's reports shown in this work follow the U.S. customary system

because this is the system commonly used in the mine.

52
In order to create a better alternative to the "bucket method" for measuring the gap, and

to develop an accurate method to collect comprehensive wear data, H V C purchased a

prototype laser profiler device developed by Conveyer Dynamics, Inc. The equipment,

its application, and measurements results are discussed in the next section (5.1).

53
5. Experimental A p p r o a c h

5.1 Equipment

The equipment used to measure crusher wear and the chamber shape was a laser profiler

device (LPD). HVC purchased a prototype device of this type from Conveyer Dynamics,

Inc. (CDI). It should be noted that the LPD is the first of its kind used to measure a

crusher chamber profile. Figure 5-1 shows the major components of the LPD and Figure

5-2 shows a schematic of its installation inside the crusher. Basically the LPD is

comprised of:

- a support structure to mount it to the crusher,

- a track for the laser to run on,

an additional structure containing five calibration bars,

- an actuator motor to drive the laser up and down the track,

- a time of flight laser with a mirror for reversing the target direction, and,

- software and a computer to collect and process the measurement data.

54
 Figure 5-1 Major components of the LPD

LPD Support

Figure 5-2 LPD Installation schematic

The laser is a DME 2000 Distance Measuring Device from SICK Optic-Electronic Inc.

The device optically measures the distance to a target (opaque) by transmitting a

modulated red laser beam and measuring the time of flight of the beam. The laser is used

in its proximity mode with a maximum range of 2 m (6.7 ft). The output signal is 4-20

mA with a resolution of 1 mm, a repeatability of 0.8 mm and an absolute accuracy of +/-

5 mm. CDI assures that the absolute accuracy is improved to 1mm by the use of the

calibration bars to yield a correction factor. The output signal of the laser is sent to an

analog input of the actuator motor for transmission to the PC (Nims, 2001).

The actuator motor is a SilverMax® "E"fromQuicksilver Control Inc. This actuator

motor communicates as a slave to a PC. The PC polls the actuator motor for the contents

of the position/distance data. On average, a pair of coordinates containing the laser

position on the track and the distance to the target is obtained approximately every 3 mm

along the track (this can vary depending on the velocity used).

The user interface, CDI Laser Scanner Program, is written in Visual Basic. This program

executes all the necessary functions to run the tests, to acquire data and to provide final

profiles.

The laser device provides an excel spreadsheet for each test performed. The excel file

contains data representing several points from the surface of the liner given as pairs of

56
coordinates. Table 5-1 shows an excerpt o f the spreadsheet (first 5 points from a concave

measurement).

Table 5-1 Example of a partial table result for a concave profile measurement generated by the LPD

Actuator Position (Y )
L Laser Distance (X )
L

(mm) (mm)

3.78 1291.48
7.14 1287.92
11.34 1287.17
14.7 1280.42
19.32 1279.74

A s shown i n the example, each point has its actuator position on the track ( Y L ) in the first

column and the laser distance to the target ( X L ) i n the second column. These coordinates

are not Cartesian X , Y pairs o f coordinates. Figure 5-3 illustrates the measurement

process.

57
 (Home/S~tar t )

L a s e r position
on t h e t r a c k
• Yu
1
\ \LASER
Liner

L Target distance

>Y—~———
MIRROR

Figure 5-3 Schematic of the laser measurement

During the crusher profiling procedure four types o f measurements are taken:

1 - shooting the calibration bars with the laser beam perpendicular to the track;
st

2 n d
- shooting the bars after levelling the mirror;

3 - shooting the concaves of the crusher; and,

r d

4 th
- shooting the mantle after rotating the mirror 90 degrees.

The first two measurements are performed to calibrate the L P D prior to acquisition o f the

liner measurements. The C D I software uses these two calibration tests to calculate the

angular dimension formed by the actuator and the vertical centre line o f the crusher, or

inclination angle o f the track ( a ) . This angle is used to map the laser coordinate system

(XL,YL) to a Cartesian system. The calculation is made possible by comparing the results

from the first two types o f measurements when the laser shoots the same bar; at first

58
h a v i n g the laser m i r r o r base p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the track a n d s e c o n d h a v i n g the laser m i r r o r

base l e v e l l e d h o r i z o n t a l l y . F i g u r e 5-4 illustrates the procedure.

Figure 5-4 Calibration procedure schematic

O n c e the i n c l i n a t i o n angle o f the track, a , i s c a l c u l a t e d the software generates the

p r o f i l e s o f the m a n t l e a n d the c o n c a v e s as p o l y l i n e s i n a n A u t o C A D format. F i g u r e 5-5

a n d F i g u r e 5-6 s h o w a n e x a m p l e o f a c o n c a v e a n d a m a n t l e p r o f i l e , respectively.

59
 Figure 5-5 Concave profile generated by CDI software

j j £ f c E « Ym< lrnat fgmat loots Qlaw Dimension HaSy XchmeeWoiks Window H<*

Dc*Hi»a<^i* aaa^i« "iaF»a>»»i--8L.ia3i^tfcgtaigtiiJ!iiy| T >j

3I«Ci||[a*«|IlIial
i © II 'J a S o
A 73
s °*
&
«3>
o gg

*O
a
r
e Q
<~ Q
o

-/
- CJ
Et r
B r
A «**

Figure 5-6 Mantle profile generated by CDI software

The profiles are transferred to a section-view drawing o f the crusher and aligned with the

original liner profiles i n order to compare the wear. Figure 5-7 shows an example o f the

60
final output o f the process containing three profiles from different days o f measurement

juxtaposed.

Figure 5-7 Laser profile final output

A s expected, during the initial use o f a prototype device, some issues needed to be

addressed. One major problem with the L P D was the time necessary to perform the

61
measurements, i n particular the set up time. It was identified that the excessive set up

time was related to the removal o f the crusher spider cap i n order to install the L P D

support. The set up time was significantly reduced by the redesign and construction o f a

new support structure. Figure 5-8 shows a picture o f the original support on the right and

a picture o f the new support on the left. The actual drawings for the new support are

included i n Appendix A .

Figure 5-8 Original support / New support

The new support structure was designed such that:

- it is installed around the mainshaft and there is no need to remove the spider cap

(necessary with the original structure),

- it is lighter than the original, dismissing the use o f the crane for its transportation,

- it provides a new mechanism o f connecting the track to the support, minimizing

the time spent during set-up,

62
 - there was low costs involved in its construction and its design allowed an in-house

construction. Thus, one could be built for each crusher.

Another difficulty was related to the generation o f two separated profile drawings, one

for the mantle and one for the concave in a horizontal position. To get the two profiles

together following their real inclination as well as to solve some issues with the original

software it was decided to develop a new program.

63
5.2 Data Collection

5.2.1 Crusher operational data

Crasher operational data from the Citect system was collected during periodic field visits.

The data was collected for crushers 4 and 5 from the 1 of January 2001 to the 3 0
st th
of

September 2002 and included the following items:

- Crusher B o w l Level

Mantle Position

- Motor Current Draw (Amps)

Production (mtph. at the conveyor)

- Feed Size Classes (course, medium and fine)

- Product Size Classes (course, medium and fine)

Data points were obtained for one-hour periods. The Citect system processed the records

for each 30-second interval to produce an hourly average o f the 120 records. In addition,

the maximum and minimum values within the hour were also recorded and collected.

5.2.2 Liner information

In order to assess the impact of liner life on maintenance costs, the costs involved in liner

replacements were collected. The costs reported by the maintenance department for

Feb/2002 are listed in Table 5-2 and w i l l serve as a basis for liner management analyses.

64
 Table 5-2 Liner rebuild/installation: labour and costs (Wolff, 2002)

Mantles- Rebuilt C o n c a v e s - Installation

Labour/Parts Cost (Cn) Labour/Parts Cost (Cn)

Liners $30,550 Liners - 4 R o w $79,500

Supplies $4,000 Supplies $9,750

L a b o u r (144 m a n hrs) $5,500 L a b o u r ( 3 6 0 m a n hrs) $13,680

Installation (48 m a n hrs) $1,850

T o t a l * (72 h r s d o w n time) $102,930

T o t a l * (12 h r s d o w n time) $41,900

For more than three years, HVC has been using the same type of concave liners for

Crushers 4 and 5. The concaves are supplied as a four-row set made of high chrome

white iron by Penticton Foundry Ltd.

Information and drawings for several different mantle types are available at the mine. As

shown in Table 5-3, basically three sizes are available: under-size, standard-size, and

over-size. In addition, as different designs, diameters and configurations (two or three

pieces) exist, a total of ten types are listed. Although these ten types of mantle have been

used at HVC, only the eight types shown in bold were used during the period analysed.

Table 5-3 Mantle types

Mantles Maximum Diameters

Vendor/Type Under-size Standard Over-size

m m (in.) m m (in.) m m (in.)

Esco/2pcs 2184(86) 2254 (88.73) 2286 (90)

E s c o / 2 p c s ( T y p e II) —
2235 (88) 2286 (90)

Esco/ 3pcs — 2216 (87.25) 2328(91.65)

Frog Switch(Transwest)/ 2 p c —
2226 (87.62) 2302 (90.625)

C o l u m b i a / 2 p c s ( w i t h ribs) —
2224 (87.56) —

65
Mantle and concave information, such as: period of use, type, alloy and number of reused

parts was collected for the period of this analysis. The first source for this information

was reports provided by HVC maintenance department (Figure 5-9 shows an example of

these reports). In addition, information available from the Technical Development

Department was cross-referenced (Figure 5-10 shows one example of these reports).

Moreover, direct consultation with HVC personnel was initiated when any

inconsistencies or lack of information occurred.

#5 CRUSHER MANTLES
Date Date # Type of DMT
Installed Removed Weeks Vendor Material (Mill) Comments
08/03/01 08/31/01 4.0 Esco 0/S 1,253,851 Installed Mantle #3
09/01/01 11/22/01 12.0 Transwest o/s 3,B4B,B42 Installed Mantle #4
11/23/01 12/20/01 4.0 Esco 3 Pee 1,101,089 Inst. #2 cAw2,603,488T
12/21/01 01/03/02 2.0 Columbia Ribbed skins 822,553 Inst. #1c/W1,4B3,347T
2,305,900 Total Tons
01/04/02 01/31/02 4.0 Esco 2 Pee. 1,219,630 l n s t J 5 cAw 1,421,6GB T
2,641,238 Total Tons
02/01/02 03A4/02 6.0 Esco 2 Pee. 1,268,140 Installed Mantle #2
03/15/02 03/20/02 0.8 Esco 2 Pee. 32,810 Installed Mantle #1
03/21/02 03/28/02 1.0 Esco 2 Pee 174,812 Inst.#2 cAv 1,268,140 T
1,442,952 Total Tons
03/29/02 04/11/02 2.0 Esco 3 Pee. Std. 401,486 Installed Mantle #5
04fl2/02 04/26/02 2.0 Esco 2 Pee 334,723 Inst. #1 cA<v 32,81 OT
367,533 Total Tons
04/27/02 05/09/02 2.0 Esco 2 Pee. 518,609 Installed Mantle #2
05/10/02 1.0 Esco 2 Pee. 149,117 Installed Mantle #1

Please Note: The mill Tonnages may not reflect an accurate figure - may be missing some Met. Tonnage data.

Figure 5-9 Partial example of crusher-mantles report

66
 Crusher 4 Mantle/Concave History 1I Crusher 5 Mantle/Concave History

Date Hew Mantle Mew Concaves | 1 Date Hew Mantle New Concaves

22-Jun-01 Esco
3-piece Standard
87.25" OD CZ18 alloy

30-Jun-01 . Frog Switch HEW

2-piece Standard
87.56" Manganese
1.3Mtonnes 06-Jul-01 Esco
2-piece Oversize
90"CZ18alloy

26-Jul-01
3-piece Standard
87.25" OD CZ18 alloy
0.65 Mtonnes

Figure 5-10 Report from Technical Development Dept

Combining all the information available comprehensive tables were prepared for each

crusher. The results for Crushers 4 and 5 are shown i n Table 5-4 and i n Table 5-5,

respectively.

67
 Table 5-4 Crusher 4 liners detailed information

Mantle Install. Removal Hours Cum. Vendor Type Material

Code Date Date in use Tonnage

Mantles

M302u 6/29/01 7/26/01 610 1,598,086 FS. 2-pce Std 87.56" Mang.
M503u 7/26/01 9/7/01 965 2,562,607 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18
M104n 9/8/01 10/18/01 844 1,978,516 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18
M505n 10/18/01 11/15/01 618 1,317,435 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" C Z 18
M106u 11/17/01 11/29/01 262 568,610 Col. 2-pce Ribbed Std Mang.
M507n 11/29/01 12/27/01 614 1,115,941 Esco 2-pce Std 88" Mang.
M408n 12/28/01 2/7/02 907 2,027,699 Esco 2-pce O/S 90" Mang.

Total 4820 11,168,894

M509u 2/9/02 2/21/02 257 517,944 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18
M410n 2/22/02 5/2/02 1573 3,531,753 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" C Z 18
M311n 5/2/02 6/21/02 1144 2,733,731 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18
M112n 6/24/02 7/25/02 714 1,349,298 Esco 2-pce Std 88" T. II Mang.

M213n 7/27/02 9/3/02 855 1,797,474 Esco 2-pce O/S 90" T. II Mang.
M414n 9/4/02 9/25/02 408 862,988 Esco 2-pce O/S 90" T. II Mang.

Total 4951 10,793,188

Concaves

C002 6/29/01 2/7/02 4820 11,168,894 Penticton Standard W.I.

C004 2/9/02 9/25/02 4951 10,793,188 Penticton Standard W.I.

68
 T a b l e 5-5 C r u s h e r 5 liners detailed i n f o r m a t i o n

Mantle Install. Removal Hours Cum. Vendor Type Material

Code Date Date in u s e Tonnage

Mantles

M281n 1/5/01 2/24/01 948 2,222,258 Esco 2 - p c e U/S 84" Mang.

M531u 2/25/01 3/1/01 92 188,265 Esco 2-pce Std 88.73" Mang.

M182n 3/2/01 5/25/01 1,715 2,970,699 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18

M283n 5/26/01 6/21/01 566 1,071,485 Col. 2-pce Ribbed Std Mang.

M551n 6/22/01 7/5/01 315 686,248 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18

M101u 7/6/01 8/2/01 621 1,443,101 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " C Z 18

M351n 8/3/01 8/30/01 614 1,339,742 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " CZ18

M452n 9/1/01 9/27/01 549 1,312,926 F.S. 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 . 6 " Mang.

Total 5,420 11,234,723

M452u 9/30/01 11/22/01 1195 2,501,162 F.S. 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 . 6 " Mang.

M253u 11/23/01 12/19/01 605 1,257,902 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" C Z 18

M106u 12/19/01 1/3/02 346 955,560 Col. 2-pce Ribbed Std Mang.

M507u 1/3/02 1/31/02 619 1,443,466 Esco 2-pce Std 88" Mang.

M254n 2/1/02 3/14/02 922 2,335,759 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " C Z 18

M155n 3/15/02 3/20/02 34 22,911 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " CZ18

M254u 3/20/02 3/28/02 196 423,797 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " C Z 18

M556n 3/29/02 4/11/02 309 777,223 Esco 3-pce Std 87.25" CZ18

M155u 4/11/02 4/26/02 337 640,472 Esco 2 - p c e O/S 9 0 " C Z 18

M257n 4/26/02 5/9/02 282 595,668 Esco 2 - p c e O/S T . II 9 0 " Mang.

M158n 5/10/02 6/7/02 618 1,218,575 Esco 2 - p c e O/S T . II 9 0 " Mang.

Total 5,463 12,172,495

Concaves

C003 1/5/01 9/27/01 5420 11,234,723 Penticton Standard W.I.

C005 9/30/01 6/7/02 5463 12,172,495 Penticton Standard W.I.

69
As can be seen in the tables only two materials have been used for the mantles, austenitic

manganese steel ("manganese") and martensitic chrome moly steel ("CZ 18 alloy").

In addition to the liner information previously mentioned, dimensional details about the

original liner profiles and some parts of the crushers were collected. For all types of

liners available, drawings containing their profile were supplied by the vendors.

Although original dimensions and part details were not supplied by the manufacturer of

the crusher (they refused to provide it), historical measurements taken by the maintenance

department were used to generate a section-view drawing of the crusher. More details

about this drawing and its use in the wear determination procedure will be covered in the

next section.

5.2.3 Chamber profile data

Chamber profile data collection was initiated on June 14 2001 using the LPD (described

in section 5.1). The original plan was to obtain one set of measurements for each crusher

every other week, following a predetermined positioning arrangement. For every other

measurement, the LPD was positioned at the 4 o'clock and 10 o'clock regions (relative to

the control cabin), Figure 5-11 shows a positioning diagram. The two locations used for

measurements were chosen based on practical observations which suggested that these

locations present different concave profile wear, i.e. distinct high-localized wear regions.

70
 4 O'clock
Control

Figure 5-11 Measurement Spots

Due to changes in the crusher maintenance shutdown schedule by the mine, the data

collection period increased from every second week to every third week. However, due

to operational issues, situations arose where measurements could not be taken. This

resulted in an actual frequency of measurements per crusher of three measurements every

two months on average.

71
5.3 Data Analysis

5.3.1 Crusher Operational Data

For each crusher the complete set o f data from Citect along with basic liner information

and measurement dates were all grouped into a single spreadsheet. Figure 5-12 shows

examples o f records as they are listed i n this comprehensive data file.

Figure 5-12 Example of the complete data file of Crusher #5 (records 5075 to 5714 are hidden to

facilitate visualization).

HBeord Date & time UW Cancan BOM FaadStas Praam S E S "

Mb ton. | Max. Mr. Cum. ton. Nbr. Cum. ton. i 1
J i r "
um
^i Cour. fat Mod. Cow. fla Mad.
(m/d/yy h:mm:ss) (mtph) (tons) (tons) (amps)
w w W w (inches)
(*> m w
5066 8/3/01 2:00:30 0.0 0.0 z Z coos 9,582,055 0.0 0.0 ~ o i r 3.0 ~ST3~ 39.7
" ft6F 21.0 38.8 323

- - -
5067 8/3/01 3:00:30 0.0 0.0 C0Q3 8,582,055 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 37.3 39.7 0.09 21.0 38.8 323
5066 8/3/01 4:00:30 0.0 0.0 C003 8,582,055 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 37.3 39.7 009 21.0 38.8 32.3
S0S9 8/3/01 5:00:30 Start 0.3 8.4 M351n 0.3 C003 8,502,055 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 37.3 39.7 0.09 21.0 38.8 32.3
5070 8/3/01 6:00:30 1.4 18.8 M351n 1.7 C003 8,582,057 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 37.3 39.7 0.09 21.0 38.8 323
2.1 58.1 M351n 38 C003 8,582,059 41.3 81.0 0.0 3.0 57.3 39.7 , 0.72 21.1 39.0 32.0
-
5071 8/3/01 7:00:30
5072 8/3/01 8:00:30 2.6 18.3 M351n 6.5 C003 8,562,062 61.0 77.0 0.3 3.0 57 3 39.7 2.18 21.6 39.3 31.2
5073 8/3/01 9:00:30 1976 1 4BB7.5 M3S1n 1,933 C003 8,584,036 537 111.0 r.i ni 57.3 39.7 2.18 24.8 32.9 34.6
5074 8/3/01 10:00:30 2568.0 5386.3 M351n 4.551 coos 8,586,606 60.3 101.0 18.1 331 37.3 397 2.10 31.0 26.7 35.9

-
'. ~. .
.
5715 8/30/01 3:00:30 ~~Z~ 2049.5 4337 2 M351n 1,338,589 C003 9,920,644 70.9 184.0 12.3 7.4 55.7 5.55 33.2 25.0 384
5716 8/30/01 4:00:30
j - 1042.4 34844 M351n 1,339,631 C003 9,921,686
n no. , n T
62.0 172.0 9.8 CS 60.7 27.3 1.94 27.6 31.3 29.2
5717 8O0/01 5:00:30 111.1 1027.2 M351n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,797 48.1 B1.0 ' 3.7 9.B 63.3 22.7 0.40 19.6 33.4 24.5
h f - 0.40 18 7 34.3
5718 8/30/01 6:00:30 0.1 B.4 MSS1n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,796 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 24.7
5719 8/30/01 7:00:30 ~~z 0.0 0.0 M351n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,798 L O.D 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.39 18.7 34.3 247
5720 8/30/01 0:00:30 \~Z O.D"' 0.0 M351n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.29 18.7 34.3 247
5721 8/30/01 9:00:30 0.0 0.0 M351n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 0.1 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 18.7 34.3 24.7
5722 8/30/01 10:00:30 Meat 0.0 0.0 M351n 1,339,742 coos 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 18.7 34.3 24.7
5723 8/30/01 11:00:30 End 0.0 0.0 M351n 1,339,742 coos 8,821,788 0.0 0.0 1.B 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 1B.7 34 3 24.7

- o.o
5724 8/30/01 12:00:30 0.0 0.0 - — C003 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 18.7 34.3 24.7
5725 B/30/01 13:00:30 0.0 00 C003 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 18.7 34.3 247
5726 B/30/01 14:00:30 -- 0.0 B0 •• - coos 9,921,798 0.0 0.0 0.1 7.4 69.5 21.3 0.00 18.7 34.3 24.7

.
••

In the table, each row contains a complete set o f information for each hour o f operation as

extracted from the Citect system. In addition, relevant data obtained from other sources

72
are as follows: liner installation/removal dates, liner identifications and measurement

dates.

The throughput column contains average-hourly values of throughput in metric tonnes

per hour that were calculated and recorded by the Citect system from values gathered by

a weightometer installed at the discharge conveyer belt. This average value represents

the total crusher throughput for the one hour period and is used in the calculation of the

mantle and the concave cumulative tonnage.

The current information available in the Citect system is used as an indirect measure of

the power draw assuming the voltage to be constant. Both the average per hour and

maximum value per hour are listed in the table.

The remaining columns list the bowl level, the size distribution of the feed as percentages

of course, fine and medium categories, the mantle vertical position as well as the size

distribution of the product in a similar manner as described for the feed size.

A graphical representation of the production data was chosen to investigate correlations

between the variables. The period for this analysis was the total time comprising two

concave lives for each crusher. Thus, four comprehensive graphs have been used to

present this information (the four graphs are given in section 6.3).

73
Ideally, the analyses should include all the parameters listed in the complete spreadsheet,

however some o f them have been omitted. Feed size distribution was left out of the

graph due to knowledge of high likelihood of distortions in its values. Experience shows

that the WipFrag system used for feed size distribution classification may give erroneous

information during the day because o f interference from sun light in the image acquisition

system (Reddick, 2002).

B o w l level was also excluded since its values vary significantly within a one-hour period

and the average value does not represent a meaningful parameter. In addition, it was

assumed that because of the automatic control employed on the crusher, this variable has

already been optimized, i.e. dump level permitting the feed rate is adjusted in order to

maintain the crusher as choked as possible.

In the graphical analyses, production rate is investigated by plotting its maximum value

per hour only. The rationale behind this decision is that the average value per hour does

not properly indicate i f the machine is operating "loose", i.e. high throughput has been

the target instead of adjusting C S S below the maximum limit.

O f primary interest in the analyses is the determination o f extreme conditions o f product

quality such as high quality and poor quality production occasions. Crushing product

quality is usually related to the amount of course material and sometimes also related to

the amount o f fines therefore these two percentage values are incorporated in the analyses

leaving the percentage o f medium size out (Dance, 2001).

74
To better investigate using product quality, the fine and coarse size distributions are

plotted underneath each other i n the same graph. In addition, the Y - a x i s direction o f

coarse distribution is inverted so that when both the plot lines move upward or downward

they indicate good and poor quality product trends respectively. A n example is shown i n

Figure 5-13.

Figure 5-13 - Example of a graph with product quality plots

In order to accommodate all the different parameters plotted together in a comprehensive

graph for long periods (approximately 6000 hours per graph) SigmaPlot technical

graphing software from SSPS® Inc., U S was used. Each parameter is plotted using an

individual Y - a x i s and a single-common X - a x i s corresponding to the time.

75
Figure 5-14 shows part of the graph for crusher #5-concave C005 and serves to exemplify

how liner information is included in the graphs. Each period corresponding to one mantle

life is represented as rectangle on the graph and contains its sequential number at the top.

The cumulative tonnage achieved by each mantle is plotted on the bottom of the graph.

The measurement dates correspond to long vertical lines.

76
 C R U S H E R #5 - Concave CQ05

OcK)1 QcWI Qct/01 Nov/01 Nov/D1 Dec/D1 Deo01 Janj02

Figure 5-14 - Selected liner information for Crusher 5 from October 2001 to January 2002

The vertical mantle position, or shaft position, can vary between the 0 (bottommost) and

10 inches (topmost). A n example plot o f the historical mantle position data is shown i n

Figure 5-15 (dotted line). In order to mitigate the effect o f short term upsets on the

77
analyses (i.e. mantle position variation during idle operation) a weekly average value plot

was produced using the same Y - a x i s and the result can be seen i n Figure 5-15 (solid line).

10 Mantle Position

r7?01 30/7V01 6/8^01 13/8/01 20/8/01

Figure 5-15 - Example of mantle position plot with average line

The average values are calculated per each week by weighting the mantle position values

to the hourly production for each mantle. The formula is given below:

h '=168
X Ph' * Mh'
W...
w
= - '- h x

/?'=168

h'=l

where M w is the weekly average mantle position, P . is the hourly average production
h

rate, M . is the hourly average mantle position, and, h' is equal to 1 for the first hour
h

with P , > 0 after mantle installation or start o f a new week.

h

78
Weekly weighted averages are similarly produced for some of the other parameters. In

addition, the calculation of the weighted average product quality value is enhanced with

Excel conditional functions to cancel the average calculation during periods of high

percentage o f noisy data within the week period. WipFrag noisy data can be identified

from situations containing several consecutive repeated values during normal crushing

(i.e. consecutive meaningful positive hourly average production rates, greater than 1500

tph). Thus, periods containing problems with the data gathering system are shown in the

graph as a missing part of the average line, as can be seen in three different week periods

on the graph for Crusher 4 graph, shown in Figure 5-16. This was done to avoid

misinterpretations during the analyses.

Figure 5-16 — Example of the representation of data problems in product quality (circles indicate

areas of noisy data where the weighted average of product quality was not calculated).

79
For current draw (amps) not only the hourly and weekly averages are plotted but also the

maximum values per hour are included in the graph. A s shown in Figure 5-17, average

amps are plotted i n a line format and maximum amps are plotted in a scatter format. The

maximum amps scatter plot indicates the occurrence o f high amplitude "spikes" which

may confirm overload conditions at the machine i f the average value is also high.

Figure 5-17 - Example of current draw plots

Occasionally a bias in the motor current reading is observed. This is generally due to a

pending motor failure. This phenomenon was recorded for two occasions within the total

period analysed, one occasion for Crusher 4 (10/7/2002-1/25/2002) and the other for

80
Crusher 5 (1/5/2001-4/13/2001). When this occurred, the raw current draw values were

adjusted to be in accordance to the rest o f the period facilitating visual analyses.

In order to adjust the values, a comparison between values observed for idle operation o f

the crusher is performed. The comparison is made between a known period containing

normal motor operating characteristics and a period when the motor shows distortions. A

calculation o f the difference between the average idle values for these two periods is

performed and the result is used to adjust the values to be plotted. The value used for the

adjustment i n the graph for Crusher 4 was -30 amps and for Crusher 5 the adjustment was

-60 amps for the mentioned periods. These occurrences are shown o n the graphs i n

lighter tones and one example is given i n Figure 5-18.

Figure 5-18 - Current draw adjusted plot

Once the complete graph containing all the parameters for the period o f a concave life is

plotted, a broad picture o f the crushing characteristics over time is achieved. Thus,

81
periods containing significant results may be easily identified. The periods of main

interest in this analysis are the ones showing overload conditions at the machine,

identified by the current draw plots or conditions showing high quality product and

mantle's high cumulative tonnage together.

Moreover, after identifying these periods, the analysis may be enhanced by gathering

information from measurements performed within the chosen periods. A s the dates for

the measurements are also included in the graphs they are easily identified. Cross-

referencing the two sets of information serves to provide an understanding of the

influence o f the crusher chamber profile on operational parameters and vice versa.

The graphs are also useful when the analysis is performed in the opposite direction, that

is, when interesting results obtained from wear measurements (for example when atypical

wear o f the mantle is observed) determine regions of interest on the graphs.

5.3.2 Chamber Profile Data

A s mentioned in section 5.1, issues related to the prototype L P D were previously

addressed. O f major concern were apparent problems i n the measurement device, in both

the hardware and the software components o f the L P D which were affecting the accuracy

of the results. Thus, an investigation was conducted by performing several laboratory

tests with the equipment as well as carrying out field checks in order to compare L P D

results and actual dimensions o f the crusher.

82
The investigation resulted in the detection of some key issues that were responsible for a

degradation in the accuracy of the results, as listed below:

a misalignment between the mirror base and mirror vernier causing an error in the

calculation of the inclination angle of the track;

- the occasional appearance of noisy data in measurement results;

- a bug in the software resulting in a systematic increase of the length of the profile

drawings;

inconsistencies between the positioning of the profile drawings (mantle and

concave" profiles) and the actual original positioning of the liners in relation to

each other and to the other parts of the crusher; and,

systematic deviations between distances measured using the laser and real

distances, as shown in the graph in Figure 5-19.

83
 I N o m i n a l D i s t a n c e (mm) ^ ^ ^ ^

Figure 5-19 Deviations in laser measurements

More details concerning the investigations o f the L P D accuracy as well as information

regarding the tests conducted can be found i n reports by the author (Rosario, 2001),

(Rosario, 2002a) and (Rosario, 2002b).

Following this investigation, it was decided to write a new program to replace the major

functions o f the original software provided with the equipment. This new program

utilizes the raw data generated by the equipment, i.e. the resulting spreadsheets from the

two calibration tests, the mantle test, and the concave test. This new program was also

used to correct past measurements. A description o f program functions as well as the

rationale applied i n the calculations is available i n Appendix B .

84
The new program satisfies several objectives such as improving accuracy and providing

more comprehensive results. The new program provides several new features, such as

the calculation of CSS by mantle position (more details about the enhancement of the

measurement procedure is given in section 6.1).

In addition, as this program incorporates the data from the original liners (drawing

information previously transformed in a numeric format), wear calculations such as wear

areas and wear rates for selected regions are made available. Furthermore, a tool to

simulate the replacement of different liner profiles is also available (more details about

simulations capabilities of the program are given in Appendix B).

As discussed in the previous section, the achievement of meaningful, or "standardized",

information from the measurements was of great interest in this analysis to complement

the graphical analyses of crushing operational parameters. This new program utilises a

rationale of "dividing" the crushing chamber in small slices to perform calculations

resulting in new and enhanced information. This enhanced set of results facilitates the

correlation between the measurements and operational data.

The slicing technique that is applied in the program is shown in Figure 5-20. In this

figure, two potential crushing chambers are given to illustrate a possible difference in the

bottom region of the crusher.

85
86
Although the entire profile is obtained by the measurement process , only the bottom 4

region of the concave (corresponding to the two bottommost concave rows) is analysed

by dividing this region into eighty 25.4 mm-high slices (1.0 in.). The slices are used in

the calculation of:

- Chamber volumes by slices (in litres):

a. with the mantle position ( M P ) equals to 0 m m (at the bottom); and,

b. with M P equals to the average position for the week ( A M P W ) .

- Radial distances between mantle and concave per slice (in millimetres):

a. with M P equals to 0 and the mantle at 0 degrees o f throw (in the middle);

b. with M P equals to 0 and the mantle at its maximum displacement of

throw;

c. with M P equals to 0 and the mantle at its minimum displacement of throw.

d. with M P equals to A M P W and the mantle at 0 degrees o f throw (in the

middle);

e. with M P equals to A M P W and the mantle at its maximum displacement o f

throw; and,

f. with M P equals to A M P W and the mantle at its mimmum displacement o f

throw.

M i n i m u m distance among the 80 slices for result " e " , i.e. C S S .

4
Due to the lack of reference targets inside the crusher chamber, the top region of the profiles (where

minimum wear occurs) is used to orientate the positioning of the measured profiles in reference to previous

measurements and to the original drawings of the parts.

87
 M i n i m u m distance among the 80 slices for result "f', i.e. opened side setting

(OSS).

( A l l the results above are also generated using the profile o f a new mantle).

- C S S results corresponding to the entire range o f M P s , from 0 to 254 m m (10 in.)

by 12.7 m m (0.5 in.) steps.

- Concave-wear by slice, i.e. the radial difference i n m m between the new profile

and the measured profile o f the concave.

- Mantle radial-wear by slice (mm), i.e. the radial difference in m m between the

new profile and the measured profile o f the mantle.

Concave-wear rate by slice (mm per million tonnes o f throughput).

Mantle-wear rate by slice (mm per million tonnes o f throughput).

In addition, the program generates three graphs, listed as follows:

chamber volume by slices,

- C S S results versus M P ranging from 0 to 254 m m (10 in.), and

liner-wear rate by slice.

A m o n g the information available from the measurements and that provided by the new

program, the first two graphs are of great value in complementing the graphical analyses

o f crushing operation parameters. These two graphs summarize the chamber profile

information and describe the impact of M P adjustment on crusher chamber dimensions

and the choking condition o f the chamber. M o r e detail about these graphical results is

given next.

88
"Choking" condition of the chamber

Several authors correlate crushing performance to chamber profile and more specifically

to the choking condition of the chamber (more details in section 3.1.4). In order to assess

this relationship, the variation of chamber volume with height was included in the

program as a graphical result. Similar to the approach discussed in the Literature

Review, this type of graph helps in checking the chamber choking condition and in

determining a choking point or region.

Figure 5-21 gives an example of the graph generated by the program with the information

for two hypothetical chambers plotted on it. This graph gives a visualization of the main

geometric characteristics of the chambers. The characteristics of the chambers contained

in this example and the differences between them can be extracted from the graph and are

listed below:

in chamber "A" the slice-volumes decrease following two different patterns (a

linear and rapidly decrease rate from slice # 80 to slice #35 and a slowly decrease

rate from slice # 35 to slice #13);

- in chamber "B" there is a single linear pattern for slice-volume decreasing from

slice #80 to slice #13;

- chamber "A" has a defined choke region at slice #35;

- in chamber "B" the choke point is at the very bottom of the concave;

- in chamber "A" the volume drops from 40 to 28 litres from slice #35 to slice #13;

89
 - in chamber " B " the volume drops from 64 to 28 litres from slice # 35 to slice #13;

- chamber " A " is a non-choking chamber; and,

- chamber " B " is a "straight" chamber.

Figure 5-21 Chamber volume by height

CSS information of the chamber

The C S S and O S S data from a given chamber are calculated by the program based on the

measurements. To calculate these numbers the program requires the input of a mantle

position value ( M P ) . Thus, to determine C S S and O S S at the "moment" of the

measurement the weekly averaged M P for the date o f the measurement is input. In

90
addition, a ratio o f the C S S and O S S values for each wear measurement is calculated and

used i n the analyses.

The graph available from the program describes h o w the C S S changes with vertical

position o f the mantle. O n this graph, the relationship between C S S and a series o f

simulated mantle positions is given (from 0 to 254 m m (10 in.) with 12.7 m m (0.5 in.)

increments). T o perform the calculations the program uses the measured profiles for the

mantle and the concave. Figure 5-22 shows an example o f this type o f graph containing

the information for two hypothetical chambers (C and D ) .

10 -

9 —B— Chamber C
—•— Chamber D
_ 8
aT
1
o
1
c
=- 6 -
c
o
2 5
(0
o
Q. 4
o

1
c 3
2
2
1

n
u I I I I 1_J w
() 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1
C S S (inches)

Figure 5-22 - C S S versus vertical mantle position

91
A s shown in Figure 5-22, chamber information may be compared by their range o f C S S

and the relationship between C S S and mantle position. From this graph it is possible to

see that:

- chamber " C " initial C S S is 140 m m (5.5 in.), result given M P equal to zero;

- chamber " C " CSS-range is within 83 and 140 m m (3.25 and 5.5 in.);

chamber " C " C S S and M P relationship is linear;

- chamber " D " initial C S S is 203 m m (8.0 in.);

- chamber " D " CSS-range is within 127 and 203 m m (5.0 and 8.0 in.),

- chamber " D " C S S and M P relationship is non-linear;

92
6. Results and Discussion

6.1 Improvement in Measurement Process

Measurement T i m e

A s mentioned i n section 5.1, the redesigned support structure o f the LPD resulted i n a

significant reduction i n set up time. This gain combined with other developments, such

as the reorganizations o f the electrical boxes and cables as well as improved efficiency

developed through experience by the maintenance personnel, reduced the original

measurement time approximately 45 % (from app. 2 h and 35 m i n to app. 1 h and 25

min). Figure 6-1 compares the measurement time for eight tests; four before the use o f

the new support and four after.

2 2.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Tests

Figure 6-1 Time spent in measurement tests (tests 5 to 8 were performed using the new support).

93
Measurement Results

With the new program and the measurement raw data collected during the period of the

analysis, 40 complete sets of measurement results were produced. Table 6-1 and Table

6-2 give a summary of the measurements for Crusher 4 and Crusher 5, respectively. In

addition, these tables show other information about the crusher at the dates of attempted

measurements: the status of the measurement attempt, the average mantle position during

the week of the measurement, the cumulative tonnage of the concaves and mantles as

well as the mantle code; indicating which specific mantle was in place at the time of the

measurement.

94
 T a b l e 6-1 C r u s h e r 4 - M e a s u r e m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n

Meas. Spot AMWP Date Status Concave Ton. Mantle Ton.

3 10 6.35 12-Jul-01 Complete C002 737,689 M302u 737,689

5 4 8.66 26-Jul-01 Complete C002 1,598,086 M302u 1,598,086
7 10 2.82 9-Aug-01 Complete C002 2,443,596 M503u 845,510
9 4 4.96 23-Aug-01 Complete C002 3,296,167 M503u 1,698,081
11 10 7.33 7-Sep-01 Complete C002 4,160,693 M503u 2,562,607
13 4 4.21 20-Sep-01 Complete C002 4,899,695 M104n 739,002

- M104n
15 n/a 4-Oct-01 No Meas C002 n/a n/a
17 10 7.09 18-Oct-01 Partial C002 6,139,209 M104n 1,978,516
19 4 5.21 1-Nov-01 Complete C002 6,782,754 M505n 643,544

- C002
21 n/a 15-Nov-OI No Meas n/a M505n n/a
23 4 7.51 29-Nov-OI Complete C002 8,025,255 M106u 568,610
25 10 5.08 13-Dec-01 Complete C002 8,600,272 M507n 575,018
27 - n/a 27-Dec-01 No Meas C002 n/a M507n 1,115,939
29 4 2.22 10-Jan-02 Complete C002 9,817,709 M408n 676,513
31 - n/a 24-Jan-02 No M e a s C002 n/a M408n 1,387,899
33 10 5.56 7-Feb-02 Complete C002 11,168,894 M408n 2,027,699
35 4 7.86 21-Feb-02 Complete C004 517,944 M509U 517,944
37 10 2.53 7-Mar-02 Complete C004 1,075,752 M410n 557,807
39 4 1.67 21-Mar-02 Complete C004 1,809,700 M410n 1,291,755

- COM
41 n/a 5-Apr-02 No Meas n/a M410n 2,152,528
43 10 4.65 18-Apr-02 Complete C004 3,332,757 M410n 2,814,813
45 - n/a 2-May-02 No Meas C004 n/a M410n 3,531,753
47 4 4.07 16-May-02 Complete C004 4,788,456 M311n 738,759
50 4/10 5.91 30-May-02 Complete C004 5,553,485 M311n 1,503,788
53 4 8.12 21-Jun-02 Complete C004 6,783,428 M311n 2,733,731
56 10 5.37 11-Jul-02 Complete C004 7,572,752 M112n 789,324
58 4 5.59 25-Jul-02 Complete C004 8,132,726 M112n 1,349,298
62 10 3.57 22-Aug-02 Complete C004 9,412,297 M213n 1,279,570

65

67
-
4
n/a

4.40
12-Sep-02

25-Sep-02
No M e a s

Complete
C004

C004
n/a

10,793,188
M414n

M414n
n/a

862,988

95
 Table 6-2 Crusher 5 - Measurement information

Meas. Spot AMWP Date Status Concave Ton. Mantle Ton.

2 10 8.95 5-Jul-01 Complete C003 7,138,954 M551n 686,248

4 10 5.95 19-Jul-01 Complete C003 7,818,430 M101u 679,476
6 4 8.07 2-Aug-01 Complete C003 8,582,055 M101u 1,443,101
8 10 3.88 16-Aug-01 Complete C003 9,290,633 M351n 708,578
10 n/a 4.78 30-Aug-01 Mantle C003 9,921,798 M351n 1,339,742
12 4 5.94 14-Sep-01 Complete C003 10,618,545 M452n 696,747
14 4 8.14 27-Sep-01 Complete C003 11,234,723 M452n 1,312,926
16 — 2.31 11-Oct-01 No Meas. C005 n/a M452u n/a

-
18 3.51 25-Oct-01 No Meas. C005 n/a M452u n/a
20 n/a 6.58 7-Nov-01 Mantle C005 1,692,802 M452u 1,692,802

-
22 7.65 22-Nov-01 Partial C005 2,501,162 M452u 2,501,162
24 4 5.96 6-Dec-01 Complete C005 3,167,164 M253u 666,002
26 10 5.38 19-Dec-01 Complete C005 3,759,065 M253u 1,257,902
28 10 6.19 3-Jan-02 Complete C005 4,714,625 M106u 955,560
30 4 5.05 17-Jan-02 Complete C005 5,431,364 M507u 716,739
32 10 6.69 31-Jan-02 Complete C005 6,158,091 M507u 1,443,466
34 4 2.41 14-Feb-02 Complete C005 6,881,548 M254n 723,457
36 10 4.27 28-Feb-02 Complete C005 7,850,215 M254n 1,692,124
38 4 3.86 14-Mar-02 Complete C005 8,493,850 M254n 2,335,759
40 10 3.20 28-Mar-02 Complete C005 8,940,557 M254u* 423,797
42 4 7.86 11-Apr-02 Complete C005 9,717,780 M556n 777,223

-
44 1.41 25-Apr-02 No M e a s C005 n/a M155u* n/a
46 10 8.57 9-May-02 Complete C005 10,953,920 M257n 595,668
49 4 6.56 29-May-02 Complete C005 11,790,386 M158n 836,466

-
51 7.68 6-Jun-02 No Meas C005 n/a M158n n/a

For each measurement used in the analysis, the complete set of results provided by the

program were grouped in an Excelfile(details in section 5.3.2) and the generated mantle

and concave profile drawings were plotted together in an AutoCAD drawing containing

their original profiles. These drawings were used for a visual evaluation of the wear

(Appendix C shows an example of one measurement drawing result).

96
In addition to these drawings, three graphs were generated for each measurement. The

first graph gives the chamber volumes by slices for two conditions: the chamber formed

with mantle and concave as measured and the chamber formed i f a new mantle was

installed (Figure 6-2 shows the result for measurement 7). The second graph plots the

relationship between C S S and a series of simulated mantle positions (Figure 6-3 shows

the result for measurement 7). The third graph plots mantle wear rate versus slice

numbers and concave wear rate versus slice numbers together (Figure 6-4 shows the

result for measurement 7).

80
75
70
65
60
55
£ 50
ja 45
E
3 40
z 35
©
o 30
CO —e—Chamber as measured
25
20 — • — C h a m b e r with a n e w m a n t l e
15
10
5
0

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

S l i c e V o l u m e s (litres)

F i g u r e 6-2 C h a m b e r V o l u m e s g r a p h (using M P equals to A M P W ) f o r m e a s u r e m e n t 7.

97
 C S S (inches)

Figure 6-3 CSS versus MP graph for measurement 7.

Figure 6-4 Concave and mantle wear rate by slices for measurement 7.
6.2 Wear Determination

Concave-wear

As described in section 5.3.2, the new program enabled the inclusion of new features

related to wear. Moreover, the analysis of the concave-wear rate by slices resulted in the

determination of an average wear rate per slice for the bottom of the concave for the two

different measured regions, i.e. the wear occurring at the 4 o'clock and the 10 o'clock

position. Figure 6-5 shows the average concave-wear for the bottom of the concave.

To achieve the results plotted in Figure 6-5, some measurement information was

excluded in the calculation due to issues with the data collected. Measurement results

containing noisy data and measurement results for short concave-lives were excluded to

enable a more accurate wear rate result. This was necessary due to the fact that the

measurement accuracy of +/- 3 mm limits the wear rate calculation accuracy for the

initial period of concave life. For example, consider the two cases that follow:

- in measurement 3 in the early concave life ( 737,689 of concave tonnage), the

radii difference in slice 40 of 5.85 mm +/- 3mm results in a wear rate between 3.9

and 11.9 mm/Mton (approximate accuracy +/- 4)

- in measurement 62 in the end of concave life (9,412,297 of concave tonnage), the

radii difference in slice 40 of 39.68 mm +/- 3mm results in a wear rate between

3.9 and 4.5 mm/Mton (approximate accuracy +/- 0.3).

99
The criteria used to reject measurements for the wear rate calculation was to not use

measurements that give accuracy ranges greater than 0.75 mm/Mton.

F i g u r e 6-5 A v e r a g e c o n c a v e - w e a r rate

100
F o l l o w i n g the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the average wear-rates, i t w a s p o s s i b l e to estimate the

a m o u n t o f w e a r o c c u r r i n g at the b o t t o m o f the c o n c a v e f o r a n y g i v e n tonnage. F i g u r e 6-6

g i v e s the result f o r a s i m u l a t i o n u s i n g 8 mega-tonnes o f throughput f o r the t w o m e a s u r e d

spots.

Figure 6-6 Simulated concave wear after 8 megatonnes.

T h i s result correlates w e l l w i t h p r a c t i c a l observations at H V C . C o m m o n l y , the highest

w e a r rate i s o b s e r v e d c l o s e t o the s e a m b e t w e e n the t w o b o t t o m m o s t r o w s o f the c o n c a v e

parts at the 4 o ' c l o c k p o s i t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , o n several o c c a s i o n s w h e n c o n c a v e s w e r e

101
used for long periods, this highly worn region resulted i n broken edges on some concave

parts.

Mantle-wear

Although drawing results served to better visualize the effects o f mantle-wear on

chamber profile, a similar wear-rate average calculation for the mantles did not provide a

meaningful result. In contrast to the concave results, the wear-rate o f any specific slice

on the mantle shows greater variation for different measurements. This variation may be

explained by the following facts:

- different mantle profile types were used during the concave life;

- two different mantle materials were used during the analysis period;

- the mantle movement in relation to the concave position;

- the impact o f crushing operational conditions on mantle-wear is greater due to a

lower wear resistance o f the mantle when compared to the concave.

102
6.3 Correlation of Operational Data and Liner Characteristics

A s discussed in section 5.3.1, four graphs were used to analyse crushing parameters for

both crusher #4 and #5. Each of these graphs corresponds to a period of one concave life

and are shown in Figure 6-7 to Figure 6-10, being:

- Figure 6-7 Graph # 1 - Concave C002 at crusher #4 (29 June 2001 -7 Feb. 2002);

- Figure 6-8 Graph #2 - Concave C004 at crusher #4 (9 Feb. 2002-25 Sep, 2002);

- Figure 6-9 Graph #3 - Concave C003 at crusher #5 (5 Jan. 2001-27 Sep, 2001);

- Figure 6-10 Graph #4 - Concave C005 at crusher #5 (30 Sep. 2001 -7 June 2002).

103
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The graphical analysis allowed the observation of a series of interesting relationships

between the parameters plotted and resulted in the identification of key periods for cross

reference with the information provided by the wear measurements. The most relevant

observations and significant relationships are discussed next.

6.3.1 Issues during the end of concave life

As shown in Figure 6-7 to Figure 6-10, on the majority of the occasions that overload

conditions appeared, i.e. unstable current draw as well as high amplitude maximum

current values (power spikes), the concaves had been running for more than 7

megatonnes on average. The only exception can be visualized in Figure 6-9 for concave

G005 during the first 4 megatonnes of operation. However, in this instance the overload

condition indicated by the current draw was related to problems with the motor, as

explained in section 5.3.1.

Although several different types of mantles, containing different profiles, were used

during the periods of concave life after 7 megatonnes, none of them achieved a

substantial cumulative production. Actually, most of the lowest tonnage per mantle

results appeared in these periods.

The characteristics related to these issues in the final period of concave life were

investigated and the results are discussed next.

108
Non-choking condition of the chambers

Assessing the chamber volume characteristics using the graphical method described i n

section 5.3.2 provided a comparison between the chamber geometry characteristics

achieved during different periods. These periods are: the periods when the issues

occurred ("bad operation") and other selected periods when not only the current draw

remained stable but also product quality and mantle tonnage were the best ("good

operation"). From the assessment, it was clear that the chambers that provided the best

results were closer to a non-choking type and the ones providing bad results were closer

to a straight type (as suggested in section 3.1.4).

Figure 6-11 shows a chamber volume graph with the results o f three measurements

corresponding to periods o f "good operation". In addition, Figure 6-12 shows a chamber

volume graph with the results o f three measurements corresponding to periods o f "bad

operation" (more detail about the determination o f the "non-choking" condition o f

chambers is given i n section 5.3.2).

109
Increased volume of the chambers

It is a common procedure i n the mines to increase the size o f the mantles to compensate

for worn concaves. The impetus for this is to try to maintain the original C S S . This

practice o f trying to maintain the C S S dimension by the successive installation o f larger

diameter mantles affects chamber volumes. The volume modifications may also

contribute to rising power requirements.

Figure 6-13 serves to illustrate this procedure. In the figure, two hypothetical chambers

with the same C S S (152 m m - 6 in.) are shown in section view. Although the mantle on

the right is 254 m m (10 in.) larger i n radius (idealistic extreme case), both chambers show

an equal chamber i n cross-section. However, with the use o f a three-dimensional

representation o f these chambers, as shown i n Figure 6-14, the difference between the

chamber volumes becomes apparent.

| - R40 in |-R50 in.

| - R46in. (-R56in.

Figure 6-13 Cross-section view of two similar but not identical chambers

111
 Y

_Z

Figure 6-14 Comparison between chambers with different radius

The example chambers i n Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14 do not exactly match the

dimensions o f the liners used at H V C . However, a rough estimation o f two chamber

volumes normally utilised at H V C providing similar C S S confirms the difference. One

chamber consisting of: a new standard size mantle and a new set o f concaves has a

volume o f approx. 19.57 m (1,194,200 in. ), and a chamber comprised o f worn concaves
3 3

and a new over size mantle has a volume o f approx. 20.35 m (1,242,100 in. ); an
3 3

increase o f 4%.

Since the lifetime o f a concave is much longer than that o f a mantle, the practice o f using

several mantles with one concave is worthwhile. However, as the impact o f the chamber

volume change is often overlooked, situations can arise where uneconomical mantle

concave combinations are used.

112
Increased CSS area

Similar to the increase i n chamber volume, the discharge area increases by approximately

10% during the final stage o f the concave life. Thus, although the C S S can be maintained

at a desired value, the amount o f material being discharged increases and the size

distribution becomes courser as the area increases. Figure 6-15 shows the difference

between the C S S area achieved with the same gap o f 122 m m (4.8 in.) for two extremely

different, but feasible, situations. The first area, A l , was calculated for a new concave

and a new standard-size Esco 3-piece mantle, while the second area A 2 was calculated

for a concave as it was measured after approximately 8 7 % o f its useful life (measurement

# 62 on 22 August 2002 at crusher # 4) and a new over-size 9 0 " Esco-2 piece mantle.

Using automatic control on the crusher, product size distribution (percentage o f product

course) and crusher power (amps value) are part o f the input parameters used to adjust the

mantle position and the feed rate. Thus, an increased discharge area may be an additional

factor i n explaining the occurrences o f current "spikes" and intermittent overload

conditions o f the machine during the final life o f the concave. In other words, as the

product becomes coarser, the control algorithm tends to raise the mantle closer to its

maximum limit. Alternatively, as the current draw increases, the control tends to lower

the mantle. These contrary trends may result in a greater instability when using the

automatic control during the final life o f the concave.

113
 —123mm [4.8"]

Figure 6-15 - The difference between the discharging areas resulted from the wear of the concaves.

6.3.2 Mantle and crushing performance

The analysis o f the mantle position adjustment (described i n section 5.3.2) revealed the

correlation between mantles which lasted for short periods o f time and their limited room

for adjustment, i.e. when a mantle needs to be set at a high position just after its

installation, obviously its life w i l l be short. A n example o f this problem occurred when

the mantle M 2 5 7 n was installed i n Crusher 5 with concave C005 and needed to be

immediately set at the 203-mm (8-in.) position in order to achieve the desired C S S (refer

114
to the 10 mantle in Figure 6-10). Only 595,668 tonnes were produced with this mantle

before it had to be replaced.

Similar cases occurred with all four concaves analysed and served to identify two facts.

First, poor knowledge o f concave wear at the time of selection and installation o f the

mantle generates short mantle lives. Second, although several different types o f mantles

were used (8 types) during the period of the analyses, frequently the mantles that were

installed could not be used for their full range o f mantle positioning, i.e. an initial

adjustment close to 0-mm position and a final adjustment close to the 254-mm (10-in.)

position. These short life mantle occurrences were mostly observed during two specific

phases of the concave life: the initial life period o f the concave (0 to app. 2 mega-tonnes)

and the second half of its useful life (more than 5.5 mega-tonnes). Based on the fact that

all the available under-size and over-sized profiles were used during these two specific

periods o f concave life, this observation suggests that those profiles are inadequate to

provide long mantle life.

6.3.3 Liners that provided optimum performance

In general, product quality varied greatly during the period of the analysis. Only a few

occasions were observed where reasonable product quality, smooth operation, and normal

product rate occurred simultaneously for considerable time periods. These rare events

happened for Crusher 4 concave C004 with mantles M 4 1 0 n and M 3 1 In (refer to the 2 n d

and 3 r d
mantle in Figure 6-8), and Crusher 5 concave C003 with mantle M 1 8 2 u (refer to

115
the 3 mantle in Figure 6-9). Each of these mantles were 3-piece standard 2216 mm
r

(87.25 in.) diameter Esco CZ 18 alloy, and the periods of these occurrences were

approximately within 2.0 and 5.5 mega-tonnes of concave life.

In addition to performing well, the three mantles each achieved a considerable cumulative

tonnage of app. 3.1 megatonnes on average. From this, two things were observed. First,

the best matches between mantle and concave occurred between 2.0 and 5.5 mega-tonnes

of concave life. Second, the Esco 3-piece standard type mantle has the most suitable

profile among the mantles used during this period of concave life. These facts supported

an investigation of the characteristics of these chambers and to designate them as "good

chamber" characteristics to be targeted during the entire concave life. The results from

this investigation are discussed in the following section.

116
6.4 Liner Management

An interesting result of this analysis was the observation of a large variation in the

number of mantles utilized on each concave as well as the large variation in the tonnage

achieved by these mantles as summarized in Figure 6-16.

Mantle Production Cr 5 & Cr 4

Mantles

• Cr5-6Jan01J27Sep01 • Cr5-30Sep01/7Jun02

• Cr4-29Jun01S7Fev02 • Cr4-9Fev02-2SSep02

Figure 6-16 Number of mantles used per concave and their total tonnage

117
These variations in mantle use plus the issues related to the final life period of the

concaves, discussed in section 6.3.1, suggested that the liner replacement policies at HVC

should be changed in order to improve crushing performance.

The first modification to the usual replacement schedule is the reduction of concave life

to app. 7.5 megatonnes. Second, as it is apparent from the analyses, only one of the

current mantle designs fulfills the requirements necessary for effective crushing.

Therefore, the 3-pieces standard mantle design is the only design considered useable for a

new liner replacement policy. In addition, two new mantle types, under-size and over

size profiles, should be designed for use during start-up and final concave operational

conditions.

In the design process, the non-choking characteristic of the chamber and the room for

adjustment of the mantle position are two essential design characteristics that must be

optimized. A "good" non-choking condition and a CSS-MP relationship that provides a

long life for the. mantle are the design targets.

Considering that under optimal circumstances mantle lives exceeded 3 million tonnes,

and following maintenance department recommendations to maintain the replacement

schedule following the current three-week pattern, the expected useful lives for the

mantles are designed as follows:

- 1 mantle - 9 weeks (app. 2,900,000 tons)

st

- 2 mantle - 9 weeks (app. 2,900,000 tons)

nd

118
 - 3 r d
mantle - 6 weeks (app. 1,950,000 tons)

Note: Only three mantles are used per concave and the maximum concave tonnage is

close to the 7.5 megatonnes targeted.

In the design o f the new over-size mantle profile, the concave wear rate by slice

(described in section 6.2) has been used to estimate the wear o f the concave after 5.8

megatonnes. A new concave profile was used i n the design process o f the new under-size

mantle. After the design o f the new profiles, their chamber conditions and C S S - M P

relationships were assessed using the graphical analyses discussed i n section 5.3.2.

Figure 6-17 compares the expected chamber condition o f a new under-size mantle and the

best option o f mantle profile available (Esco 2 pieces 2184 m m - 86 in.). A s well, the

C S S - M P relationships for these two mantles are compared i n Figure 6-18.

119
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Volumes per slice (litres)

Figure 6-17 Comparison of chamber condition for under size mantles

Figure 6-18 Comparison of CSS-MP relationship for under size mantles

120
Figure 6-19 and Figure 6-20 show a comparison of the chamber conditions and CSS-MP

relationship for two over-size mantles, the new design and the best option available

(recent Esco 2 pieces 2286 mm - 90 in.).

10 1 , , , , , 1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Volumes per slice (litres)

Figure 6-19 Comparison of chamber condition for over size mantles.

121
 C S S (inches)

Figure 6-20 Comparison of CSS-MP relationship for over size mantles.

The new designs follow the 3 pieces arrangement to facilitate the reuse o f the top piece

and the middle piece. T w o new bottom pieces (one under-size and one over-size) and

one new medium piece (over-size) were designed (drawings o f the new parts are shown

in Appendix D).

With the introduction o f two new mantle designs and the reduction o f the concave useful

life, the use o f three mantles per concave is recommended i n a proposed schedule for

liner replacement. Figure 6-21 shows h o w the pieces are used over the life o f the

concave.

122
 (used 2X)

First s e t (used IX)

New U/S Bottom pee

(used IX)

Second set | | J | | E s c o 3 p c stand.

Third s e t New D / S Med, pee.

New D/S Bottom pee

Figure 6-21 Suggested replacement policy

The application o f the new designed mantles and the suggested management policy for

the replacement o f the liners w i l l not only result i n better operational conditions and

increased average product quality but also i n reduced costs.

A cost analysis was performed to compare the current liner costs and the projected costs

for the suggested procedure. First, based on the liner information (section 5.2.2) and the

historical data for the last six concaves used in Crushers 4 and 5 (summarized i n Table

6-3) the current average cost o f liner replacement per tonne (in Canadian dollars) was

calculated as shown i n Table 6-4. In addition, the average downtime was calculated,

based on the same period, as shown i n Table 6-5.

123
 Table 6-3 Summary of liners information for 6 recent concave life periods

Concave Install. Removal Total Cum. Mantles

Code Date Date T i m e (h) Tonnage Utilised

C003 1/5/01 9/27/01 6357 11,234,723 8

C005 9/30/01 6/7/02 5999 12,172,495 11

C002 6/29/01 2/7/02 5355 11,168,894 7

C004 2/9/02 9/25/02 5462 10,793,188 6

C007 6/8/02 1/22/03 5462 9,733,099 9

C006 9/26/02 3/26/03 4334 8,300,496 6

Total 32969 63,402,897 47

Average Ton/h = 1,923

Table 6-4 Liner costs (parts, rebuilt and installation) and current total cost per ton

Liner costs Quant. Unit C o s t Total C o s t

Used mantle 5
17 $1,850 $31,450

New mantle 30 $41,900 $1,257,000

Concave 6 $102,930 $617,580

Total $1,906,030

Total tonnage 63,402,897

C o s t per ton $0.0301

5
Occasionally in the mine, a mantle that was used in one crusher is utilized in another. In such cases, the

mantle-mainshaft assembly is just reinstalled. Thus, part costs and labour/supplies-assemblage costs are not

incurred in these procedures.

124
 Table 6-5 Specific downtime per liner and current total liner downtime

Liner Quant. Unit Total

Replaced Downtime (h) Downtime (h)
Mantle 41 12 492

Mantle and concave, 6 72 432

Total downtime 924
Total tonnage 63,402,897
Average downtime (hour/Mton) 14.57

S e c o n d , a s s u m i n g that the cost o f the n e w d e s i g n e d m a n t l e parts w o u l d be s i m i l a r to the

correspondent standard-size parts, a n d f o l l o w i n g the same rationale u s e d for the

c a l c u l a t i o n o f the current cost a n d d o w n t i m e , the projected cost a n d d o w n t i m e w e r e then

c a l c u l a t e d as s h o w n i n T a b l e 6-6 a n d T a b l e 6-7, respectively.

Table 6-6 Liner costs (parts, rebuilt and installation) for one concave life and projected cost per ton

Liners details Quant. Unit Cost Total Cost

Mantle
Top piece liner 1 $7,650 $7,650
Med. piece liner 2 $10,700 $21,400
Bottom piece liner 3 $12,000 $36,000
Supplies 3 $4,000 $12,000
Labour 3 $5,500 $16,500
Installation 3 $1,850 $5,550
Mantles (total) $99,100
Concave
Concave (total) 1 $102,930 $102,930

Liners total cost $202,030

Total tonnage (24 weeks) 7,754,100
Cost per ton $0.0261

125
 Table 6-7 Specific downtime per liner and projected total liner downtime

Liner Quant. Unit Total

Replaced D o w n t i m e (h) D o w n t i m e (h)

Mantle 2 12 24

Mantle a n d c o n c a v e 1 72 72

Total downtime 96

Total tonnage 7,754,100

A v e r a g e downtime (hour/Mton) 12.38

A comparison between these two calculated costs indicates that the suggested policy

enables a reduction o f app. 13% (from 0.0301 to 0.0261 Canadian dollars) over the total

annual liner cost (parts, rebuilds and installations) and the cost associated to the amount

o f downtime involved in the replacements is also expected to drop as the average annual

downtime would decline by 15% (from 14.57 h/Mton to 12.38 h/Mton).

126
7. Conclusions

7.1 Achievements

This thesis has presented the development o f a novel approach to assessing wear i n

gyratory crushers. Through the use o f this approach greater understanding into the

relationship between, crusher wear, crushing chamber geometry and production capacity

and quality has been gained. In addition, the research has had tangible results o f direct

benefit to the supporting organization. More specific outcomes o f the research are as

follows:

The use o f a new laser profiler device ( L P D ) to measure the crusher chamber was

implemented at H V C and improvements were made to the original measurement

procedure. The redesign o f L P D ' s support structure resulted i n a 4 5 % reduction i n

the necessary time for measurements. The investigation o f the initial issues presented

in the application o f the new device resulted i n the correction o f several problems and

thus, i n the improvement o f the accuracy o f the generated liner profiles.

- Chamber data provided from the measurements and crushing operational data from

mine information systems were collected for the two crushers. The data comprised o f

40 complete sets o f measurements and information o f approximately 23,300 hours o f

records for crushing operational parameters. Calculations and graphical analysis

127
techniques were developed and integrated in a new software tool to facilitate data

analysis.

The data analyses conducted provided an understanding o f crushing chamber

characteristics and their impact in crushing performance. In addition, wear rate as a

function of production was determined for the concaves, which enabled wear

prediction for the bottom part of the concave.

The knowledge gained by the analyses helped in the evaluation of the current liner

management policy. The evaluation resulted in a revised maintenance schedule based

on the use of two new mantle profiles designed for this application. The proposed

liner management policy is expected to reduce overall liner costs as well as to

enhance crushing performance. Thus, a real opportunity to increase the profitability

of the operations was gained with this work.

128
7.2 Future Work Opportunities

Continue with the laser measurement and the improvement of the process. The continued

collection of additional measurement data can facilitate the assessment o f mantle wear

and enables the determination of mantle wear rates as functions of:

chamber characteristic

concave life period

- mantle position variation

- mantle material

Expand the work done by combining concave and mantle wear prediction and, therefore

develop a C S S prediction tool to be used online with the operations.

Re-evaluate L P D performance and application in order to assess the necessity o f building

an alternative device based on laser technology or the application o f a new technology

such as sacrificial sensors as has been the focus o f research for cone crushers.

129
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Mineral Processing, N o . 44/45, pp. 461-469,1996.

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Appendix A Drawings of the new support structure.

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Appendix B Description of the measurement program

139
To improve the accuracy of the measurement results obtained using the L P D and to

enhance the scope o f these results, such as with the addition o f C S S and wear rate

determination, a new program was developed using Microsoft Excel. The major

functions and the calculation procedures applied in this program are described in a

sequential format as follows.

Stepl

Four files generated from the measurement test are loaded i n the program. Each file

contains a table o f coordinates generated by the L P D (an example is shown i n Table 5-1).

The files correspond to the following measurements:

1 - shooting the calibration bars with the laser beam perpendicular to the track;
st

2 n d
- shooting the bars after levelling the mirror;

3 - shooting the concaves o f the crusher; and,

r d

4 t h
- shooting the mantle after rotating the mirror 90 degrees.

Step 2

The program identifies at which actuator position the calibration bar was first targeted

during the first and the second calibration measurements. Then, using the trigonometric

relations between these two values, the inclination angle o f the track ( a ) is calculated

(Figure 5-4 pg. 58 illustrates the process).

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Step 3

The program corrects the data tables contained i n the other two files (mantle and the

concave measurements) utilizing a model developed from results o f field-tests which

provided evidence o f systematic deviations between distances measured and real

distances (the graph i n Figure 5-19 pg. 84 shows the deviations).

Step 4

Each pair o f coordinates, from both liners measurements, is transformed into a pair o f

coordinates i n the Cartesian system with the origin (0,0) being the centre o f the shaft

located at the top part o f the laser track ("track" coordinate system), as shown i n Figure

B-l. The program performs this calculation using the angle a and the trigonometric

relationships between the original coordinates and the ones i n the "track" coordinate

system, as illustrated i n Figure B-2.

Figure B-l Location of the origin of the "track" coordinate system

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 0,0

Figure B-2 Schematic of the trigonometric relationships between the original coordinate system and

the "track" coordinate system

Step 5

The two new sets o f points, corresponding to the mantle and the concave profiles, are

transferred and plotted into an A u t o C A D drawing as two polylines. A s shown i n Figure

B-3, the two profiles are plotted together with the drawings o f the original liners and the

crusher mainshaft. However, the position o f the polylines does not match with the

crusher drawing. This is due to the different coordinate system o f the crusher drawing

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which has its origin coinciding with the pivot point o f the crusher mainshaft ("crusher"

coordinate system).

p Fie £*. ytew Insert Format look Qraw Dimension Modify Imjge Window Help

Figure B-3 Snapshot of the AutoCAD drawing with the measured profiles and the original parts

Note that the mainshaft/mantle is drawn i n its central position, i.e. with the eccentric i n

the position where the C S S is equal to O S S .

Step 6

The two polylines (measured profiles) are moved together to a new position that better

represents the chamber as measured. In order to achieve this objective, the top region o f

the liners (low wear region) is used as reference in this aligning process. Once the

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profiles are relocated, the X and Y offset values from the "crusher" coordinate system's

origin are determined. These numbers are input in the E x c e l program to translate all data

to the "crusher" coordinate system. Due to the crusher throw, a rotation of the mantle

profile in the X , Y plane may be required and this procedure is discussed i n step 8.

Step 7

To model the original liner profiles in E x c e l , equations are fit to the drawing profile data.

A s illustrated in Figure B - 4, five equations are usually necessary to describe an original

mantle profile.

Figure B- 4 Group of lines and arcs that represents a mantle original profile

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Step 8

In order to determine the required angle o f rotation for the mantle measured profile, two

methods are used. The first method utilises Excel to calculate the angle that minimizes

the distance between the measured and the original profiles at their topmost regions. In

some cases this approach i n unsuccessful, i n which case the angle is determined i n

A u t o C A D by manually rotating the measured profile.

Step 9

Using the information achieved i n steps 7 and 8 and trigonometric relationships, the

program calculates new values that describe the measured mantle profile rotated by its

maximum and minimum angular displacements (+ and - 0.2415 degrees) which

correspond to the crusher eccentric throw dimensions. In addition, following a similar

calculation process, the program develops two new sets o f equations that describe the

new mantle profile at these two extreme positions.

Step 10

The program applies the slicing technique for the bottom part o f the crushing chamber, as

described i n section 5.3.2. For each slice, the program determines the coordinates o f the

original profiles and the measured profiles where they intersect a line through the

midpoint o f the slice. For the mantle, the process is repeated for the following three

cases:

- maximum angular displacement,

- minimum angular displacement,

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 - zero degrees o f displacement.

Using these results, calculations such as what follows are performed:

- the distance between the mantle, i n its maximum angular displacement, and the

concave for each slice,

- the minimum distance among the 80 slices (CSS),

concave and mantle radial loss of material (wear) per slice, and,

- the volume o f each slice formed by the mantle measured profile and concave

measured profile.

Step 11

Although until step 10 all the calculations have been described for the mantle located at

its bottommost position (0 mm), the program allows the input o f different positions to

recalculate all the results. In addition to the ability to determine important characteristics

of the chamber for the measurement period, such as the approximate CSS dimension, the

program is equipped with a macro that calculates a range o f CSS corresponding to mantle

positions varying from 0 to 254 m m (0 to 10 in.) with 12.7 m m (0.5 in.) increments.

Step 12

The program can simulate different configurations o f the crushing chamber and calculate

results for various operational options at the mine. For example, it is possible to assume

the continuation o f the concave and the replacement of the mantle with a new mantle with

146
a different profile by inputting the correspondent mantle information at step 7 and

running the program again.

147
Appendix C Example of a measurement drawing result

148
 #4 Crusher Liner Profile
September 25/02

S n a l l e s t C o n c a v e Dianeter When N e *
S r i a l l e s t C o n c a v e D i a n e t e r : ( F e b 2 ! - 91.4"), <Mar 7 -
( M a r 21 - 9 2 . 1 ' ) , ( A p r 18 - 9 3 . 1 ' ) , <May 16 - 9 3 . 6 ' ) ,
(May 30 - 9 4 . 0 ' ) , ( J u n e 2 ! - 9 4 . 9 * ) , ( J u l y It - 9 5 . 0 ' ) ,
( J u l y 2 5 - 9 5 . 8 ' ) , ( A u g 21 - 9 5 . 9 ' ) , ( S e p t 2 5 - 9 7 . 0 ' )
L a r g e s t M a n t l e D i a m e t e r V h e n New - 9 0 "
( S e p t 2 5 - 87.0')
Eccentric Thro<
Mantle! Installed September 4, £002 Concaves: P e n t i c t o n , High Ci—WI, I n s t a l l e d Feb 7/02
Sept 25/02 - T o n n e s C r u s h e d C n i U i o n s ) - 0.89 (aprox) Measure D a t e - Mor 7 / 0 2 - 1.07 n t
Apr 18/02 - 3.32 n t
May 1 6 / 0 2 - 4.79 n t
May 3 0 / 0 2 - 5.56 n t
June 21/02 - 6.26 n t
J u l y 11/02 - 7,00 n t
July 2 5 / 0 2 - 7.61 n t
Sep-t £5/02 Mantle removed - replaced with E s c o 3-piece STD Aug 21/02 - 8.7 n t
Sep £5/0£ - 10.2 n t Concaves removed
Appendix D New mantle parts dimensions