Accepted Manuscript

Seismic stratigraphy and sedimentary facies analysis of the pre- and syn- Messinain
salinity crisis sequences, onshore Nile Delta, Egypt: Implications for reservoir quality
prediction

Mahmoud Leila, Andrea Moscariello

PII: S0264-8172(18)30532-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.12.003
Reference: JMPG 3622

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 9 September 2018

Revised Date: 24 November 2018
Accepted Date: 2 December 2018

Please cite this article as: Leila, M., Moscariello, A., Seismic stratigraphy and sedimentary facies
analysis of the pre- and syn- Messinain salinity crisis sequences, onshore Nile Delta, Egypt: Implications
for reservoir quality prediction, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.marpetgeo.2018.12.003.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 Seismic stratigraphy and sedimentary facies analysis of the pre- and syn-
2 Messinain Salinity Crisis sequences, onshore Nile Delta, Egypt: implications
3 for reservoir quality prediction

4 Mahmoud LEILA a* and Andrea MOSCARIELLO b

a
5 Department of Geology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.

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b
6 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.

7 *Corresponding author: [email protected]

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8 Abstract

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9 This study provides the first high-resolution outlines of the Messinian sequence
10 in the Nile Delta based on an integrated sedimentological, petrophysical and

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11 seismic stratigraphic approach. The distribution, pattern and architecture of the
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12 Messinian facies deposited before, during and after the Messinian salinity crisis
13 (MSC) have been investigated. In seismic, the pre-MSC Qawasim Formation
14 constitutes parallel oblique seismic facies interpreted as deltaic system prograding
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15 northward from prodelta, distal sand bars into subaqueous distributary channels
16 and mouthbars and subaerial delta-plain distributary channels. The MSC Abu Madi
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17 Formation consists of three seismic-stratigraphic units infilling the Eonile canyon. A

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18 seismically chaotic lower unit paving the canyon-floor is overlain by the continuous,
19 high-amplitude reflectors of the middle unit which is capped by semi-chaotic, low-
20 amplitude facies of the upper unit. The lower unit corresponds to the subaerial
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21 gravity-flow deposits synchronously accumulated during the Eonile incision;

22 whereas the middle unit comprises the aggradational-progradational fluvial facies,
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23 and the upper unit constitutes the retrogradational estuarine facies. The
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24 superimposed diagenetic alterations on these various depositional facies produced

25 complex reservoir heterogeneity. Fluid flow conduits are restricted to the coarse-
26 grained delta distributary channels and fluvial facies with limited marine influence
27 and minimal depositional clay content and traces of diagenetic kaolinite and
28 chlorite. On the other hand, flow baffles and barriers are common in the fine-
29 grained marine-influenced facies with pervasive depositional clays, diagenetic
30 calcite and glauconite.

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31 Keywords:

32 Seismic, sedimentary facies, Messinian, reservoir, Nile Delta, Egypt.

33 1. Introduction

34 The Nile Delta represents a remarkable depositional system where the complex

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35 interplay between the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea operated throughout
36 the last 35 million years of the geologic history (e.g. Said, 1981; Barber, 1981;

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37 Sestini, 1995; Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999). It is a part of the North African
38 platform that was covered from the Jurassic by the Neotethys (Kerdany and Cherif,

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39 1990). The dramatic sea-level fall and rise during and immediately after the
40 Messinian salinity crisis (MSC) caused the formation of deeply incised valleys (e.g.
41 Eonile canyon) which were infilled and buried under a thick pile of Plio-Pleistocene
42
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sediments (e.g. Chumakov, 1973; Barber, 1981; Dolson et al., 2001). Besides
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43 these widespread erosion episodes, the MSC was also accompanied by cyclic
44 climatic fluctuations from arid to humid conditions which resulted in enormous
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45 changes in the physiography of the North African margin including the Nile Delta
46 (Griffin, 1999, 2002; Leila et al., 2018a). The influences of these physiographic
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47 changes on the rate and type of sediment supply which undoubtedly control the
48 composition of the syn-MSC clastics are poorly constrained. Since the discovery of
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49 Abu Madi gas field in 1960s within these incised valleys (Fig. 1), the MSC
50 sedimentary facies became a primary target for petroleum exploration (e.g. Abdel
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51 Aal et al., 1994; Dalla et al., 1997; Dolson et al., 2001). However, their depositional
52 setting, evolution and architecture still present many uncertainties for the
53 exploration and development strategies. Furthermore, the model of the Eonile infill
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54 has not been yet fully established and questions rise whether current incised-
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55 valley-fill model (i.e. Zaitlin et al., 1994; Shanley and McCabe, 1994) could apply to
56 the Messinian incised valley context where the timing and magnitude of incision
57 and subsequent infill are not comparable to those ones caused by eustatic sea-
58 level changes (Breda et al., 2007).

59 Early investigations carried out by Said (1990) interpreted the pre-MSC

60 (Qawasim Formation) as high-stand deltaic deposits. On the other hand, the MSC

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61 Abu Madi clastics were regarded as the lateral onshore facies equivalent to the
62 MSC offshore evaporites (Rosetta Formation) (Said, 1990; Abdel Aal et al., 1994).
63 However, no detailed facies analyses were published to understand the paleo-
64 environmental conditions during their deposition. In addition, further uncertainties
65 lay on the stratigraphic relationships between the MSC canyon-infill facies and both

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66 the Messinian erosional surfaces and pre-MSC facies. In this study we used a
67 facies-based approach integrated with seismic data to reach an improved
68 evaluation of the Messinian sequence in the Nile Delta. The present study is based

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69 on a vast range of data (seismic, cores and well logs) from two hydrocarbon-
70 producing fields (the West Dikirnis and West Al-Khilala) (Fig. 1). The data from

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71 these nearby fields (approximately 37 km apart), which produce from different
72 Messinian reservoirs, provide a unique opportunity to examine the paleo-

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73 environmental conditions of the pre-, syn- and post-MSC events, the nature of the
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74 associated sedimentary strata, their geometric relationship with the bounding
75 Messinian erosional surfaces; as well as the reservoir heterogeneity and
76 distribution of the best reservoir facies.
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77 2. Geologic setting
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78 The Nile Delta is located on the slightly deformed northern margin of the African
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79 Plate between three major tectonic areas: the Suez/Red Sea Rift, the Syrian Arc
80 and the African-Anatolian Plate (Said, 1990; Sarhan and Hemdan, 1994; Harms
81 and Wray, 1990). Major structural features controlled its sedimentary patterns and
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82 subdivided the Nile Delta into several smaller sub-basins (Ross and Uchupi, 1977;
83 Kamel et al., 1998; Gargani et al., 2008). The Hinge zone- which represents the
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84 Upper Cretaceous carbonate shelf edge- subdivides the Nile Delta into two
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85 structural sedimentary provinces (South Nile Delta block and North Nile Delta
86 basin) (Kamel et al., 1998) (Fig. 1). Notably, the Hinge Zone imparted major
87 impacts on the tectonic evolution of the Nile Delta and caused thickening of the
88 Tertiary sediments basinward (Sestini, 1995). The deep-seated faults parallel to
89 the Hinge Zone represent the migration pathways of the hydrocarbons trapped in
90 the Messinian reservoirs from their source in the underlying Jurassic and Upper

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91 Cretaceous-Lower Paleogene rocks (Shaaban et al., 2006; Vandre et al., 2007;

92 Leila and Moscariello, 2017).

93 The Upper Jurassic shallow marine carbonates are the oldest sedimentary
94 rocks penetrated in the study area (Fig. 2) (Abdel Aal et al., 1994). Lower
95 Cretaceous strata are dominated by shallow marine facies (Guiraud and Bosworth,

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96 1999). The depositional environment changed from open marine to alternating
97 marine and alluvial deposits during the Upper Cretaceous before returning to the

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98 marine conditions by the end of Cretaceous (Said, 1990; Guiraud and Bosworth,
99 1999). The Upper Cretaceous-Eocene sequence is relatively thin due to the Syrian

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100 Arc Folding (Harms and Wray, 1990). Oligocene sediments consist of thick coarse-
101 grained terrigenous fluvial facies (Harms and Wray, 1990; Said, 1990). Two
102 remarkable unconformities are recorded in the Miocene-Pliocene sequence of the

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103 Nile Delta (Rizzini et al., 1978; Barber, 1981; Said, 1990; Harms and Wray, 1990)
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104 (Fig. 2). The first separates Middle Miocene (Tortonian?) from the Upper Miocene
105 strata, whereas the second unconformity corresponds to the major MSC
106 desiccation event. Marine transgression occurred during Early Pliocene
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107 (Zanclean), and the Nile Delta basin was covered by marine sediments (Kafr El-
108 Sheikh Formation) (Ross and Uchupi, 1977; Said, 1990; Gargani and Rigollet,
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109 2007).
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110 3. Data and methods

111 The diverse dataset used in this study include 2D and 3D seismic, cumulative
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112 255 meters of cores covering the Messinian-Lower Pliocene interval, and e-logs
113 from five wells located in the West Dikirnis (WD) and West Al-Khilala (WAK) fields
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114 (WD-1,-2,-9 and WAK-2,-5; Fig. 1). Seismic data include a grid of seventeen 2D
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115 reflection seismic profiles passing through the WD field, and covers an area of
116 approximately 40 km2. The WAK field is covered by 60 km2 3D survey. The seismic
117 features and attributes were interpreted in order to acquire a plan-view illustrating
118 the geometry and architecture of the studied Messinian facies. Sedimentological
119 analyses involved core descriptions, lithofacies identification and interpretation of
120 sedimentary facies associations. Petrographic analyses were performed on 48 thin
121 sections that were prepared and examined with the conventional petrographic

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122 microscope and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The modal composition
123 was obtained by counting 400 points following the Gazzi-Dickinson scheme (Gazzi,
124 1966; Dickinson, 1970). Petrophysical conventional core plug analyses were
125 conducted on 150 core plugs for the quantitative measure of porosity, permeability
126 and grain density. Porosity and permeability data were used further to calculate

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127 permeability-feet (flow capacity, Kh) and porosity-feet (storage capacity, φh) for the
128 studied Messinian facies (c.f. Gunter et al., 1997). Furthermore, R35 pore throat
129 radii was calculated as a function of the measured porosity and permeability using

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130 the so-called Winland equation (Kolodzie, 1980; Pittman, 2001):

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131 Log R35 = 0.732 + 0.588 logK – 0.864 logφ

132 R35 represents the pore throat radii at 35% non-wetting phase saturation; it reflects

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133 the primary pore throat radius which controls the fluid flow through the rock.
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134 4. RESULTS

135 4.1. Seismic stratigraphy

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136 4.1.1. Messinian erosion surfaces

The geometrical relationships between the Messinian units in the Nile Delta and
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137
138 their bounding erosion surfaces were identified to understand the role of the MSC
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139 on the evolution of the Messinian sequence. The MSC surfaces have been
140 recognized according to their relationships with the Messinian units and the Plio-
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141 Pleistocene sedimentary cover (e.g. Rubino et al., 2015). The studied seismic
142 profiles reveal the existence of three Messinian erosion surfaces: the Margin
143 Erosion Surface (MES), Bottom Erosion Surface (BES) and Top Erosion Surface
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144 (TES) following the nomenclature proposed by Lofi et al. (2011a, b). These
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145 surfaces have composite characteristics; and their nomenclature is based on their
146 stratigraphic position and relationship with the Messinian units (Fig. 3).

147 4.1.1.1. Margin Erosion surface (MES)

148 The MES is an unconformity surface separating the pre-MSC from the overlying
149 post-MSC Pliocene facies (Figs. 3A, B and 4A) (e.g. Lofi et al., 2005; Cameselle et
150 al., 2014; Cameselle and Urgeles, 2016). MES is characterized here by high-
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151 amplitude, highly-undulating seismic reflector with very high acoustic impedance. It
152 erosionally truncates the underlying pre-MSC facies (Figs. 3A, B and 4A), and
153 occasionally displays small V-shaped canyons (Fig. 3B). In WD Field, MES is
154 traced at approximately 1450 (milli-seconds= ms) two way time (TWT) in the south,
155 and is downstepping basinward (northward) (Fig. 4A). MES has polygenic,

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156 diachronous nature and passes laterally northward and southward to the bottom
157 erosion surface (BES) which marks the base of the Messinian canyons and their
158 MSC infill facies (Figs. 3A, B and 4A).

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159 4.1.1.2. Bottom Erosion Surface (BES)

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160 The BES is represented by erosional, high-amplitude and concave-up seismic
161 reflector which forms the base of the Messinian Eonile canyon (Figs. 3A, B and

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162 4B). The BES is dipping basinward and is onlapped by the MSC high-amplitude
reflectors. In WAK Field area, the BES displays an approximately 7 km wide
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163
164 asymmetrical depression (Eonile canyon) (Fig. 4B). It is traced between 2750 and
165 2300 ms TWT. It exhibits a channel-morphology where the MSC facies display
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166 bidirectional onlap terminations against the channel walls (Fig. 4B). On wireline
167 logs, the BES is marked by a sharp break in gamma ray values reflecting its
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168 erosional characteristics, and possibly the abrupt change in depositional facies
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169 between the underlying pre-MSC and the overlying MSC facies.

170 4.1.1.3. Top Erosion Surface (TES)

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171 The TES is a prominent seismic marker between the MSC and the post-MSC
172 facies. It is characterized as a laterally-variable amplitude and fairly-continuous
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173 reflector at the top of the MSC facies separating them from the overlying Pliocene
174 horizontal, continuous and well-bedded reflectors (Figs. 3A, B and 4B). In wireline
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175 logs, the TES is marked by a sudden break in gamma ray values between the
176 MSC and the overlying Pliocene facies (Fig. 4B). The TES most likely marks a 0.5
177 million years chronostratigraphic hiatus between the MSC and Pliocene facies in
178 the onshore Nile Delta (Harms and Wray, 1990). The TES may also represent a
179 transgressive surface formed at the end of the MSC and its erosional
180 characteristics could probably be inherited from the widespread Zanclean

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181 transgression (e.g. Blanc, 2002; Loget et al., 2006; Garcia-Castellanos et al., 2009;
182 Bache et al., 2015).

183 4.1.2. Messinian sequence units

184 4.1.2.1. Pre-MSC units

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185 The pre-MSC facies consists of continuous, horizontal, parallel, and thickening-
186 upward reflections of alternating high- and low-amplitude (Fig. 4A). Seismic
187 amplitude increases vertically upward and laterally northward in WD Field area

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188 where the pre-MSC facies are erosionally truncated by the MES (Fig. 4A). The pre-
189 MSC Qawasim succession is subdivided into two main units (Fig. 4A). The pre-

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190 MSC Qawasim lower unit consists of parallel, continuous, thin, horizontal
191 reflections occasionally downlapping the basal bounding surface which likely

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192 corresponds to the middle-upper Miocene unconformity (Tortonian?) (Fig. 5A).
Internally, this unit displays an upward decrease in seismic amplitude; it also has a
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193
194 channel-fill geometry (Fig. 4A). The channel-fill seismic reflections reach a
195 maximum thickness of ~180 ms TWT (Fig. 4A). Two channel systems are
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196 observed, and likely followed the depressions formed adjacent to the paleo-highs
197 formed by vertical motion of Oligo-Miocene shales to form shale diapirs (Figs. 4A,
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198 5B). The western channel is shallower (~100 ms TWT) and is progressively infilled
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199 by thin, parallel and continuous low-amplitude reflections (Fig. 4A). The eastern
200 channel is deeper (~180 ms TWT) with steeper margins, and is infilled by thick,
201 low-frequency, discontinuous reflections with vertically variable seismic amplitude
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202 (Fig. 4A).

203 The pre-MSC Qawasim upper unit consists of sub-horizontal, fairly-continuous,

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204 vertically variable amplitude and frequency reflections. The upward increase in
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205 seismic amplitude together with decreasing gamma ray values reflect a
206 coarsening-upward depositional succession (Fig. 4A). High-amplitude reflections
207 also dominate in the northern and central parts of the WD Field where they reach
208 thicknesses ranging from 100 and 200 ms TWT (Fig. 4A). In the E-W seismic
209 profiles, this unit displays a prograding pattern of sigmoid and parallel-oblique
210 reflections with a lobate geometry (Fig. 5). The prograding reflections downlap onto
211 the basal bounding surface and toplap onto the upper surface (MES) (Fig. 5A, C).
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212 Therefore, the pre-MSC Qawasim upper unit is interpreted herein as a

213 progradational delta facies and the channels of the lower unit likely represent the
214 main feeders of the overlying delta.

215 4.1.2.2. MSC units

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216 The MSC Abu Madi facies in WAK Field area consists of three seismic-
217 stratigraphic units infilling the Messinian Eonile Canyon (Figs. 3A, B and 4B). The
218 MSC Abu Madi lower unit reflections are chaotic, disorganized, transparent and

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219 discontinuous (Fig. 4B). It pinches-out toward the margins of the canyon where it
220 reaches ~20 ms TWT thickness; it thickens to reach a maximum thickness of ~250

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221 ms TWT toward the center (Fig. 4B). The root mean square (RMS) amplitude time
222 slice along this unit over the study area (Fig. 6A), reveals a dominant very low

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223 amplitude facies containing scattered high-amplitude patches embedded in the low
amplitude background signifying a complex lithologic composition of mixed fine-
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224
225 and coarse-grained materials. Accordingly, this complex unit may correspond to
226 the detritic mass-flow deposits accumulated during the onset of the MSC. Similar
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227 chaotic seismic facies have been recorded throughout the Mediterranean basin at
228 the base of the incised canyons and have been interpreted as mass transport
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229 deposits accumulated during the Mediterranean lowstand phase (e.g. Lofi et al.,
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230 2005; Bertoni and Cartwright, 2007; Gargani et al., 2014; Cameselle and Urgeles,
231 2016).
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232 The MSC Abu Madi middle unit consists of parallel to sub-parallel, continuous,
233 high-amplitude and high-frequency reflections which commonly onlap the BES, and
234 they occasionally display onlap terminations against the MSC Abu Madi lower unit
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235 (Figs. 3A, B and 4B). Regionally, this unit thickens northward indicating a
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236 northward progradational sedimentation (Fig. 3A, B). In WAK field, it thickens
237 toward the center of the canyon with a maximum thickness of ~150 ms TWT (Fig.
238 4B). The RMS-amplitude time slices along this unit typify an upward increase in
239 seismic amplitude with the presence of a NW-SE trending amplitude anomaly
240 surrounded by low amplitude facies (Fig. 6B-E). These low-amplitude facies are
241 most likely the fine-grained channel levees; and the anomalously high-amplitude
242 bodies represent the coarse-grained channel-fill facies. The upward increase in
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243 seismic amplitude typically represents a coarsening-upward succession which

244 corresponds to the prograding depositional stacking patterns. The high-amplitude
245 anomaly become wider upward possibly reflecting lateral, vertical accretion and
246 amalgamation of the channel belts (Fig. 6D, E). Higher in the section, the width of
247 the amplitude anomaly decreases gradually and become confined to the northern

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248 part of the canyon (Fig. 9F) typifying the upward transition in depositional
249 environment likely from continental to coastal marine and/or estuarine conditions.

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250 The MSC Abu Madi upper unit -which is erosionally topped by the TES (Figs. 3,
251 4B) - consists of sub-horizontal, semi-continuous to semi-chaotic, low-amplitude

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252 and low-frequency reflections. It has a relatively uniform thickness (~ 75 ms TWT)
253 throughout the canyon. The spatial distribution of its RMS-amplitude (Fig. 6F-H)
254 typifies an upward decrease in the seismic amplitude with prominent high
255
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amplitude bodies confined to the northern part of the canyon (Fig. 9F). The high-
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256 amplitude channel-fill facies are then flooded by a southward (landward) stepping
257 low-amplitude facies (Fig. 6G, H). This landward deposition is most likely a
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258 retrogradational back-filling infill system which likely prevailed during the late stage
259 of canyon-infill phase. The RMS-amplitude time slices (Fig. 6) document an
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260 upward transition from progradational (middle unit) to retrogradational (upper unit)
261 phases during the infill of the Eonile Canyon in the onshore Nile Delta region.
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262 4.2. Sedimentary facies analysis

263 4.2.1. Pre-MSC Qawasim Formation
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264 Based on core examinations, the pre-MSC Qawasim Formation in WD Field has
been subdivided into several different facies associations on the bases of
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265
266 distinctive sedimentological and iconological characteristics. A detailed description
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267 of these facies associations is provided here:

268 Facies Association 1.1 (FA1.1): prodelta facies

269 The FA1.1 marks the base of the pre-MSC coarsening-upward sedimentary
270 succession. It consists of grey siltstones interbedded with dark grey mudstones
271 (Fig. 7A). The mudstones are massive with rare parallel laminations. Synaeresis
272 cracks, soft-sediment deformation structures such as load casts, small-scale

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273 gravity faults and convolute laminations are generally common (Fig. 7A). FA1.1 is
274 slightly bioturbated with Planolites, Rosselia, Teichichnus and Terebellina trace
275 fossils (Fig. 7A). The planar laminated siltstones interbedded with mudstones are
276 interpreted as having been deposited by hyperpycnal flows and suspension settling
277 within the distal delta-front and/or prodelta (Buatois et al., 2008). The presence of

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278 synaeresis cracks reflects a periodic incursion of fresh water likely seasonal river
279 floods. The scarce bioturbation reflected by the low-diversity “highly stressed”
280 Cruziana ichnofacies coupled with abundant soft-deformation features and

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281 synaeresis cracks typify a brackish prodelta environment with mixed fresh and
282 marine water conditions possibly representing prodeltaic deposits of a river-

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283 dominated delta (e.g. Gingras et al., 2007; MacEachern and Bann, 2008). FA1.1
284 becomes muddier northward reflecting a northward transition from proximal to

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285 distal prodelta facies.
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286 Facies association 1.2 (FA1.2): distal sand bars facies

287 This association consists of fine-grained argillaceous sandstone which are

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288 stacked forming a 6.5 m thick coarsening and thickening-upward interval. FA1.2 is
289 erosionally based and displays very sharp contact with the underlying FA1.1
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290 sediments. The sandstones are characterized by hummocky cross-stratification,

291 parallel and wavy laminations, as well as wave ripples (Fig. 7B). Bioturbation is
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292 relatively uncommon; the ichnofossils are represented by scarce Planolites. The
293 alteration between hummocky cross-stratified and parallel-laminated sandstones
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294 indicates a storm-dominated deposition with frequent alternations between storm

295 events and fair-weather episodes (e.g. Buatois et al., 2008). The scarce and low-
296 diversity fair-weather suite of ichnofossils accompanied with the absence of escape
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297 traces and deep vertical bioturbation (e.g. Ophimorpha) all point to a moderately
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298 storm-dominated deposits. The presence of storm-induced structures, and the

299 stratigraphic position of FA1.2 above the prodelta facies indicates that this
300 association is likely the storm-dominated sand bars emplaced in the distal portion
301 of the delta-front.

302 Facies association 1.3 (FA1.3): subaqueous distributary channel facies

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303 The FA1.3 constitutes the interbedded massive and laminated sandstone and
304 sharp-based conglomeratic sandstone. The sandstone beds vary in thickness from
305 1 to 3 m and are stacked in fining- and thinning-upward packages. The massive
306 sandstone beds lack any internal structures except rare faint parallel laminations.
307 The laminated sandstones display variable sedimentary structures include parallel

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308 lamination, tabular cross-stratification and rare mud drapes (Fig. 7C). Trace fossils
309 are more diverse and commonly represented by escape trace, Palaeophycus
310 tubularis, tiny Planolites and Chondrites (Fig. 7C). The conglomeratic sandstone

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311 has approximately 30 cm thick, and consists of scattered pebbles of 5-10 cm in
312 diameter of angular intraformational clasts and rounded extraformational carbonate

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313 fragments. The sedimentary lithofacies stacked in fining-upward patterns indicating
314 an overall upward decrease in the flow strength during the deposition in distributary

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315 channels. This is confirmed by the erosional basal contact and the presence of
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316 coarse-grained basal conglomeratic lag deposits. The cross-stratified sandstones
317 at the top of the massive beds reflect waning current depositional conditions
318 following the high-energy sediment transport (Miall, 1977; Lowe, 1982; Covault et
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319 al., 2009). The diverse ichnofossils and the presence of escape traces reveals
320 deposition in the proximal settings of the delta-front most likely representing the
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321 deposits of the delta-front subaqueous distributary channels.

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322 Facies association 1.4 (FA1.4): distributary mouthbar

323 The FA1.4 sediments consist of several massive and cross-stratified sandstone
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324 beds occasionally interbedded with relatively thin (<30 cm) fine-grained, laminated
325 sand intervals which are stacked in coarsening-upward succession. Sedimentary
326 structures include ripple laminations, hummocky cross-stratifications, and
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327 occasionally clay drapes (Fig. 7D). Trace fossils are scarce; they include rare
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328 Planolites and Chondrites. This association commonly amalgamate in the central
329 and northern parts of the WD Field forming a cumulative thickness up to 15 m in
330 WD-2 well (Fig. 8A). The coarsening-upward stacking patterns combined with
331 current-ripple laminations indicate upward shallowing in a subaqueous current
332 dominated setting (e.g. Elliott, 1978; Hampson et al., 2011). The coarse-grained,
333 poorly-sorted and massive sandstones represent high-energy depositional facies
334 similar to those accumulated at the river-mouths (Orton and Reading, 1993). The
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335 presence of hummocky cross-stratification in the upper part of this association

336 reveals storm influence consistent with the progradation of the river mouth into the
337 storm-influenced delta-front (e.g. Buatois et al., 2008; Hampson et al., 2011).
338 Moreover, the scarcity of trace fossils points to environmentally-stressed conditions
339 consistent with proximal mouthbar deposition. The local presence of mud-draped

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340 stratification indicates periodical tidal influence. These observations typify the
341 interactions of fluvial, wave and tidal processes, and therefore this association
342 represents the deposits of mixed-energy environment. Accordingly, FA1.4

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343 represents the subaqueous mouthbar facies emplaced in a mixed-energy
344 depositional environment (fluvial and/or wave to tidal-dominated proximal delta-

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345 front) (e.g. Ainsworth et al., 2011; Cappelle et al., 2017).

346 Facies association 1.5 (FA1.5): subaerial distributary channels

347
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This facies association consists of grey to greyish brown, erosionally-based,
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348 medium to coarse-grained, poorly to moderately-sorted sandstones. FA1.5
349 commonly succeeds a very thin (<5 cm) erosionally-based mudstone layer with
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350 common carbonaceous materials and root traces. The sandstones of this
351 association are commonly stacked in successive fining-upward successions.
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352 Multiple scour surfaces are observed and commonly mantled by scattered rip-up
353 clasts (Fig. 7E). Thickening-upward, massive and faintly cross-stratified
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354 sandstones represent the base of the association (Fig. 7E). Trace fossils are
355 absent except for occasional root traces and carbonaceous debris (Fig. 7E). The
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356 sandstones commonly amalgamate to reach a maximum cumulative thickness up

357 to 20 m in the central part of the WD Field (Fig. 8A). The fining upward stacking
358 patterns, erosive basses, and presence of lag deposits indicate deposition within
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359 distributary channels. Amalgamated sandstone beds with multiple internal

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360 erosional surfaces may point to repeated episodes of erosion and infill. The small-
361 scale crossbedding foresets (3-10 cm) indicate down-current migration of sand
362 dunes in shallow water stream channels. Furthermore, the complete absence of
363 marine ichnofossils, the presence of root traces and plant fragments suggest
364 deposition in distributary channels emplaced in the subaerial delta-plain.

365 4.2.2. MSC Abu Madi Formation

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366 The MSC Abu Madi sediments represent the infill facies of the Messinian Eonile
367 Canyon in WAK Field. They are subdivided into three main units (lower, middle and
368 upper) and five sedimentary facies associations from bottom to top as follows:

369 Facies association 2.1 (FA2.1): subaerial gravity-flow deposits

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370 The FA2.1 represents the sediments of the Abu Madi lower unit. It consists of
371 deformed fine-grained sandy muddy heterolithic deposits and chaotic muddy
372 breccia (pseudo-breccia) (Fig. 7F). The mudstones occasionally preserve slight

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373 laminations which were deformed by large-scale (>15 cm) sill-and dyke-like
374 sandstone injectites (Fig. 7F). Large angular blocks (>0.25 m in diameter) are

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375 locally present, and commonly preserve some faint stratification and occasionally
376 contain siderite bands. The pervasive sandstone injectites, absence of any internal

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377 organization and bedding planes as well as the presence of large blocks with
preserved faint stratifications indicate rapid erosion and deposition by mass
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378
379 transport flows. The very sharp margins of the muddy breccia blocks indicate a
380 proximal source, most likely the pre-MSC Qawasim facies which form the canyon
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381 margins. Accordingly, this association is interpreted as generated by subaerial

382 gravity-flows (landslides and rock avalanches) (e.g. Blair and McPherson, 1994;
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383 Hunger et al., 2001). Muddy, silty and occasionally very fine sandstone matrix most
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384 likely reflect the emplacement of this association by non-cohesive debris

385 avalanches (e.g. Eyles and Kocsis, 1988; Prior and Bornhold, 1990). These
386 deposits were accumulated immediately after the incision of the canyon due to
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387 destabilization of the canyon walls associated with local collapses and landslides.
388 These landslides are likely the consequence of a complex interaction between
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389 erosion, isostatic deformation, sea level fall and water discharge processes
occurred during the MSC (Gargani et al., 2010).
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390

391 Facies association 2.2 (FA2.2): fluvial channel-fill facies

392 This association corresponds to the Abu Madi middle unit. It consists of
393 massive, cross-stratified and locally conglomeratic sandstones which are stacked
394 in a fining upward sequence (Fig. 7G). Very sharp contact separates FA2.2 from
395 the underlying FA2.1 (Fig. 8B). Rounded mud clasts are locally present at the base

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396 of the association. The massive and cross-stratified sandstones display sharp
397 bases and tops when associated with the conglomerate sandstones. Trace fossils
398 are absent. Poor sorting, massive appearance, multiple scour surfaces and the
399 presence of cross-stratified sandstones are indicatives of high-energy deposition
400 and erosion likely by fluvial channels (Miall, 1977; Tucker, 2001). The presence of

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401 intraformational pebble conglomerate overlying the scour surfaces suggest rapid
402 deposition of bedload (Reineck and Singh 1980). This is supported by the absence
403 of mudstone interbeds and mud drapes which confirm continuous episodes of

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404 increased hydrodynamic energy. The absence of bioturbations and tidal features
405 indicate pure fluvial deposition. Multiple scour surfaces mantled with pebble

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406 conglomerates, and the presence of stacked units lacking mudstone interbeds
407 suggest repeated channel incision and infill episodes (Miall, 1996; Bridge, 2003).

408
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Facies association 2.3 (FA2.3): tidally-influenced fluvial channel facies
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409 The FA2.3 sediments mark the base of the Abu Madi upper unit. It consists of
410 sharp-based, coarse-grained, poorly-sorted massive and pebbly sandstones
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411 interbedded with fine-grained, moderately-sorted ripple laminated calcareous

412 sandstones. The fine-grained sandstones are characterized by trough cross-
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413 stratification, symmetrical bidirectional ripples, and occasionally wave ripples.

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414 Rounded mud intraclasts as well as small-scale (<5 cm) sand injectites are locally
415 observed (Fig. 7H). Flame structures are also locally observed. Trace fossils are
416 rare, and are represented by scarce tiny Planolites and Chondrites. The sharp
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417 base, and the fining-upward sequence typically indicates in-channel deposition.
418 The abundance of basal massive and pebbly sandstones indicates rapid deposition
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419 with high hydrodynamic energy. Fine-grained sediments at the top with abundant
symmetrical current ripples, wave ripples and mud drapes which are indicative of
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420
421 bedforms formed by tidal currents suggest a significant tidal influence (e.g.
422 Terwindt, 1971, Van den berg et al., 2007). This is also confirmed by the abundant
423 tidal rhythmites, tidal bundles and mud drapes which dominate the upper part of
424 this association. Moreover, the upward increase in bioturbation from FA2.2 to
425 FA2.3 typifies a transition from fresh water to mixed fresh and brackish water
426 conditions (e.g. MacEachern and Bann, 2008). In summary, FA2.3 represents

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427 deposition in a tidally-influenced fluvial channel. It marks a major shift in valley-fill

428 environment from continental fluvial-dominated to coastal marine tidal-dominated
429 estuarine conditions.

430 Facies association 2.4 (FA2.4): tidal sand bars

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431 This is an approximately 9 m thick, sharp-based association of sandstones (Fig.
432 8B). FA2.4 consists of thinning-upward, medium to fine-grained, moderately-sorted
433 sandstones. The sandstones are occasionally interlaminated with very thin (~2 cm)

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434 calcareous mudstones. Horizontal lamination, low-angle planar laminations and
435 mud drapes are the observed sedimentary structures (Fig. 7I). Slump structures

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436 and convolute laminations are also common. Vertical large-scale (>15 cm)
437 sandstone injectites and small synaeresis cracks are observed. Trace fossils are

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438 scarce; they are represented by tiny Planolites and Teichichnus which form large
scale horizontal burrows with vertical spreiten (Fig. 7I). Sedimentary structures,
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439
440 ichnofossils suit and the significant thickness of the sand bodies suggest
441 deposition as tidal sand bars. The basal sharp contact is interpreted herein as a
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442 tidal ravinement surface (e.g. Plink- Björklund, 2005). The lack of bioturbation in
443 the lower part of the association together with the general lack of mud interbeds
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444 and mud drapes likely reflect rapid deposition and/or rapid migration of the
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445 bedforms (Amos et al., 1980). The tidal and marine influence increases upward
446 with increased abundance of mud drapes, bidirectional ripples and reactivation
447 surfaces as well as bioturbations. However, the presence of synaeresis cracks
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448 together with the low diversity of ichnofossils indicate repeated episodes of salinity
449 fluctuation (Plummer and Gostin, 1981). The presence of scarce Planolites and
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450 Teichichnus burrows (Teichichnus ichnofacies) signifies deposition on bars with

brackish salinity (Fig. 7I) (Pemberton et al., 2009).
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451

452 Facies association 2.5 (FA2.5): tidal flat facies

453 The FA2.5 sediments consist of dark grey laminated siltstones with occasional
454 lenticular fine- to coarse-grained sandstones (Fig. 7J). Siltstone beds range in
455 thickness from 0.5 to 5 m (Fig. 8B). Low-angle, horizontal parallel laminations, mud
456 drapes and wavy bedding are the most common sedimentary structures. Convolute

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457 laminations and micro-faults are locally present. Trace fossils are only represented
458 by different-sized Planolites. This facies association is interpreted as having been
459 deposited in a restricted tidal flat environment typically emplaced in the lower to
460 middle-estuarine setting. Wavy bedding and mud drapes are indicative of bedforms
461 formed by tidal influence during slack-water periods (Klein, 1971; Buatois et al.,

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462 1999). The paucity of bioturbation, and absence of open marine suites confirm the
463 interpretation of tidal flat conditions emplaced in a restricted embayment
464 disconnected from the open sea coastline.

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465 4.3. Reservoir characteristics of the Messinian facies

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466 4.3.1. Pre-MSC Qawasim facies

467 The Qawasim prodelta facies (FA1.1) lacks any porosity except the presence of

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468 microfractures (Fig. 9A); the measured porosity and permeability values are very
low (mean= 10.1% and 0.27 millidarcy (m.d.)). Accordingly, the prodelta facies
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469
470 represents the lowest reservoir quality end-member in the pre-MSC Qawasim
471 Formation (Fig. 10). The Qawasim distal sand bars (FA1.2) are dominated by
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472 argillaceous sandstones with abundant clay matrix content (Fig. 9B). Primary
473 intergranular pore spaces are very scarce, and the overall facies reservoir quality is
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474 low (Fig. 10). The Qawasim subaqueous distributary channel facies (FA1.3)
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475 consists of clean, medium to coarse-grained sandstones (Fig. 9C). This facies is
476 characterized by high intergranular pore spaces (Mean= 19%); it also contains
477 significant secondary intragranular pore spaces (Fig. 9C). Therefore, FA1.3
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478 represents very good reservoir quality facies with high helium porosity (mean=
479 23.17%) and horizontal permeability (mean= 880 m.d.) values (Fig. 10). The
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480 distributary mouth bar facies (FA1.4) is also characterized by low matrix content,
and has good intergranular primary porosity (Fig. 9D). FA1.4 has very good
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481
482 reservoir quality with high helium porosity (mean=24.5%) and horizontal
483 permeability (mean= 1424 m.d.) values (Fig. 10). The subaerial distributary
484 channel sandstones (FA1.5) have the coarsest grain size with minimum matrix
485 content (Fig. 9E). This facies contains high primary intergranular (mean= 22.5%)
486 and secondary intragranular (mean= 2.25%) pore spaces. FA1.5 has excellent
487 reservoir quality with high helium porosity (mean= 27.9%) and horizontal

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488 permeability (mean= 5403 m.d.); it represents the highest reservoir quality end-
489 member within the Qawasim formation (Fig. 10).

490 4.3.2. MSC Abu Madi

491 The subaerial gravity-flow (FA2.1) deposits contain abundant argillaceous

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492 matrix materials; they lack any intergranular primary pore spaces and the
493 secondary pore spaces were substantially infilled with diagenetic calcite (Fig. 9F).
494 FA2.1 has the lowest helium porosity and horizontal permeability values (mean=

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495 5.12% and 0.72 m.d.), and therefore represents the lowest reservoir quality end-
496 member in the MSC Abu Madi Formation (Fig. 10). The fluvial channel-fill facies

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497 (FA2.2) is dominated by quartz arenite sandstones which mainly have clean
498 composition with minimal argillaceous matrix content (Fig. 9G). FA2.2 has the

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499 highest helium porosity and horizontal permeability values (mean= 27.8% and 607
m.d.), and therefore represents the highest reservoir quality end-member within the
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500
501 MSC Abu Madi facies (Fig. 10). The tidally-influenced fluvial channel facies (FA2.3)
502 is comparatively finer-grained (Fig. 9H). FA2.3 has lower porosity and permeability
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503 values (mean= 18.5% and 10.5 m.d.) than FA2.2 sandstones. The tidal sand bar
504 (FA2.4) sandstones are mainly coarse-grained with low matrix content and high
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505 intergranular porosity (Fig. 9I). FA2.4 has high helium porosity (mean= 25%) and
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506 horizontal permeability values (mean= 129 m.d.); and is considered as good
507 reservoir quality facies (Fig. 10). The tidal flat facies (FA2.5) consists of matrix-
508 supported, very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones (Fig. 9J). FA2.5 lacks any
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509 intergranular primary pore spaces, and the secondary pores are also absent (Fig.
510 9J). FA2.5 has low helium porosity (mean= 11.5%) and horizontal permeability
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511 values (mean= 20.3 m.d.), and is therefore considered as poor reservoir quality
facies.
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512

513 5. Data interpretation and discussion

514 5.1. Depositional model and architecture of the pre-MSC Qawasim
515 facies

516 The depositional architecture of the pre-MSC Qawasim facies associations and
517 their stacking patterns suggest progradation and shallowing from basal mudstone

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518 and siltstones-dominated prodelta facies (FA1.1) to sandstone-dominated delta-

519 plain distributary channel-fill facies (FA1.5). The FA1.1 sediments interpreted as a
520 prodeltaic facies changing northward from siltstone-dominated proximal prodelta to
521 mudstone-dominated distal-prodelta are consistent with the northward deltaic
522 progradation of the entire system (e.g. Reading and Collinson, 1996; Olivero et al.,

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523 2008; Cappelle et al., 2017). The Qawasim deltaic sequence is subdivided into two
524 stratigraphic units (distal deltaic and proximal deltaic facies) (Fig. 8A, C). The distal
525 deltaic unit is broadly attributed to a subaqueous deltaic environment; it

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526 encompasses the prodelta facies (FA1.1), the distal sand bars (FA1.2), and the
527 proximal delta-front distributary channels and distributary mouthbars (FA1.3 and

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528 FA1.4). Earlier facies consist of basal prodelta facies evolving in distal
529 (subaqueous delta facies encompassing distal sand bar and delta-front distributary

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530 channels and mouthbars) then proximal delta facies (subaerial distributary
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531 channels) (Fig 8A, WD-9 & WD-2).Thus the Qawasim unit typically displays a
532 coarsening upward sequence with stacked patterns showing a two-steps
533 shallowing upward progradation.
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534 In the southern part of WD Field (Fig. 8A, C, WD-1 well), succession globally
535 displays shallowing upward from prodelta to distal facies delta facies. Within each
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536 of this facies, we can respectively observe delta front distal sand bar and mouthbar
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537 facies. Even if proximal deltaic facies are not recognized within the upper part,
538 upward shallowing trend is confirmed (Fig. 8A, C).
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539 The distal deltaic facies represents the lower part of seismic upper unit; and the
540 shallowing upward succession is in agreement with the upward increase in the
541 seismic amplitude. Moreover, the interpreted northward progradation is consistent
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542 with the seismic observations and the northward prograding parallel-oblique
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543 reflectors which represent the prograding deltaic system (e.g. Chen et al., 2014).
544 Accordingly, the lower part of the upper seismic unit most likely represents the
545 distal subaqueous part of the delta (Fig. 11A). The proximal deltaic facies which is
546 interpreted as having been attributed to a subaerial environment corresponds to
547 the upper part of the upper seismic unit. It constitutes the lower to upper delta-plain
548 distributary channel-fill facies (FA1.5). The base of the subaerial succession is a
549 remarkable subaerial unconformity marked by very thin mudstone layer containing
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550 root traces and carbonaceous debris (Fig. 8A). This unconformity is associated
551 with a sharp break in gamma ray values (Fig. 8A). The stratigraphic position of this
552 mudstone layer at the top of the distal deltaic unit reflects the transition from
553 subaqueous to a subaerial vegetated delta-plain environment. Internally, the
554 proximal deltaic unit displays several fining and coarsening upward stacking

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555 patterns; and is interpreted as representing the deposits of the high-energy and
556 high-gradient proximal part of the deltaic system (Fig. 11B). This is in agreement
557 with the upward increase in the seismic amplitude of the upper seismic unit

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558 reflecting the upward deltaic progradation and transition from subaqueous prodelta,
559 distal and proximal delta-front to subaerial delta-plain environment.

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560 The extracted RMS amplitude map along the base of the seismic upper unit
561 (Fig. 11A) supports this depositional model, and highlights several small high
562
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amplitude anomalies (75-400 m in diameter) of the distal sand bars surrounded by
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563 the low-amplitude background of the prodelta mudstones and siltstones facies.
564 Similarly, the map along the upper part of the upper seismic unit reflects the delta
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565 progradation from the prodelta and distal sand bars to the anomalously high-
566 amplitude distributary channel-fill and distributary mouthbars facies (Fig. 11B).
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567 5.2. Depositional model and architecture of the MSC Abu Madi facies
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568 The lower-infill unit documents the earliest deposits of the MSC in the entire
569 Nile Delta. The seismic response of this unit is similar to the complex unit reported
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570 from other Mediterranean margins (e.g. Lofi et al., 2005; Clauzon et al., 1995;
571 Cameselle and Urgeles, 2016). It represents a subaerial equivalent to the
572 submarine mass transport deposits accumulated shortly after the Messinian
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573 incisions by gravity-related processes. The Abu Madi fluvial middle infill unit is
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574 subdivided into 3 main subunits (lower, middle and upper). The lower subunit
575 consists of 7 m thick, sharp-based aggrading fluvial facies (Fig. 8D). The middle
576 subunit consists of the sharp-based, amalgamated fluvial channel-fill sandstones
577 displaying coarsening-upward stacked beds (~5 m thick) which represent an initial
578 progradational phase related to a period of increased hydrodynamic energy (Fig.
579 8D). This prograding subunit is followed by a stacked, fining-upward patterns (11 m
580 thick) characterized by multiple scour surfaces which correspond to the
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581 amalgamation of fluvial channel bars to form channel-belt complexes (Fig. 8D)
582 (e.g. Heldreich et al., 2013). These reflect a progressive upward increase in the
583 hydrodynamic flow energy with subsequent increase in the sediment supply. The
584 extracted RMS seismic amplitude map of Abu Madi fluvial unit (at 2700 ms TWT)
585 reveals the presence of wide, high amplitude bodies distributed along the channel

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586 consistent with the presence of coarse fluvial channel bars (Fig. 12). This unit
587 (FA2.2) is considered to represent deposition under periods of low
588 accommodation/sedimentation ratios (A/S). The upper subunit of the Abu Madi

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589 middle infill unit consists of 3 m thick fine-grained fluvial facies. This subunit
590 corresponds to a typical retrogradational phase, and a deposition under high

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591 accommodation phase (high A/S ratios) (e.g. Adamson et al., 2013). The
592 sediments of this subunit typically represent a transitional zone from continental

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593 (pure fluvial) to marine-influenced (estuarine) conditions. This indicates abrupt
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594 decrease in the hydrodynamic flow energy with subsequent decrease in the
595 sediment supply which marks the onset of the retrogradational phase and normal
596 salinity restoration (e.g. Rubino et al., 2015). The depositional facies and vertical
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597 stacking patterns of Abu Madi middle-infill fluvial unit is virtually consistent with the
598 seismic observations retrieved from the horizontal time slices confirming basal
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599 progradation subsequently followed by widespread retrogradation at the top of the

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600 succession (Fig. 6).

601 A transgressive surface separates the fluvial unit from the upper unit (Fig. 12).
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602 This surface marks the drowning of the valley and landward migration of the
603 bayline; thus defining the onset of the transgressive estuarine infill. The tidally-
604 influenced fluvial channel (FA2.3) facies represents the base of the estuarine unit,
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605 and is succeeded by tidal sand bars facies (FA2.4) (Fig. 8B). Tidal ravinement
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606 surface separates these two facies; it represents the onset of the late transgressive
607 deposition (Fig. 12). These are followed by the restricted tidal flat siltstones which
608 may correspond to the early highstand systems tract deposition (Fig. 12). The
609 RMS-amplitude map of the upper-infill unit (at 2620 ms TWT) illustrates the
610 presence of bodies generating high-amplitude reflections confined within the valley,
611 which display a general landward increase in seismic amplitude. These high-
612 amplitude bodies are the scattered tidal sand bars; and their confinement within the
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613 valley is consistent with the narrow, funnel-shaped geometries of the tide-
614 dominated estuarine-infill systems (Dalrymple et al., 1992; Zaitlin et al., 1994;
615 Gargani, 2004).

616 5.3. Reservoir rock typing: barriers, baffles and conduits

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617 The reservoir properties (porosity Phi, permeability K, and grain density) of the
618 Messinian sedimentary facies show significant heterogeneities (Fig. 10), likely
619 induced by the complex interplay between the depositional (grain size and sorting)

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620 and diagenetic (cement content and type) attributes. R35 is used for pore throat
621 classifications from nanopores to megapores (Fig. 10). Qawasim subaerial

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622 distributary channel sandstones have large R35 pore throats, mostly greater than 10
623 microns (megapores). The Abu Madi fluvial channel sandstones, Qawasim

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624 subaqueous distributary channels and distributary mouthbar sandstones are
dominated by macropores. The Qawasim prodelta and distal sand bars have R35
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625
626 pore throats smaller than 0.5 microns, and therefore dominated by micropores. The
627 term “rock type” is used to refer to the rocks with similar pore size distribution,
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628 porosity, permeability, as well as pore-occluding cement (Archie, 1950). Rock type
629 I (RT I) includes the best reservoir quality facies with large pore throat radii
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630 (megapores) and very high porosity and permeability (Fig. 13A). RT I rocks are
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631 mainly the coarse sandstones of the Qawasim distributary channels and
632 mouthbars (Fig. 10). They are mainly clean sandstones with minimal content of
633 depositional clay matrix, and their pore spaces contain only diagenetic kaolinite
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634 (Dg-K) (Fig. 13A). This is consistent with their grain density values which confirm
635 their clean quartzose composition (Schön, 1996) (Fig. 13B). High sedimentation
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636 rates in the delta-plain and proximal delta-front prevented the infiltration of
significant amount of depositional clays and permitted precipitation of few scattered
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637
638 patches of eodiagenetic carbonate which supported the facies framework against
639 mechanical compaction; thus preserving the intergranular volume (IGV) and
640 primary porosity of the RT I rocks (e.g. Leila et al., 2018b). Moreover, meteoric
641 water incursion triggered eodiagenetic dissolution and alteration of feldspars
642 resulting in formation of secondary pore spaces which increased the pore throat
643 radii and enhanced RT I reservoir quality (Fig. 9E).

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644 Rock type II (RT II) rocks are those with more than 25% porosity and
645 permeability of 100-1000 m.d. They have macropores with pore throat radii larger
646 than 2 microns (Figs. 10 and 13A). They mostly include the Abu Madi fluvial
647 channel and tidal sand bars facies (Fig. 10). RT II facies are mainly clean
648 sandstones with very low depositional matrix content. However, they contain

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649 abundant diagenetic chlorite (Dg-Ch) and quartz overgrowth (Dg-Q) (Fig. 9G, I).
650 RT II rocks with abundant diagenetic chlorite have lower permeability values than
651 those of RT I facies despite their similar porosity values (Fig. 13A). This is

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652 attributed to the abundant chlorite coatings which occupy a small volume of the
653 pore spaces, but obstruct the pore throats and hence decrease the rock

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654 permeability rather than porosity (e.g. Loucks et al., 1984). Rock type III (RT III)
655 facies are dominated by mesopores with pore throat radii of 2-5 microns, porosity

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656 of 15-25%, and permeability of 10-100 m.d (Figs. 10 and 13A). These include the
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657 rocks with abundant diagenetic calcite and glauconite (Dg-CaGl) (Fig. 13A). They
658 mostly constitute the Qawasim distal sand bars (Fig. 9B), and Abu Madi tidally-
659 influenced fluvial channel facies (Fig. 9H). These facies proximity to marine
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660 conditions facilitated the eodiagenetic authigenesis of both calcite and glauconite
661 which completely blocked the primary pore spaces, and thus deteriorated the
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662 permeability values (e.g. Leila et al., 2018b). RT III facies have high grain density
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663 values due to the abundant pore-filling calcite and glauconite (Fig. 13B). Rock type
664 IV (RT IV) rocks are those with low porosity (0-15%) and permeability (0.01-10
665 m.d) (Fig. 13A). They have very low pore throat radii, and are dominated by
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666 micropores and nanopores (Fig. 10). RT IV rocks have dominant pore-filling
667 depositional clays as confirmed from their low grain density values (Fig. 13B). RT
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668 IV mostly constitutes the matrix-supported Qawasim prodelta (Fig. 9A), Abu Madi
subaerial gravity-flow (Fig. 9F), and Abu Madi tidal flat facies (Fig. 9J).
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669

670 The depositional facies’ storage and flow capacity in each well could be
671 visualized by plotting cumulative permeability (Kh) versus cumulative porosity (φh)
672 (Lorenz plot) (Fig. 14A, B) (Gunter et al., 1997). In WD Field wells, Qawasim
673 subaqueous distributary channel facies accounts for approximately 35% of the
674 rocks storage capacity but does not add significant feet of Kh (Fig. 14A). On the
675 other hand, the Qawasim subaerial distributary channel facies accounts for about
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676 38% of the storage capacity and 70% of the flow capacity (Fig. 14A). This is
677 attributed to their coarse-grained sandstone texture, low depositional matrix
678 content, presence of only diagenetic kaolinite and scattered patches of diagenetic
679 calcite; as well as the abundant dissolution secondary pore spaces (Fig. 9C, E).
680 Therefore, these facies represent the main flow conduits within the Qawasim

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681 Formation in the Nile Delta. Qawasim distributary mouthbar facies exhibits a good
682 section of Phi-h but does not add significant flow capacity (Fig. 14A), and it
683 therefore represents semi-conduit facies. The Qawasim prodelta facies has very

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684 low storage capacity, and does not have any significant flow capacity (Fig. 14A);
685 and it therefore represents fluid flow barriers within the Qawasim Formation in the

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686 Nile Delta.

687 In WAK Field wells, the Abu Madi subaerial gravity-flow deposits have very low
688
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storage and flow capacity (Fig. 14B). The Abu Madi fluvial channel facies displays
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689 the best section of storage and flow capacity. It accounts for approximately 90% of
690 the flow capacity and about 70% of the storage capacity (Fig. 14B). The fluvial
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691 sandstones represent the main fluid flow conduits within the Abu Madi Formation in
692 the Nile Delta. The Abu Madi tidally-influenced fluvial facies exhibits a good section
of storage capacity but acts as flow barrier with no significant Kh (Fig. 14B). This is
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693
694 attributed to the abundant diagenetic calcite and glauconite (Dg-CaGl) which
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695 completely obliterate the rock permeability (Fig. 9H). The tidal sand bars facies
696 displays a good section of Phi-h and Kh; it accounts for 8% of the flow capacity and
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697 therefore represents a good flow conduit in WAK Field area (Fig. 14B). The Abu
698 Madi tidal flat facies has very low storage and flow capacity, and it represents the
699 fluid flow barrier facies in the study area (Fig. 14B).
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5.4. A refined scenario for the MSC in the Nile Delta onshore region:
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700
701 insights from the canyon-infill sedimentary facies

702 Based on the present study and the constraints from the canyon-infill
703 sedimentary facies, a refined evolutionary reconstruction of the MSC in the Nile
704 Delta onshore region is proposed. Isolation of the Mediterranean from the Atlantic
705 Ocean was established between 5.59 and 5.33 million years ago (Krijgsman et al.,
706 1999). Early during this period, a prominent subaerial erosional surface (MES) was
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707 formed in the study area, and this erosionally truncated the pre-MSC Qawasim
708 deltaic sediments (Figs. 3 and 4A). Moreover, the Mediterranean marginal basins
709 influenced by large river systems (e.g. Nile and Rhone) were subjected to
710 extensive erosion and subsequent incision of several valleys (Barber, 1981;
711 Clauzon, 1982; Chumakov, 1973). Traces of these widespread fluvial incisions are

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712 preserved in the study area, and are represented by the remarkable subaerial
713 unconformity surface (BES) which is easily traceable at the bottom of the river
714 incisions (Figs. 3 and 4B). During the episodes of fluvial incisions, the eroded

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715 sediments bypassed the continental shelf and were deposited offshore in deep-
716 water environments. This period of sediment bypass and forced regression is

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717 documented by the downstepping basinward movement of the BES (Fig. 3A),
718 reflecting the basinward shift of the erosion. This forced regression phase is locally

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719 marked by the presence of the accumulation of subaerial gravity-flow deposits in
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720 the study area which document the first sedimentary record of the MSC in the Nile
721 Delta (Fig. 15A). These represent the only preserved sedimentary package in the
722 onshore Nile Delta that accumulated during the falling stage subsequent to the
M

723 main drawdown and desiccation event of the Mediterranean (e.g. Gargani et al.,
724 2010; Rubino et al., 2015). Termination of the valley incision and gravity-controlled-
D

725 processes took place during the late stage of the MSC with an overall onset of a
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726 relative sea-level rise. This period represents a normal regression phase marked
727 by the accumulation of aggradational-progradational fluvial facies (low A/S ratio).
728 This fluvial facies most likely accumulated during an incipient sea-level rise (Fig.
EP

729 15B), however the sediment supply from the Nile River still outpaces the rate of
730 accommodation (e.g. Posamentier and Allen, 1999). The abrupt change from
C

731 falling stage and forced regression to normal regression phase suggests strong
salinity variations and possible restoration of almost marine conditions during the
AC

732
733 MSC (e.g. Bache et al., 2012; Rubino et al., 2015; Marzocchi et al., 2015). This
734 normal regression phase accounts for approximately 40% of the Eonile canyon
735 sedimentary infill. The main reservoir facies were accumulated during this period,
736 and the high rates of sedimentation away from marine eodiagenesis played a
737 dominant role in preserving their reservoir quality.

24
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

738 The upper infill unit is interpreted as having been deposited in an overall
739 transgressive tide-dominated estuarine environment. Evidence for this comes from
740 the sharp transgressive surface which coincides with the top of the fluvial unit
741 followed by retrogradational facies reflecting the drowning of the valley. Relative
742 sea-level rise is indicated by reworking of the fluvial deposits by tides and

PT
743 formation of tidal ravinement surface. This is also confirmed by the upward
744 increase in bioturbation and ichnofacies diversity which favors a restoration of near
745 normal saline conditions during the climax of the MSC (e.g. Rubino et al., 2015).

RI
746 The upper units’ reflectors displaying landward-stepping terminations with the
747 underlying fluvial unit likely mark the transgressive surface recorded between the

SC
748 middle and upper infill units. Accordingly, the upper unit represents the backfilling
749 transgressive phase of the Eonile infill. The deposits of this unit display a

U
750 retrogradational stacking patterns from tidally-influenced fluvial deposits to tidal
AN
751 sand bars and tidal flat facies consistent with the facies stacking patterns of the
752 typical estuarine model of incised valley-fill (Dalrymple et al., 1992; Zaitlin et al.,
753 1994). This retrogradational depositional infill of the Eonile May suggest a regional
M

754 pre-Pliocene transgression in the Nile Delta supporting the idea of two step
755 reflooding of the Mediterranean (Butler et al., 1995; Carnevale et al., 2006; Bache
D

756 et al., 2012, 2015). Moreover, we argue that a significant part of the Eonile canyon
TE

757 and the Nile delta was submerged during the step I reflooding phase prior to the
758 complete submergence of the Nile Delta and northern Egypt during the well-known
759 step II (Zanclean) (Fig. 15C). Therefore, this study suggests that the TES which
EP

760 coincides with the top MSC facies is likely interpreted as the maximum flooding
761 surface (MFS) of the step 1 reflooding phase (Fig. 15).
C

762 6. Conclusion
AC

763 • The pre-MSC Qawasim Formation is subdivided into two main units. The
764 lower unit represents the feeder channels of the upper unit dominated by
765 prograding deltaic sediments.
766 • The MSC Abu Madi Formation consists of three different units infilling the
767 Eonile canyon; the lower unit consists of chaotic seismic facies of
768 subaerial gravity-flow deposits.

25
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769 • The middle unit constitutes the high-amplitude seismic facies of the
770 aggradational-progradational fluvial channel sediments.
771 • The MSC upper unit consists of low-amplitude, semi-transparent seismic
772 facies corresponding to the retrogradational estuarine facies.
773 • The modality of flooding of the Eonile Canyon is characterized by a two

PT
774 steps process first consisting of a gradual relative sea-level rise (fluvial
775 and estuarine environment) followed by a quicker and sharper deepening
(shelf) associated with the Zanclean flooding.

RI
776
777 • Depositional clays and diagenetic calcite and glauconite are the most
detrimental depositional and diagenetic attributes on the facies reservoir

SC
778
779 quality, and therefore the main fluid flow conduits are those continental
780 facies with limited marine influence, and hence minimal contents of these

U
781 materials.
AN
782 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation
M

783
784 (EGPC) and Mansoura Petroleum Company, Egypt for providing the required data
785 and materials. Also, we wish to thank the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education
D

786 and Scientific Research for funding this study. The authors are also grateful to the
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787 Corex Services (Cairo) for providing the facilities to carry out this research. We
788 also appreciate the help of Dr. Luis Buatois for his help in the identification of some
trace fossils.
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789

790 References
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1040 Figure captions

1041 Fig. 1. Location map of the studied fields (West Dikirnis and West Al-Khilala) and the

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1042 studied 2D- and 3D-seismic surveys in the onshore Nile Delta.

1043 Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic column of the study area (Mansoura Petroleum Company
1044 in Corex, 2006; 2007).

1045
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Fig. 3. Regional N-S seismic profile along the Eonile canyon illustrating the architecture of
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1046 the MSC infill facies (A) ; NW-SE seismic profile in the southern part of the study area
1047 illustrating the different Messinian erosion surfaces and units (B) (see locations in Fig. 1).

1048 Fig. 4. NW-SE seismic profiles illustrating the pre-MSC units in West Dikirnis Field (A),
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1049 and MSC units in West Al-Khilala Field (B) (see locations in Fig. 1).

1050 Fig. 5. E-W seismic profiles passing through the West Dikirnis Field showing the
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1051 progradational seismic facies of the pre-MSC Qawasim Formation.

Fig. 6. Series of RMS seismic amplitude horizontal time slices across the Eonile-infill units
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1052
1053 illustrating the upward vertical changes in seismic amplitude. Locations of the horizontal
1054 slices along the seismic profile are marked in the NW-SE seismic profile presented above.
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1055 Fig. 7. Core photos showing the sedimentary facies of the pre-MSC Qawasim (A, B, C, D,
1056 E) and the MSC Abu Madi (F, G, H, I, J) formations. Symbols: Planolites (Pl), Terebellina
1057 (Tb), Chondrites (Ch), Escape trace (ET), Teichichnus (Te).
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1058 Fig. 8. Correlation between the studied West Dikirnis and West Al-Khilala wells illustrating
1059 the lateral and vertical distribution of the pre-MSC Qawasim (A) and MSC Abu Madi
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1060 sedimentary facies (B), (C) pre-MSC Qawasim sedimentary facies distribution through the
1061 WD-1 well, (D) MSC Abu Madi sedimentary facies distribution through the WAK-2 well
1062 (See well locations in Fig. 1).

1063 Fig. 9. Thin sections microphotographs of the Qawasim (A, B, C, D, E) and Abu Madi (F,
1064 G, H, I, J) sedimentary facies. Mineral symbols: quartz(Q), glauconite (G), calcite (C), K-
1065 feldspars (Kfs), dolomite (D), secondary porosity (SP), chlorite (Ch), and quartz
1066 overgrowth (QO).

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1067 Fig. 10. Cross plot showing the relationship between porosity and permeability coded for
1068 the Qawasim and Abu Madi sedimentary facies. The coloured lines are R35 pore throat
1069 radii calculated using the Winland equation (Kolodzie, 1980; Pittman, 2001).

1070 Fig. 11. Conceptual sedimentary model of the pre-MSC deltaic facies. The extracted RMS
1071 amplitude maps show the distribution of the high-amplitude sand bodies within the delta
1072 distributary channels and mouth bars.

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1073 Fig. 12. Conceptual sedimentary model illustrating the infill stages of the Eonile canyon.
1074 Digital core images document the different recorded depositional cycles. Extracted RMS
1075 amplitude maps show the distribution of the fluvial channel bars, tidal bars and tidal

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1076 channels within the valley.

1077 Fig. 13. Facies rock typing classified by porosity, permeability (A) and grain density (B),
1078 together with the nature of the dominant pore-filling phase. Dg = diagenetic, Dp =

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1079 depositional. Cl = clay, Q = quartz overgrowths, K = kaolinite, Ch = chlorite, and CaGl =
1080 calcite and glauconite.

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1081 Fig. 14. Lorenz plots of WD-9 (A) and WAK-2 wells showing the storage and flow capacity
1082 of the depositional facies. Qawasim distributary channels and Abu Madi fluvial channels
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1083 provide the dominant fluid storage and flow capacity in the study area.

1084 Fig. 15. Correlation between the MSC Eonile-infill sequence in the study area and the
1085 paleogeographic maps of the Mediterranean during the two step reflooding phases
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1086 (modified after Bache et al., 2012).

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1087 Fig. 1

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Highlights

• The sedimentary facies of the pre-MSC Qawasim and MSC Abu Madi
formations in the Nile Delta have been investigated.
• The Qawasim Formation constitutes northward prograding deltaic
succession.

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• The Abu Madi Formation constitutes the three infill-units of the Eonile
canyon.

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• The Eonile Canyon was partially infilled during an incipient Late Messinian
sea-level rise prior to the major Zanclean flooding.

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• Qawasim distributary channels and Abu Madi fluvial facies are the main fluid
flow conduits within the Messinian sequence of the Nile Delta.

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