Developments of ESP
Developments of ESP
The register analysis phase — The conception of research
[approximately 19651974]
This first approach, which took place mainly in the 1960s and 1970s, is
that which is outlined in M.A.K. Halliday, A. Mclntosh and P. Strevens The
Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching (1964). Here the point is made
that language varíes in relation to the different people who speak it and in
relation to the different purposes to which it is put. The authors conclude
that, since there is variation in language, there must be different and distinct
varieties of particular languages. These, it is claimed, divide into two types:
one is associated with the different users and these are dialects, while the
other is associated with different uses and these are registers. Both types are
said to be defined by reference to their formal linguistic properties. That is
to say, they are what Widdowson (1979:55) called types of text. Thus,
scientific English, and its various subdivisions, are represented as distinct
registers which can be characterized in terms of how the language system is
manifested.
Registers [...] differ primarily in form. The crucial criterio of any given
register are to be found in its grammar and texis. Every one of these spe
cialized needs requires, befare it can be met by appropriate teaching ma
terials, detailed studies of restricted languages or special registers carried out
on the basis of large samples of language used by the particular persons
concerned, (op.cit. 88, 190; underlined mine [MPGM])
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The aim of the analyses carried out at the time was, therefore, to identify
the grammatical and lexical features of those registers. Frequency studies
became very important since the early days of ESP. The peculiarities of
languages for specific purposes were first and foremost of a quantitative
nature. For some authors, it was the significantly frequent occurrence of
certain speech elements, forms or structures that characterizes scientific
writing and spoken discourse. One of the first and most important frequency
studies was the one carried out by Barber (1962) «Some measurable
characteristics of modern scientific prese», which stimulated a number of
other works. Swales (1985:1) points out that the statistical information
contained in Barber's article provided «important ammunition» for teachers
trying to convince their colleagues and superiors that scientific English was
different from general English or literary English in ways other than its use
of technical or specialized vocabulary'.
Teaching materials of the time (Herbert, 1965; Ewer and Latorre, 1969)
tend to take the formal features of register as their syllabus and give priorities
to forms students would meet in their science studies in English. Herbert, for
example, believes that by placing emphasis on the typical forms of language
found in written engineering texts, by highlighting the typical sentence
patterns and by isolating certain aspects of vocabulary from the texts chosen
for class discussion, the foreign student of engineering will be substantially
aided in his/her specialist English. Scientific statements in the form of a
substitution table were presented for practice (see Fig.l). Although this is a
potentially useful approach, it neither gives guidance as to when one form is
preferred to another ñor indicates how any particular form fits into the
structure of a text, that is, what precedes or foUows it.
As Swales points out, in the early sixties syllabuses were essentially structural and , for
example, all the tenses of English were taught simply because they were there —as part of
the language system—. Barber's results could be —and were— used as an argument for not
teaching the progressive tenses in scientific English classes.
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Figure 1. From A. Herbert (1965) The Structure of Technical English
The Ítems to be taught in courses following Herbert's approach were selected
in the main on an intuitiva basis. One of the first courses to be based on
research into scientific text was Ewer and Latorre's A Course in Basic
Scientific English (1969). The authors analyzed more than three miUion
words of scientific English, covering most of the áreas of science and
technology. From this Corpus, they selected the most frequent grammatical
patterns, structural words and vocabulary items (including prefixes and
suffixes) common to all scientific disciplines.
The register analysis phase has been criticized for being only descriptive,
not explanatory. As Robinson mentions (1991:24), the two approaches
should be combined in such a way that the description leads to the
explanation and the explanation is backed up by
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descriptive data. The approach was very much sentencebased and form
focused {usageexemplification of the language system) and, on the
pedagogical front, did little to encourage a student to view his specialist
English as a vehicle for communication. The criticism made can be
summarized in the foliowing comment by Widdowson (1979:5556):
The fací that scientific English exhibits a relatively high proportion of certain syntactic
features and a relatively low proportion of others may be useful for identifying
scientific English texts should we ever want to do such a thing. [...] But this approach
cannot reveal the communicative character of what was written. It cannot of its nature
deal with discourse.
2. The rhetorical or discourse analysis phase [approximately 1974
1980]
Register analysis as a research procedure was rapidly overtaken by
developments in the world of linguistics. Whereas in the first stage of its
development, ESP had focused on language at the sentence level, the second
phase of development shifted attention to the level above the sentence, as
ESP became closely involved with the emerging field of discourse and
rhetorical analysis. The leading figures in this movement were Henry
Widdowson in Britain and the socalled Washington School of Larry
Selinker, Louis Trimble, John Lackstrom and Mary ToddTrimble in the
United States.
What was important now was not so much «the frequency of feature x or
y but the reason for the cholee of x rather than y in the developing text. The
focus was thus on the sentence, and on the writer's purpose rather than on
form» (Robinson 1991:24). A very practical and readable account of this
approach is given in L. Trimble (1985) English for Science and Technology:
A discourse approach. Whereas the first approach (register analysis) is
quantitative and tells us what linguistic forms occur and how frequently,
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this new approach is qualitative and tells us what the forms count as
communication, how they express elements of discourse (see Fig. 2).
Plants to convert cellulose of pine sawdust into fermentable sugar and that
into alcohol fail because sawmills can't sell as much lumber as plans cali
for, and thereby curtan the alcohol plants' raw material supply.
Plants to convert cellulose of pine sawdust into fermentable sugar and that
into ethyl alcohol have failed because sawmills haven't been able to sell as
much lumber as plants have called for, and thereby have curtailed the
alcohol plants' raw material supply.
A plant to convert cellulose of pine sawdust into fermentable sugar and that
into ethyl alcohol failed because a sawmill couldn't sell as much lumber as
plans called for, and thereby curtailed the alcohol plant's raw material
supply.
Figure 2. Cholee of linguistic features in discourse
What authors are interested in now is how the cholee of certain linguistic
features affects what kind of statement is made in each case. Thus, the choice
of the present, present perfect or past tense in the three statements above is
not a choice based upon the time of the ethylalcohol plant failures, but upon
how general the author believes this phenomenon to be. To put it in a
different way, the author will choose one or another of the tenses depending
upon how many instances of ethylalcohol plant failures he knows about. If
he has knowledge of a large number of cases, he will use the present tense. If
he knows of fewer cases, he will use the present perfect. If he knows only
one case, the past tense will be used.
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Widdowson argued for a program of research on scientific English
which, he claimed, should not be considered a variety of English
defined in terms of its formal properties but as a kind of discourse,
that is to say, a way of using English to realizo universal notions
associated with scientific enquiry^. Thus, bis reaction against tbe
register analysis approach concentrated on the communicative valúes
of discourse rather tban the lexical and grammatical properties of
register, as is clearly illustrated by the following (Alien and Wid
dowson, 1974:2):
The first [ability] is to recognize how sentences are used in the performance of acts of
communication, the ability to understand the rhetorical functioning of language in use.
The second is the ability to recognize and manipúlate the formal devices which are used
to combine sentences to créate continuous passages of prose. We might say that the first
has to do with coherence of discourse, the second with the grammatical cohesión of text.
In practice, the discourse analysis approach tended to concéntrate
on how sentences are used in the performance of acts of communi
cation and to genérate materials based on functions (definitions, des
criptions of experiments, inductive/deductive statements, instructions
... etc). Concern with these functions led to the Focus Series (P. Alien
and H. Widdowson (eds.), OUP), nine volumes in all from 1973 to
1980. The starting point is not an inventory of grammatical Ítems but
of rhetorical functions and students are taught to recognize those in
scientific texts. Despite its theoretical underpinnings, the Focus series
was neither a critical ñor a commercial success due, perhaps, to the
rigidity of the format (structure of units and exercises) and its
overemphasis on the homogeneity of discourse.
^Widdowson's (1975) contention that there is a universality in the cognitive processes of
science and technology that underlies their expression in any given language and his asser
tion that ESP students will already be familiar with these processes from science studies in
their language was criticized by Robinson (1980:23) and Swales (1985:71).
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The other major textbook series of the time was the Nucleus Series (M.
Bates and T. DudleyEvans (eds.), Longman). This series is historically
important in ESP because of its bestselling status. Whereas the Focus
Series was structured along rhetoricalfunctional lines, as we have just seen,
the Nucleus Series opted for a syllabus design limited to the language of
observation and description. Now we find a conceptdriven syllabus in the
sense that its organizing principie lies within the basic scientific concepts,
such as structure, function and causation extractable from descriptive
scientific statements. One of the advantages of this approach was that
"concept" was not tied to either discipline or subject matter {structure could
be equally applied to the cell in biology or the atom in physics). The new
textbook series was successful because it was teacherfriendly, it had an
attractive layout and it used inventive visual prompts (see Figure 3).
Nevertheless, there were dissatisfactions too; the most important one relates
to the communicative valué and the feeling that this series, like Focus, does
not live up to its promises in this área.
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The carbón cycle
The life of plants and animáis depends on the chemical substances containing carbón
atoms. Plants obtain carbón from the very small amounts of carbón dioxide in the
atmosphere. This atmospheric C02 is continually absorbed and given off (released)
in the "carbón cycle".
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surgical reports of sentences with indefinite subjects and those with the
dummy subject there and she showed the importance of relating the
grammatical description to the realworld role of the complete text. In the
context of surgical reports, the discourse function of the indefinite
subject/dummy there opposition is to provide an alternation between
thematic Information (the one the surgeon assumes is relevant to the surgical
event) and nonthematic Information (the one less likely to relate directly to
the procedure).
Several important studies have focused on the verb system. For example
Tarone et al. (1981) consider the relative frequency of active and passive
forms in two astrophysics journal articles, finding that, contrary to many
assumptions about scientific English, we with an active verb occurs at least
as frequently as the passive^. As Robinson points out (1991:25) «what is
important is that Tarone et al. try to identify the rhetorical reasons for the
cholee of active or passive, reasons that relate to the developing text and to
authorial meaning and not to any prior stylistic decisión» (underlined mine
[MPGM]). This approach is later continued by Malcolm (1987) who
explores tense usage in scientific articles.
3. The conception of need — The target situation analysis
[approximately 19801987]
The stage that we come to consider now did not really add anything
new to the range of knowledge about ESP. What it aimed to do was to take
the existing knowledge and set it on a more scientific basis by establishing
procedures for relating language analysis more closely to the learner's
reasons for learning.
Given that the purpose of an ESP course is to enable learners to function
adequately in a target situation, that is, the situation in which the learners
will use the language they are learning, then the
' See also Tarone et al. (1998) for extensions of these ideas to astrophysics articles in other
languages and other fields.
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ESP course design process should proceed by first identifying the target
situation and then carrying out a rigorous analysis of the linguistic features
of that situation. The identified features will form the syllabus of the ESP
course. This process is usually known as needs analysis. However,
Chamber's (1980:29) term target situation analysis (TSA) is a more accurate
description of the process concerned.
By the language I mean the language of the target situation. Thus needs
analysis should be concerned with the establishment of communicative needs
and their realisations, resulting froin an analysis of the communication in the
target situation — what I will refer to as target situation analysis (TSA).
In looking at the target situation, the ESP course designer is asking the
question «What does the expert communicator need to know in order to
function effectively in this situation?» This information may be recorded in
terms of language items, skills, strategies, subject knowledge .. etc. The
most thorough explanation of target situation analysis is the system set out
by John Munby in his book Communicative Syllabus Design (1978). Munby
presents a highly detailed set of procedures for discovering target situation
needs. He calis this set of procedures the Communication Needs Processor
(CNP). The CNP consists of a range of questions about key communication
variables (topic, participant, médium) which can be used to identify the target
language needs of any group of learners.
The Munby model produces a detailed profile of the learner's needs in
terms of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of
communication, language skills, functions, structures ...
etc. The model, however, has been widely criticized for its overfullness in
design and for what it fails to take into account. In declaring that all except
targetsituation considerations were «irrelevant to the
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specification of what the learner needs the target language for» (Munby
1977:7), Munby excluded logistical, psychopedagogic and methodological
considerations among others. Munbyan needs analysis may be seen as
reflecting a belief popular in the 1970s: technical rationality, that is, a belief
in the capacity of applied science to deliver practica! solutions to
social/human/learning problems. But what the CNP produced was a list of
the linguistic features of the target situation. There is more to needs analysis
than this, though.
Although the target situation analysis stage marked a certain "coming of
age" for ESP, in the sense that what had previously been done very much in
a piecemeal way, was now systematized and learner need was apparently
placed at the center of the course design process, as time went by it could be
seen that the concept of needs that it was based on was far too simple. To
counter the shortcomings of targetsituation needs analysis, various forms of
learning needs or pedagogic needs have been identified to give more infor
mation about the learner and the educational environment. These forms of
needs should be seen as complementing the targetsituation needs analysis
and each other, rather than being alternatives:
— deficiency analysis: this gives us Information about what the learners'
learning needs are, i.e. which of their targetsituation needs they lack or feel
they lack
— strategy analysis: this seeks to establish how learners wish to learn
rather than what they need to learn. By investigating learners' preferred
learning styles and strategies we «get a picture of the learner's conception
of learning» (Allwright 1982:28)
— means analysis: means analysis investigates precisely those
considerations that Munby excluded. These relate to the educational
environment in which the ESP course is to take place (classroom culture,
ESP staff profiles ... etc, cf. Swales, 1989)
Needs analysis is a complex process, involving much more than
simply looking at what the learners will have to do in the target si
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tuation. Both target situation needs (language use) and learning needs
(language learning) must be taken into account (see Figure 4)
Figure 4. Analyzing target and learning needs. A framework
(adapted from T. Hutchinson & A. Waters. 1987)
4. The concept of authenticity — The skills and
strategies approach
One of the earliest concepts to emerge from the development of
ESP was that of authenticity. As West (1995) mentions, the first
generation of ESP materials that appeared in the mid1960s took skills
as their principal means of selection. The definition of skill was
somewhat broad, establishing little more than the ranking of the four
usual language skills. Of these, it was almost always reading*
' For sociolinguistic reasons, mainly the spread of English as an academic/research
language, ESP has often prioritized the development of reading skills.
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that was singled out in early materials (e.g. Broughton, 1965; Cióse, 1975,
Thornley, 196472), all of which consisted of specialist texts with
accompanying comprehension and language exercises. The concept of
authenticity was central to the approach taken to the reading skill but, at the
time, it was limited in several ways: it was confined to authenticity of text,
with no differentiation between different kinds of scientific/technical texts. A
closer examination of the texts reveáis that authenticity was being contrasted
with simplification, in that the vocabulary and grammar were not simplified
in any way. Moreover, there was no thought of authenticity of task in this
early conception.
More recently, in the 1980s, ESP has seen an attempt to look below the
surface of language^ and to consider not the language itself but the thinking
processes that underlie language use. The principal idea behind the skills and
strategies approach is that underlying all language use there are common
reasoning and interpreting processes, which, regardless of the surface forms,
enable us to extract meaning from discourse. There is, therefore, no need to
focus closely on the surface forms of the language. The focus should rather
be on the interpretive strategies which enable the learner to cope with the
surface forms, for example, guessing the meaning of words from context,
using visual layout to determine the type of text ...etc.
' We noted that in the first two stages of language development of ESP all the
analysis had been of the surface forms of the language (whether at sentence level, as
in register analysis, or above, as in discourse analysis). The target situation analysis
approach did not really change this because in its analysis of the learner's need it still
looked mainly at the surface linguistic features of the target situation.
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subdivided into reading reports, reading technical journals, reading
instruction manuals ... etc. Secondly, the conception of authenticity was
enlarged to embrace authenticity of task.
In effect, this meant designing tasks requiring students to process texts as
they would do in the real world, i.e. employing the same skills and strategies
as would be required in the target situation (see Glendinning & Holmstrom,
1987). Most of the work in the área of skills and strategies has been done in
schemes such as the National ESP Project in Brazil, the University of Los
Andes Project (Bogotá— Colombia, 1980) and the University of Malaya ESP
Project. The Brazilian National ESP project puts out a useful journal {The
ESPecialist); the second project gave rise to the Reading and Thinking in
English Series (John Moore et al. 1980). Skills for Learning (published by
Nelson and the University of Malaya Press, 1980) was the end product of the
third project.
In terms of materials, then, this approach generally puts the emphasis on
reading and listening skills. The characteristic exercises get the learners to
reflect on and analyze how meaning is produced and retrieved from written
and spoken discourse. Taking their cue from cognitive learning theories, the
language learners are treated as thinking beings who can be asked to observe
and verbalize the interpretive processes they employ in language use.
5. Latest trends within ESP: A learningcentered approach and genre
analysis [1987]
Hutchinson and Waters' (1987) book English for Specific Purpo
ses: A learningcentred approach ushered in what they thought
would be a new approach to ESP. Essentially, this amounted to a
reinstatement of the psychological/educational bases of ESP, that is
to say, the primacy of methodology, of learning processes, rather
than the linguistic basis. According to these authors, all the approa
ches mentioned so far, were fundamentally flawed in that they were
all based on descriptions of language use. Whether this description
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Our concern in ESP is not with language use —although this would help to
define the course objectives. Our concern is with language learning. We
cannot simply assuine that describing and exemplifying what people do with
language will enable someone to learn it [...]. A truly valid approach to ESP
must be based on an understanding of the processes of language learning.
Whereas a languagecentered approach says: This is the nature of the
target situation performance and that will determine the ESP course, and a
skillscentered approach says: That is not enough. We must look behind the
target performance data to discover what processes enable someone to
perform. Those processes will determine the ESP course. A learning
centered approach says: That is not enough either. We must look beyond the
competence that enables someone to perform; what we really want to
discover is not the competence itself, but how someone acquires that
competence.
Hutchinson and Waters argue that the course design process should be
more dynamic and interactive. In particular, factors concerned with learning
must be brought into play at all stages of the design process. This approach
to course and materials design has received its widest circulation in the
papers and materials of Hutchinson and Waters (1981, 1982, 1987) and,
more recently, Waters and Waters (1992).
Also, and as a second direction within the latest approaches to ESP, we
find Genre Analysis. This approach involves the study of the forms of
discourse that particular discourse communities engage in, their
communicative conventions and purposes, the role texts play in particular
environments, their genre products, and crucially
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the differences between the discourses within and of different discourse
communities. Genre analysis is narrower and deeper than the discourse
analysis of phase 2. The studies differ from traditional register or text
analysis in the importance they attach to communicative purpose within a
communicative setting.
Tarone et al. (1981) used the term "genre" but up to that point it was rare
in ESP. Like all technical terms, it has various interpretations, as
summarized by Robinson (1991:25). For some writers, "genre" seems to be
the same as "text type" and, as with the rhetorical approach, a genre analysis
approach looks at the operation of language within a complete text, seeing
the text as a system of features and cholees. Selection is made according to
the communicative purpose of the text producer. For example, SalagerMeyer
et al. (1989a/b) analyzed medical English scholarly papers, divided into case
reports, research papers and editorials, which are referred to as "subgenres".
The results suggest a systematic difference between each subgenre
according to the attitude of the writer to the reader:
case reports: puré description
research papers: advice and suggestion
editorials: judgement, valué and instruction
SalagerMeyer et al. appear to indícate that they see case reports,
research papers and editorials as subgenres of the "genre" of medical
English, and consider the different communicative function of the different
types of texts. Again as reported on in Robinson (1991:25), for other
researchers, "genre" is superordinate to domain, so that the genre of editorial
might have subgenres of medical/physics/pharmacy editorials.
Swales also used the term "genre" for the first time in 1981, but for him it
seems to imply much more than text type. This is the definition of genre he
provides in 1988:
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[...] A class of communicative events, the members of which share same set of
communicative purposes. The purposes are recognized by the expert members of the
parent discourse community and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre. This
rationale shapes the schematic structure of the discourse and constrains the choice of
content and style.
For Swales genre involves not only text type but also the role of the text
in the community which produces it, thus implying some study of
institutional culture. Swales' pioneering work on the study of the introduction
section of academic journal articles from a wide range of disciplines (his
CARS —creating a research space—) model has been an important
breakthrough in the field and has stimulated a number of further studies
(Crookes, 1986; DudleyEvans, 1987, 1989; Hopkins and DudleyEvans,
1988; among many others). Genre analysis is an exciting and fruitful
development within ESP. It exemplifies the current importance of content,
particularly the social and institutional aspects of the content.
As far as pedagogicai materials are concerned, genre analysis can give
rise to "genredriven" pedagogic activities. The following are some teaching
procedures that can be followed in a genrebased approach to materials
design and exploitation (Ferguson, 1994):
1. THINK about purposes of the genre, setting, and communica
tive behavior surrounding the genre.
2. STUDY authentic examples of the genre (read, analyze, discuss).
The teacher draws attention to the content, organization (moves),
and typical language features of the genre.
3. AWARENESSRAISING ACTIVITIES to make students aware of
the typical/conventional content and organization of the genre as
well as of typical linguistic features (register) (use jumbled sen
tences, identifying moves by underlining, labelling parts of text ...)
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4. PART PRACTICE: focus on isolated elements or moves and
concéntrate practice on production of these elements in isolation
from others. ControUed production.
5. WHOLE PRACTICE: activities that invite students to reproduce the
whole text as practice (e.g. given an article, students write an abstract
for it).
Conclusión
This paper has traced the evolution of the essential principies of ESP
from the very beginning of the movement in the early 1960s until the present
day. As West (1995) points out, while these principies have now reached a
maturity which serves ESP well, there continué to be tensions arising from
their applications to practical materials design and deriving in part from a
conflict between realworld and pedagogic conceptions. These tensions
include some of the following áreas: target needs vs learning needs; target
authenticity/researchdata findings vs materials design.
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