Dimensional Metrology Needs

• Linear measurements
• Angular measurements
• Geometric form measurements
– Straightness
– Flatness
– Roundness
– Cylindricity etc
 Linear Measurements
• Linear metrology is defined as the science of
linear measurement, for the determination of the
distance between two points in a straight line
• The principle of linear measurement is to
compare the dimensions to be measured and
aligned with standard dimensions marked on the
measuring instruments
• Linear measuring instruments are designed either
for line measurements or end measurements
Measurement of Linear Dimensions

• Measuring instruments

– Graduated measuring devices include a set of

markings on a linear or angular scale to which the
object's feature of interest can be compared for
measurement

– Nongraduated measuring devices have no scale and

are used to compare dimensions or to transfer a
dimension for measurement by a graduated device
 Length Standards
• Two standard systems of linear
measurement in general use:
– English
– Metric
– SI
• Metric system originated in France
and has now become predominant
and exclusively used in Europe,
Russia and the developing countries
of India and China
• The English system of yards, feet and
inches is used in Britain, the
Commonwealth and the USA for
commerce, industry and engineering
• Its use throughout the world is
declining as compared to the metric
system
 History of Metre and Yard
• Upto 1960, the metre standard was a line standard,
known as the International Prototype Meter, made
in a platinum iridium alloy and having a cross
section designed by Tresca

• The upper surface of the web lies in the

neutral plane of the bar and the defining
lines are engraved on it
• A line standard is a length defined by the
distance between two engraved lines
observed through microscopes

• In 1792, the first metric standard, known as the Mѐtre des Archives was established
• In 1872, an international commission was set up in Paris to decide on a more
suitable metric standard
The length of the metre is defined as “the straight line distance, at 0°C
between the centre portions of pure platinum-iridium alloy (90% platinum) of
102 c. m. total length and having a cross-section shown in Fig. 1.4. (b).
 Traceability
• Property of a measurement result whereby the
result can be related to a reference through a
documented unbroken chain of calibrations, each
contributing to the measurement uncertainty
• Traceability is the property of the result of a
measurement, not of an instrument or calibration
report or laboratory
• It is not achieved by following any one particular
procedure or using special equipment
 Definitions
• Metre: The Metre is defined as 1,650,763.73
wavelengths of the orange radiation in
vacuum of the krypton-86 isotope

• Yard: The Yard is defined as 0.9144 metre

which is equivalent to 1,509,458.35
wavelengths of the krypton-86 isotope
 Approaches
• Linear metrology follows two approaches:
– Two-point measuring-contact-member approach
– Three-point measuring-contact-member approach
Two-point Measuring-Contact-Member
Approach
• Out of two measuring contact members, one
is fixed while the other is movable and is
generally mounted on the measuring spindle
of an instrument
 Three-point
Measuring-Contact-Member Approach
• Out of three measuring contact members, two
are fixed and the remaining is movable
Measurement at shop floor

Post Process Dimensional Measurement

Micrometer
Block gauge
Profile projector
Coordinate Measuring Machine

On line or In-process Dimensional Measurement

Mechanical
Optical
Pneumatic methods
Ultrasonic methods
 Micrometer Screw Gauge
• The first micrometer was invented by William
Gascoigne of Yorkshire, England in the 17th
century and was used in telescopes to
measure angular distances between stars
• Micrometers have greater accuracy than
vernier calipers and are used in most of the
engineering precision work involving
interchangeability of component parts
 Principle of Micrometer Screw Gauge

•
Type of Micrometer Screw Gauge

Outside Micrometer Screw Gauge Inside Micrometer Screw Gauge

Depth-gauge Micrometer Screw Gauge

Micrometer or screw gauge
Least count = Pitch/Number of divisions on the circular
scale
= 0.5mm/50

= 0.01 mm

Types of Error
Backlash Error

Zero Error
Read the Diameter ?

Total observed reading = main scale reading + (circular scale division

coinciding the base line of main scale) x least count
True diameter = observed diameter – zero error Courtesy :
V. Ryan © 2002-2012
Micrometer

External micrometer, standard one‑inch size with digital readout

(photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.).
 Vernier Caliper
• Vernier caliper was invented by Frenchman Pierre Vernier
• It is a measuring tool used for finding or transferring measurements
(internal or external)
• The vernier caliper consists of two main
parts; the main scale engraved on a solid
L-shaped frame, and the vernier scale,
which can slide along the main scale. The
sliding nature of the vernier has given
another name for this instrument as the
‘sliding caliper’
• The main scale is graduated in
millimetres, up to a least count of 1 mm.
The vernier also has engraved
graduations, which is either a forward
vernier or a backward vernier
 Least Count of Vernier Caliper
•

Main Scale Reading Vernier Scale C(mm) = LC X Total Reading

Sl. No.
(MSR) (mm) Reading (VSR) VSR (mm) = MSR+C

1. 21 3 0.3 21.30
Vernier Caliper

Least count = one main scale

(MS) division - one vernier
scale (VS) division.
= 1 mm - 0.09 mm
= 0.1 mm
= 0.01 cm
Courtesy :
V. Ryan © 2002-2012
Vernier caliper with digital display

Courtesy :
= 0.01 cm V. Ryan © 2002-2012
Applications of Vernier Caliper
Digital-Micrometer Depth Gage

Courtesy :
A digital micrometer depth gage. Source: Courtesy of Starret Co. V. Ryan © 2002-2012
What is the reading of the instrument?

Courtesy : V. Ryan © 2002-2012

 Vernier Height Gauge
• One of the most useful and
versatile instruments used in
linear metrology for
measuring, inspecting and
transferring the height
dimension over plane, step
and curved surfaces
• Follows the principle of a
vernier caliper and also
follows the same procedure
for linear measurement
Mechanical Gages: Dial Indicators
• Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically
magnify the deviation to permit observation
• Most common instrument in this category is the
dial indicator, which converts and amplifies the
linear movement of a contact pointer into
rotation of a dial
– The dial is graduated in small units such as
0.01 mm or 0.001 inch
– Applications: measuring straightness,
flatness, parallelism, squareness, roundness,
and runout
Dial Indicator

Dial indicator: front view shows dial and graduated face; back view shows rear
of instrument with cover plate removed (photo courtesy of Federal
Products Co.).
Dial Indicator Uses

Three uses of dial indicators: (a) roundness, (b) depth, and (c)
multiple-dimension gauging of a part.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 2011

Dial Indicator to Measure Run out

Dial indicator setup to measure run out; as part is rotated about its
center, variations in outside surface relative to center are indicated on
the dial.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 2011

Measurement of Machine Tool Errors using Dial Gauge
Use of Dial Indicator for checking angle
Use of Dial Indicator for checking angle
If a Micrometer Dial Guage is used for setting up a workpiece as shown in figure and if the reading of the
dial indicator during set-up is found to be 45, what is the angle of error?

100 mm

Dial Reading R1=0 Dial Reading R2= 45 Angle of Error ??

mm
200

20.35 mm
 Bore gauge
• A bore gauge is a device conveniently used for the measuring or transferring the large
holes/bores accurately
• These are a range of gauges that are used to measure a bore's size, by transferring the
internal dimension to a remote measuring tool.
• They are a direct equivalent of inside calipers and require the operator to develop the
correct feel to obtain repeatable results.
 Large Diameter 3-point Bore Gauge
• The Bowers XT500 large
diameter 3-point bore-gauge
has been designed specifically
for the measurement of
internal diameters between
300 and 500 mm.
• The newly designed
constant-force digital readout
ensures that the measuring
pressure remains constant
throughout the measurement
 Assignment
How to measure/check dimensions of a half bore?

• Difficulty: In a half-bore, diametrically

opposite points are not available and this
makes direct measurements difficult.

Die cavity
Half bore measurement
Setup for on machine measurement
Die cavity

Prof.M.S.Shunmugam’s (1989)
Non Graduated Measuring Devices
Calipers

Two sizes of outside calipers (photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.).

Profile Projector

An Profile Projector (often simply called a optical

comparator in context) is a device that applies the
principles of optics to the inspection of manufactured parts.

In a comparator, the magnified silhouette of a part is

projected upon the screen, and the dimensions and
geometry of the part are measured against prescribed limits.
Profile Projector Components
Main specifications
Screen diameter: 305 mm
Projection lenses: 5×, 10×, 20×, 25×,
50×, 100×, 200×
Magnification accuracy (except 200×):
within 0.1% for oblique surface/contour
illumination; within 0.15% for vertical
surface illumination

Profile projector is the measurement

of objects against a scale that is
placed on the on-screen image of the
object. Courtesy : Nikon
Optical Contour Projector

A bench-model horizontal-beam contour projector with a 16-in. diameter

screen with 150-W tungsten halogen illumination. Source: Courtesy of
L. S. Starrett Company, Precision Optical Division.
Profile Projector
Profile Projector can reveal imperfections such as burrs, scratches,
indentations or undesirable chamfers which both micrometers or
calipers can’t reveal.
They’re able to measure in 2-D space. Unlike micrometers and
calipers, which measure one dimension at a time, where
comparators measure length and width simultaneously.
GAGE Blocks

Source : Mitutoya

They are a necessity in any testing environment that requires

linear dimensional accuracy and/or calibration of measuring tools,
such as micrometers and calipers.

They are precision ground and lapped measuring standards.

They are used as references for the setting of measuring
equipment such as micrometers, sine bars, dial indicators (when
used in an inspection role).

Gage blocks are manufactured to precise gage-maker tolerance

grades for calibrating, checking, and setting fixed and
comparative gages.
Gauge Blocks

Slip gauges are extremely accurate and precise steel blocks. Slip
gauges are stored in a box set, and the slips can be built, using two
or more, to form a wide range of sizes to check dimensional
accuracy or accuracy of measuring instruments.

Gauge block grades

Reference (AAA) -high tolerance (± 0.00005 mm or 0.000002 in)
Calibration (AA) - (tolerance +0.00010 mm to -0.00005 mm)
Inspection (A) - (tolerance +0.00015 mm to -0.00005 mm)
workshop (B) - low tolerance (tolerance +0.00025 mm to -0.00015mm
Gauge Blocks
• Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the
required dimension.

In order to achieve the maximum accuracy

- Use the minimum number of blocks.
- Wipe the measuring faces clean using soft clean chamois leather.
- Wring the individual blocks together.
 Wringing of Slip gauges

8/22/2019 56
Manufacture of Gauges
Rough machining
heat treatment
Grinding and Lapping
- using CBN Abrasives
- Spread on a flat CI plate, non directional lapping
- Inter changing of gauges to avoid taper
Sizes of Slip Guages

87
 Guage Blocks/Slip Gauge
112 pieces AS per IS:2984-1966,slip gauges are
available in three different grades i.e. grate O, grate I,
and grate II.

Grate I-slip gauges are used in inspection

department
Grate II-slip gauges are used in workshop
Grate 0-slip gauges are used in laboratories &
standard rooms
Carbide, steel, ceramic sleep gauges with different sizes are also available
36 nos set
83 nos set
87 nos set
Gauge block Arrangement
If the dimension required is 58.975 mm, how will you select/arrange the
slip gauges???.

Step 1: Always start with the last decimal place e.g., here it is 0.005 mm
and for this 1.005 mm slip gauge is selected.
Now dimension left is 50.975-1.005 = 57.970 mm.

Step 2:Take second decimal place ; and for it select 1.47 mm slip gauge.
Therefore, the remainder is 57.970 - 1.47 = 56.500 mm.

Step 3:Next for 56.500 mm, we choose 6.500 mm piece and finally
50.000 mm piece.

Final combination is:

50.000 + 6.500 + 1.47 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm
[Note: One could have selected 1.07 mm piece also, but that way we would have been left with 56.900
and for it we need another 1.4 mm piece. The aim should be to choose minimum number of slip gauges
for a given dimension.]
Gauge block Arrangement

If the dimension to be arranged is 58.975 mm.

Always start with the last decimal place e.g., here it is 0.005 mm and for
this 1.005 mm slip gauge is selected.
Now dimension left is 50.975-1.005 = 57.970 mm.

Take second decimal place ; and for it select 1.47 mm slip gauge.
Therefore, the remainder is 57.970 - 1.47 = 56.500 mm.

Next for 56.500 mm, we choose 6.500 mm piece and finally 50.000 mm

The combination of slip guages is:

50.000 + 6.500 + 1.47 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm

[Note: One could have selected 1.07 mm piece also, but that way we will be left with 56.900 and for it we
need another 1.4 mm piece. The aim should be to choose minimum number of slip gauges for a given
dimension.]
Scanning Laser Systems

Laser beam deflected by a rotating mirror to sweeps a

beam of light past an object
• Photo detector on far side of the object senses the
light beam during its sweep except for the short time
while it is interrupted by the object
• This time period can be measured quickly with great
accuracy
• A microprocessor system measures the time
interruption related to the size of the object in the
path of the laser, and converts it to a linear
dimension

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 2011

Scanning Laser Measurement

Scanning laser system for measuring diameter of cylindrical work part;

time of interruption of light beam is proportional to diameter D.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 2011

Scanning Laser Measurement –Principle
Laser Micrometers

(a) and (b) Two types of measurements made with a laser scan micrometer.
(c) Two types of laser micrometers. Note that the instrument in the front scans the
part (placed in the opening) in one dimension; the larger instrument scans the part in
two dimensions. Source: Courtesy of BETA LaserMike.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 2011

In-process metrology for dimensional
measurement

Friction Roller type in process Light spot method

measurement
Comparators

Comparator is a precision instrument used to compare a

dimension of a given component with a working standard
 Types of Comparators
(based on source of energy used)

1. Mechanical comparators.
2. Pneumatic comparators
3. Optical and Mechanical (Opto-mechanical) comparators.
4. Electrical and Electronic comparators.
5. Fluid displacement comparators.
6. Projection comparators.
7. Automatic gauging machines.
Characteristics and uses of comparators:
Characteristics:
1. The instrument must be of robust design and construction.
2. Readings should be obtained in least possible time.
3. Provision must be made for temperature effects.
4. Scale must be linear and must have straight line characteristics.
5. Indicator should be constant in its return to zero.
6. Instrument must withstand a reasonable ill usage without permanent harm.

Use:
1. Where components are to be checked at a very fast rate.
2. Workpieces/Gauges can be inspected.
3. Attached with some machines, to maintain required tolerance at all stages
of manufacturing.
4. Used in selective assembly
Mechanical Comparators
Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:
1. They do not require any external source of energy.
2. These are of robust construction and compact design.
3. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
4. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of
energy such air, electricity etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
3. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to
high inertia.
Brookes Level Comparator
Two gauges A and B to be compared

Both the gauges wrung to the platen

The sensitive spirit level lowered

made to contact the gauge block
through the balls

The height difference

Principle of working
Displacement of the bubble of a sensitive level tube Resolution = 0.02 µm

Unique Features
Gauges are wrung to the platen Slow in operation
Accommodate gauges up to 1m Used in tool room for gauge
in length calibration
Johansson ‘Mikrokator’
– H. Abramson (Swedish engineer, 1931 )

l – length of the twisted strip

W= width of twisted strip
n = number of turns
Ɵ = twist of mid point of strip w.r.t the end
Sigma Comparator

Total magnification = L/x X R/r

Pneumatic Comparators
Pneumatic Comparator
Air pressure High amplification are possible
Velocity of airflow Non-contact measurement
Air is Passed in to measuring head at controlled pressure (source pressure Ps).
Orifice O1 is constant.
Effective size O2 is varied by changing distance “d”. As “d” varies Pb also
varies thus provide a chance to measure “d”.
By choosing O1, O2 and Ps, Pb can be made to vary linearly with effective size
“d” (O2) .

Essentials of a back-pressure pneumatic gauging system

Pneumatic Comparator
As with any other comparator, the sensitivity is the ratio of the change of
position of the indicator with respect to a corresponding change of position of
the plunger.

In this case the change of position of the indicator is dPb and of the plunger
dA2,the pneumatic sensitivity being

Pneumatic magnification is proportional to the input pressure, and

inversely proportional to the area, or the square of the diameter, of the
control orifice
Solex air gauges

Back pressure air gauging

Pressure value is determined by the head of the water displaced

Magnification can be varied by varying the diameter of the control

orifice
Pneumatic Gauging applications
Pneumatic Gauging applications
 Centerless grinding work rounding
mechanism
Lobed workpiece

Courtesy : Chris Koepfe, MMS Inspection using Pneumatic gauging

Pneumatic non-contact roughness assessment of
moving surfaces

Back pressure variation

Grandy et al. [2009]

Where dn and dc are the diameters of the nozzle tip and
the control orifice, respectively

Optimum standoff distance

Electrical Comparator
Electrical Comparator

Movement of the plunger displaces an armature,

thus causing a variation in the inductance of a pair
of coils forming one arm of an A.C bridge
(Wheatstone bridge)
 LVDT
Linear Variable
Differential
Transformer

81
Optical and Opto-Mechanical
Comparators
Principle of optical comparator

Total Magnification
Mechanical amplification =1 x 20 x 1 =20 units
Optical amplification =50 x 2 = 100 units
Total amplification = 2000 units
Optical Principles
Eden-Rolt ‘Millionth’ Comparator

The scale is calibrated to read directly to 0.2 µm.

Omtimeter – Optical comparator

• If f is the focal length of the lens

• Then the movement of the scale = 2fδƟ
• Scale movement = 2f h/x
• Magnification of the instrument
= 2fh/x X 1/h
= 2f/x

• Over all magnification = 2f/x X Eyepiece

magnification
Fluid displacement
Comparators
Fluid displacement Comparators

Problems:
1) The Fluid temperature, any change needs recalibration
2) Viscosity of the fluid
3) The deflection of the diaphragm may not be uniform. Resistance
is higher for higher measuring force.
Comparison of Comparators

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Mechanical Do not require any ❑ More moving parts more
external supply friction
Usually robust and ❑ Sensitive to vibration is
compact more
Linear scale ❑ Range is limited
Optical Higher accuracy. ❑ Electrical supply
High magnification ❑ Dark room required
❑ Cost is high
Pneumatic Non-contact, remote unit, ❑ Not uniform over full range
Multiple features can be
measured
Electrical Less moving parts, ❑ Power supply required
Less sensitive to ❑ Frequent calibration required
vibrations ❑ Cost is high
Compact in size
Angle Measurements

Protractors
Angle Gauges
Sine bar
Autocollimator
Clinometer
Beam comparator
Spirit level
Profile Projector
Tool maker’s microscope
Laser Interferometer
CMM
Angle Gauges
Available in sets
1, 3, 9, 27, 41
1, 3, 9, 27
3, 9, 27 or 6, 12, 18 plus a square block
12 plus 1= 13 gauges
1, 3, 5, 15, 30, 45
1, 3, 5, 20, 30
1, 3, 5, 20, 30 totally 16 gauges
Addition & subtraction using angle gauges

89

3.2

16
89
SINE BAR
•Specified using centre distance between rollers/
spheres
•100, 200, 400 mm etc. 4”, 5”, 10” etc.
•5” sine bar, error of 0.001mm in gauge block height
will reflect as follows;
When measuring 450 , there‘ll be an error of 2.8”
600 4.0”
700 6.0”
Spirit level

•To measure the angular variations

•Simple and yet powerful
•Sensitivity =Displacement Per scale division Of bubble/ Change in
inclination mm/sec
R = t /α
= 2. 5 mm / 10 sec

= 10 m approx.

Spirit Level – Principle, (R = t /α)

 1) optical flat 2) minute’s
Optical diagram of a Micro optic Auto scale knob 3) Ocular
collimator 4) minute scale 5)
1. Eyepiece 2, 4 prisms 3. Beam splitter 5. Second’s scale 6) Cam 7)
Crosswire 6. lamp 7. 8 reflectors 9. Objective Pinion 8) Knob for tilting
lens 10. plane of setting image flat 9) Gear wheel 10) Pin
 Ө/2

D1

d/2 Sec Ө / 2 Ө/2

Diameter “ d ”
Two halves
of induction
transducer
Center
zero meter

Pendulum device
incorporating
armature
Beam comparator

Clinomometer
THREADS
• Better than Welding
• Used for lifting and accurate ,easy movement
• Fasteners – More clearance ,Guiding – Less clearance
• Threading is a fastening Technique, Facilitates easy assembly

GENERAL TYPES:

Square or Buttress(45o ) For large axial loads

ACME(29o ) High power transmission (lead screws)
Whitworth(55o )
Metric (60o )

PROBLEMS
Backlash - Phenomenon due to clearance between nut &
screw
- Avoid by Split Nut, Spring loaded nut
Friction - Useful, but to avoid Recirculating Ball screw
TYPES OF PITCH ERRORS
• Progressive Error
Due to lead screw error or Shrinkage due to heat treatment
• Periodic Error
Due to Vibration
• Erratic error
Neither progressive nor periodic
• Drunken Error
sort of periodic error. Due to axial wobbling of lead screw or
work

MULTISTART THREADS
• lead & pitch are different
• Quick movement, friction is lower
• Danger of loosening as helix angle is large. So, not
used for clamping
 Error in pitch will reflect in error in Pitch diameter. So, measure
pitch diameter
• Thread is guided by flanks only.
• If the profiles are perfect Pitch diameter is average of max. &
min. diameter
But the profiles are never perfect.

THREAD GAUGING
• for fasteners, mass produced parts
• GO, NO GO Gauges
Taylor’s principle
• GO GAUGE Checks Max Mtl. Condn., full form, long length
• NO GO GAUGE Checks only EFFECTIVE diameter,
truncated form, shorter length
Plug and Ring, GO and NOGO gauges
 Wire Size Range - 0.17 mm to 6.35 mm
Example; M 8 x 1, 60o , wire size is 0.62 mm
Allowed value is 7.632 + / - 5.5 µm
Correction due to Helix (δ 1) - 0.0025 to
0.004 mm
“ “ due to Contact Pressure (δ 2) – 0.0025 to
0.004 mm
The final effective diameter
P = d 2 + d D (1 + 1 / sin α/ 2) – h/2. Cot α/ 2 + / - (δ 1)
+ / - (δ 2)
Where,
P = Measurement over the wires, h = pitch of the
thread d 2 = Effective diameter, d D = diameter of the
wire r = Radius of the wire
E
P = d2 + 2 GE
H P
GE = EH+HB– GB
G
EH = r C D

HB = r/ sin α/ 2 α/2
d2
GB =h/4 cot α/ 2 B

P = d 2 + 2 (r + r / sin α/ 2 - h/4. cot α/ 2)

P = d 2 + d D (1 + 1 /sin α/ 2) – h/2. Cot α/ 2
 Checking a Threaded Hole – GO, NO GO gauge

Thread Measurement - 3 wires and Templates

Types of CMM

Cantilever Bridge Type

Column Gantry
Co ordinate Measuring Machine
Reduction in Tolerance, Mass production , Operator’s Skill ,
Measurement speed are the challenges
Essential Features:
Simplicity Versatility Repeatability Reliability
Accuracy Resolution Speed and Cost effectiveness
 ERRORS MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
OR METHODLOGY
Positional Errors -Laser Interferometer
-Step gauge
-Gauge block
Straightness Errors -Straightness Interferometer
-Straight edge
-Alignment telescope with target
-Alignment laser
Pitch and Yaw Errors -Differential Interferometer
-Electronic level
-Autocollimator
-Measurement of positional Error along lines with different Abbe
offset
Roll Errors -Electronic levels (only for horizontal axis only)
-Reference Flat
-Measurement of straightness errors of two parallel lines
Squareness Errors -Optical straightness measuring instrument and penta prism
-Mechanical squareness standard
-Length standard inclined under defined angles
Probing Errors -Reference sphere
-Reference Ring
-Gauge block
If we put a light source on one side of a glass
we can see it blinking if we look through the
small moving piece. All we have left to do is
count how many times the light blank and
multiply it by spacing between the gratings to
calculte distance travelled.
Temperature compensated measurement

Let's use an aluminum part with a critical dimension of

4.0000 inches, and a steel master to zero the gage. The
shop is hot today, but both the part and the master are at
equilibrium at 80˚F (or 12˚F above "standard"). Master and
workpiece have expanded as shown:

Steel Master: 6µ by 4 by 12 = 0.000288 inch

Aluminum 13µ by 4 by 12 =
Workpiece: 0.000624 inch

Find out the error caused by different coefficient of thermal

expansion?
Roundness
or
Circularity
 Roundness
Roundness is a condition where all the points in a plane are
equidistant from a centre.

Roundness error

Radial deviation between two concentric circles which enclose the

actual part.

Part
e

127
 Diametral Method
3 lobe

Not detected

0.999 95, 0.999 85, 0.999 80, 0.999 90 and 0.999 95

Roundness = ½ (max – min) = ½ (0.999 95 – 0.99980)

= 0.000 075

Never make this mistake!

128
V-Block and Dial Indicator

Dial indicator

V-block

Surface plate

129
Intrinsic Datum Method

Oval 3 lobe
Detected Not detected

(a) Diametrical method

Not detected Detected

(b) Chordal method

130
 Extrinsic Datum Method
The reference datum is not formed bye the points on the object, but is
a separate precision bearing or other external datum

E.g.
▪ Precision spindle instruments (Form tester)
▪ Co-ordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Typical spindle run-out: 0.05 - 0.025 µm

Typical repeatability: 5 – 0.5 μm
Form tester CMM 131
Form Tester
Workpiece
Worktable
Pick-up
Turntable

Ref. spindle

Form testers generate polar data

Only deviation from a reference feature is measured and

hence there is a size (radius) suppression.

Plotting is done on a polar chart with suitable radial

magnification.

These instruments are used to get data from

axi-symmetrical components like bearings, spindles etc.
132
Principle of Roundness Measurement
Component
The component to be tested is center
placed on the instrument table
and it will be made to rotate.
Probe
The radial deviations on the Oc
component are sensed bye the Or
probe.

The component centre and the Rotation

rotation/instrument centre did not center
coincide. It is impossible to see
that they coincide. Part profile

Due to this eccentricity, even if a

truly circular part is inspected,
probe will sense some error.
Profile on a polar chart
133
Co-ordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

z
y X

Probe

Y P(xi , yi)

X
Measurement of circular feature
(Size and deviations)
Sample Point Strategies

135
 Reference Circles
1. Least-Squares Circle

2. Minimum Circumscribing (MC) Circle

3. Maximum Inscribing (MI) Circle

4. Minimum Zone (MZ) Circle - based on ISO

136
 Least - Squares Circle
Actual (Measured) Profile
Least Squares Circle
Circle is fitted to the data
points such that the sum
of the squares of the
deviations of the actual
profile from the fitted
circle is minimum.

This is the most straight

forward in the sense that Roundness error
all the data of the profile
is used to establish the
centre.

Fast, easy for implementation and gives unique solution.

Drawback: Does not conform to standards and generally overestimates the

error. As a result, good parts may be rejected during inspection.
137
 Example

Magnification x 250 Radius (mm)

DIFFERENCE IN
RADII 25.3 mm 52.82

Least squares centre. Calculation of roundness error

 Min. Circumscribed Circle (MCC)
Corresponds to ring gauge.

A circle is drawn around all the data

and is shrunk until it is constrained by
three peaks

The roundness error is simply the

largest valley measured from this circle

This method is also unique but it

suffers from the fact that the centre Roundness error
position is determined by only three MC Circle
points. A large stray peak can produce
an erroneous centre position, which
can invalidate eccentricity and
concentricity measurements.

139
 Max. Inscribed Circle (MIC)
Corresponds to plug gauge
This is the opposite of the MCC. A
circle is drawn within all the data and is
expanded until it is constrained by
three valleys.

The roundness error is simply the

largest peak measured from this circle.
Roundness error
Unfortunately the centre obtained by MI Circle
this method need not be unique. E.g.
dumbbell.

140
 ISO Definition
ISO/R 1101-1983 recommends a minimum zone evaluation of form
and specifies that an ideal/reference feature must be established
from the actual measurement data such that the deviation between
ideal feature and the actual feature concerned will be the least
possible value.

But no methods of fitting have been recommended

ISO, Geneva, ISO 1101-1983, Technical drawings: Tolerancing of form,

orientation, location, and runout - Generalities, definitions, symbols,
indications on drawing.
 Minimum Zone Circles (MZC)

Roundness error

Two concentric circles; one outside and the other inside the actual profile are established
such that their radial separation is the least.

This method has some ambiguity brought about by the inner circle in the same way as plug
gauge but it is not usually considered to be a severe problem. The actual ‘zone’ is not
ambiguous. It is simply the smallest in value. This smallest zone is the roundness error. 142
LASER INTERFEROMETER
 Retro Reflector Movements

Distance and velocity Measurements - Linear Optics

Angular measurements

Flatness Measurements – Using Angular Optics

 Interferometer Assembly

Straightness Measurements -
straightness optics

Interferometer and Retro

reflector with Targets
Laser Head and Tripod
Positioning Controls

Positioning of Tripod Stand

and Laser head
Positioning Of Optics – for table and spindle
movement calibration
 Three Axes Three Axes Positioning of
Positioning of Optics Optics –Pitch measurements
 Doppler frequency Shift “f”is expressed as

Replacing “ΔΦ “in the eqn. 2 and

rearranging The Total Displacement
can be expressed as

Where f, ΔΦ, v, Δ z are the Frequency,

phase shift, Velocity and displacement of
Three Axes Positioning of Optics - retro reflector f 0 is frequency of Laser, C is
Yaw Measurements Speed of light.
Application Range Resolution
Positioning accuracy up to 50 m 0.01 µ m
Velocity 18,000 m/min 0.1 mm/min
Angle 36000 arc secs 0.1 arcsec.
Pitch and Yaw 3600 arcsecs 0.1 arcsec.
Flatness + / - 1 mm 0.01 µ m
Straightness + / - 1.5 mm 0.01 µ m

REFERENCE
ROTATE & TRANSLATE
OPTICS

MOVING OPTICS

LASER HEAD BEAM

SPLITTER

ALIGNMENT – GUNSIGHT METHOD

Interferometer and Retro
reflector with Targets

BEAM SPLITTER&
LASER HEAD
REFERENCE OPTICS

SENDER PORT

RECEIVER PORT

ALIGNMENT - OVERLAPPING DOTS METHOD

ALIGNMENT – AUTO REFLECTION
METHOD
SENDER PORT

REFERENCE

OPTICS

MOVING OPTICS

LASER HEAD
BEAM

SPLITTER
 Alignment - Auto Reflection Method

Alignment – Overlapping Dots Method

Repeatability – for series measurement, the results must be highly
repeatable

Reproducibility – independent of the operator programming or running

the system, the results should be the same

Flexibility – the probe should be able to measure a wide range of

materials (for example, machined, semi-finished, stamped, forged,
casted and painted metals, sand cores, wax, carbon fibre, plastics,
clay, rubber, wood, ceramics) and be used easily on a range of different
part sizes

Reliable – must work under a wide range of environmental conditions

Easy to use – minimal operator training is desirable

Accuracy - must meet the needs of the application