MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Manipal – 576 104

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGG.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms./Mr. …………………...…………………………………… Reg. No.

…..…………………… Section: ……………… Roll No: ………………... has satisfactorily
completed the lab exercises prescribed for Digital System Design Lab [CSE 2162] of Second Year
B. Tech. Degree in Computer Science and Engg. at MIT, Manipal, in the academic year 2019-
2020.

Date: ……...................................

Signature
Faculty in Charge
 CONTENTS

LAB NO. TITLE PAGE NO. REMARKS

Course Objectives and Outcomes i

Evaluation plan i

Instructions to the Students i

Sample Lab Observation note preparation iii

1 Introduction to Verilog 1 – 11

2 Simplification using k-maps 12 – 13

3 Multilevel synthesis 14 – 15

4 Arithmetic circuits 16 – 19

5 Comparators and code converters 20 – 22

6 Multiplexers 23 – 26

7 Multiplexer Applications 27 – 28

8 Decoders and encoders 29 – 31

9 Applications of decoders 32 – 33

10 Flip flops and registers 34 – 36

11 Counters 37 – 40

12 Simple Processor Design 41 – 43

13 References 44
Course Objectives
 To develop the skills of implementing logic circuits using Verilog.
 Simplify the logical expressions and implement using logic gates.
 Design and analyze the combinational and sequential circuits, simple systems.
 Relate theoretical concepts to practical applications like multiplexer, encoder, decoder,
code converter, counter, shift register applications.

Course Outcomes
At the end of this course, students will be able to
 Simplify logical expressions and simulate using Verilog.
 Design and analyse arithmetic circuits and combinational circuits using multiplexers,
encoders, and decoders.
 Construct multiplexers, decoders, encoders and simulate them to suite various practical
applications.
 Design and simulate sequential circuits using Verilog.
 Design and simulate simple processors.

Evaluation plan
 Internal Assessment Marks: 60%

 Continuous evaluation component (for each evaluation):10 marks

 The assessment will depend on punctuality, program execution, maintaining the
observation note and answering the questions in viva voce.
 Total marks of the 12 evaluations reduced to marks out of 60.
 End semester assessment of 2 hour duration: 40 %

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 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS

Pre- Lab Session Instructions

1. Students should have a separate observation book and the required stationery to every lab
session.
2. Be in time and follow the institution dress code.
3. Must sign in the log register provided.
4. Make sure to occupy the allotted seat and answer the attendance.
5. Adhere to the rules and maintain the decorum.

In- Lab Session Instructions

 Follow the instructions on the allotted exercises.
 Show the program and results to the instructors on completion of experiments.
 On receiving approval from the instructor, copy the program and results in the Lab record.
 Prescribed textbooks and class notes can be kept ready for reference if required.

General Instructions for the exercises in Lab

 Implement the given exercise individually and not in a group.
 Observation book should be complete with proper design, logical diagrams, truth tables
and waveforms related to the experiment they perform.
 Plagiarism (copying from others) is strictly prohibited and would invite severe penalty in
evaluation.
 The exercises for each week are divided under three sets:
 Solved exercise.
 Lab exercises - to be completed during lab hours.
 Additional Exercises - to be completed outside the lab or in the lab to enhance the
skill.
 Questions for lab tests and examination are not necessarily limited to the questions in the
manual, but may involve some variations and / or combinations of the questions.
 A sample note preparation is given as a model for observation.

THE STUDENTS SHOULD NOT

 Bring mobile phones or any other electronic gadgets to the lab.
 Go out of the lab without permission.

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 SAMPLE LAB OBSERVATION NOTE PREPARATION
LAB NO: Date:
Title: Introduction to Verilog
1. Write Verilog code to implement the following circuit using the continuous assignment.

Aim: To write Verilog code, Truth table and waveform for the above circuit.

Verilog code:

module example2(x1,x2,x3,f);
input x1,x2,x3;
output f;
assign f=(x1 & x2)| (~x2 & x3);
endmodule
Truth table:

x1 x2 x3 F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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Waveform:

iv
Lab No 1: Date:
INTRODUCTION TO VERILOG
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Learn the basic concepts of logic circuits and analyze the logic network.
2. Write the Truth table and Timing diagram.
3. Understand different representation of logic circuits in Verilog.
4. Learn the different tools available in the CAD system.
5. Write and simulate logic circuits using Verilog.

I. Basic concepts of Logic Circuits

Logic Circuits

 Perform operations on digital signals.

 Signal values are restricted to a few discrete values.
 In binary logic circuits, there are only two values, 0 and 1.

Logic Gates and Networks

 Each logic operation can be implemented electronically with transistors, resulting in a

circuit element called a logic gate.
 It has one or more inputs and one output that is a function of its inputs.
 It is often convenient to describe a logic circuit by drawing a circuit diagram, or schematic,
consisting of graphical symbols representing the logic gates.
The graphical symbols for the AND, NOT and OR gates are shown in Fig. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3
respectively.

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

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  A larger circuit is implemented by a network of gates, as shown in Fig. 1.4

Figure 1.4
 The operations AND, OR etc can also be defined in the
form of a table as shown in Figure 1.5.
 The first two columns (to the left of the heavy vertical line)
give all four possible combinations of logic values that the
variables x1 and x2 can have.
 The next column defines the AND operation for each
combination of values of x1 and x2, and the last column
defines the OR operation.
 In general, for n input variables the truth table has 2n rows.
Figure 1.5 Truth Table

II. Analysis of a Logic Network

 Determining the function performed by an existing logic network is referred to as the
Analysis process.
 The reverse task of designing a new network that implements a desired functional behavior
is referred to as the Synthesis process.
 To determine the functional behavior of the network in Fig. 1.6, we can consider what
happens if we apply all possible values to input signals x1 and x2. The analysis of these
input values at various intermediate points is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Figure 1.6

x1 x2 A B f
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
Figure 1.7

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Timing Diagram

 The information in Fig. 1.7 can be presented in graphical form, known as a timing diagram,
as shown in Fig. 1.8.
 The figure shows the waveforms for the inputs and output of the network, as well as for
the internal signals at the points labeled A and B.

Figure 1.8

Functionally Equivalent Networks

 Going through the same analysis procedure, we find that the output ‘g’ in Fig. 1.9, changes
in exactly the same way as f does in Fig. 1.6.
 Therefore, g(x1, x2) = f (x1, x2), which indicates that the two networks are functionally
equivalent.

Figure 1.9

III. Introduction to CAD Tools

 Logic circuits are designed using CAD tools that automatically implement the synthesis
techniques.
 CAD system includes tools for design entry, synthesis and optimization, simulation and
physical design.

Design Entry

 The starting point in the process of designing a logic circuit is the conception of what the
circuit is supposed to do and the formulation of its general structure.

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  The first stage of this process involves entering into the CAD system a description of the
circuit being designed. This stage is called design entry.
 For design entry, we are writing source code in a hardware description language.

Hardware Description Languages

 A hardware description language (HDL) is similar to a typical computer programming

language except that an HDL is used to describe hardware rather than a program to be
executed on a computer.
 Two HDLs are IEEE standards: Verilog HDL and VHDL.

Why use Verilog

 Supported by most companies that offer digital hardware technology.

 Verilog provides design portability. A circuit specified in Verilog can be implemented in
different types of chips and with CAD tools provided by different companies, without
changing the Verilog specification.
 Both small and large logic circuit designs can be efficiently represented in Verilog code.

Functional Simulation

 The functional simulator tool verifies that the designed circuit functions as expected.
 It uses two types of information.
 First, the user’s initial design is represented by the logic equations generated during
synthesis.
 Second, the user specifies the valuations of the circuit’s inputs that should be
applied to these equations during simulation.
 For each valuation, the simulator evaluates the outputs produced by the expressions.
 The results of simulations are usually provided in the form of a timing diagram which the
user can examine to verify that the circuit operates as required.

Timing Simulation

 When the values of inputs to the circuit change it takes a certain amount of time before a
corresponding change occurs at the output. This is called a propagation delay of the circuit.

IV. Representation of Digital Circuits in Verilog

 Structural representation- A larger circuit is defined by writing code that connects simple
circuit elements together.
 Behavioral representation- Describing a circuit by using logic expressions and
programming constructs that define the behavior of the circuit but not its actual structure
in terms of gates.

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Structural Specification of Logic Circuits

 A gate is represented by indicating its functional name, output and inputs. Different logic
gates are shown in Table 1.1
For example,
 A two-input AND gate, with inputs x1 and x2 and output y, is denoted as
and (y, x1, x2);
 A four-input OR gate is specified as
or (y, x1, x2, x3, x4);
 The NOT gate is given by not (y, x); implements y = x’.
Table 1.1

Verilog Module

 It is a circuit or subcircuit described with Verilog code.

 The module has a name, module_name, which can be any valid identifier, followed by a
list of ports.
 The term port refers to an input or output connection in an electrical circuit. The ports can
be of type input, output, or inout (bidirectional), and can be either scalar or vector.

The General Form of a Module

module module name [(port name{, port name})];

[parameter declarations]
[input declarations]
[output declarations]
[inout declarations]
[wire or tri declarations]
[reg or integer declarations]

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 [function or task declarations]
[assign continuous assignments]
[initial block]
[always blocks]
[gate instantiations]
[module instantiations]
Endmodule

Documentation in Verilog Code

 Documentation can be included in Verilog code by writing a comment. A short comment

begins with the double slash, //, and continues to the end of the line. A long comment can
span multiple lines and is contained inside the delimiters /* and */.
White Space

 White space characters, such as SPACE and TAB, and blank lines are ignored by the
Verilog compiler.
 Multiple statements can be written on a single line.
 Placing each statement on a separate line and using indentation within blocks of code, such
as an if-else statement are good ways to increase the readability of code.
Signals in Verilog Code
 A signal in a circuit is represented as a net or a variable with a specific type.
 A net or variable declaration has the form
type [range] signal_name{, signal_name};
 The signal_name is an identifier
 The range is used to specify vectors that correspond to multibit signals
Signal Values and Numbers
 Verilog supports scalar nets and variables that represent individual signals and vectors that
correspond to multiple signals.
 Each individual signal can have four possible values:
0 = logic value 0 1 = logic value 1
z = tri-state (high impedance) x = unknown value
 The value of a vector variable is specified by giving a constant of the form
[size][’radix]constant where size is the number of bits in the constant, and radix is the
number base. Supported radices are
d = decimal b = binary h = hexadecimal o = octal
 Some examples of constants include
0 the number 0 10 the decimal number 10
’b10 the binary number 10 = (2)10 ’h10 the hex number 10 = (16)10
4’b100 the binary number 0100 = (4)10

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Nets
Verilog defines a number of types of nets.
 A net represents a node in a circuit.
 For synthesis purpose, the only important nets are of wire type.
 For specifying signals that are neither inputs nor outputs of a module, which are used only
for internal connections within the module, Verilog provides the wire type.

Identifier Names

 Identifiers are the names of variables and other elements in Verilog code.
 The rules for specifying identifiers are simple: any letter or digit may be used, as well as
the _ underscore and $ characters.
 An identifier must not begin with a digit and it should not be a Verilog keyword.
 Examples of legal identifiers are f, x1, x, y, and Byte.
 Some examples of illegal names are 1x, +y, x*y, and 258
 Verilog is case sensitive, hence k is not the same as K, and BYTE is not the same as Byte.

Verilog Operators
 Verilog operators are useful for synthesizing logic circuits.
 Table 1.2 lists these operators in groups that reflect the type of operation performed.

Table 1.2
Operator type Operator Operation Performed Number of
Symbols operands
Bitwise ~ 1’s complement 1
& Bitwise AND 2
| Bitwise OR 2
^ Bitwise XOR 2
~^ or ^~ Bitwise XNOR 2
Logical ! NOT 1
&& AND 2
|| OR 2
Reduction & Reduction AND 1
~& Reduction NAND 1
| Reduction OR 1
~| Reduction NOR 1
^ Reduction XOR 1
~^ or ^~ Reduction XNOR 1
Arithmetic + Addition 2

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 - Subtraction 2
- 2’s complement 1
* Multiplication 2
/ Division 2
Relational > Greater than 2
< Lesser than 2
>= Greater than or equal to 2
<= Lesser than or equal to 2

Equality == Logical equality 2

!= Logical inequality 2
Shift >> Right shift 2
<< Left shift 2
Concatenation {,} Concatenation Any number
Replication {{}} Replication Any number
Conditional ?: Conditional 3

Running a sample Verilog code

Let us look at a Verilog implementation in the following steps:

1. Create a directory with section followed by roll number(to be unique); e.g. A21
2. Start ProgramsAltera MAX + plus II
3. The MAX + plus II manager window will pop up.
4. Select File from the menu bar, then select Project Name and give project name. The
project name will come on the title bar. This step is optional. If skipped, before compilation
follow File Project Set Project to Current File.
5. Then follow MAX + plus II Text Editor. Text Editor is used to type the source code.

module example2(x1,x2,x3,f);
input x1,x2,x3;
output f;
and (g,x1,x2);
not (k,x2);
and (h,k,x3);
or (f,g,h);
endmodule

6. Save the source code with file name same as project name but with ‘.v’ extension in the
required directory.

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 7. Then follow MAX + plus II Compiler. If step 2 is skipped, follow File Project Set
Project to Current File first and then select Compiler. The compiler window will pop up.
8. Click Start. The source file will be compiled and errors if any will be displayed. Double
click on the first error to rectify it. Rectify all the errors and recompile to get error free
compiled file.
9. Select MAX + plus II Waveform Editor. The Waveform Editor window will pop up.
Then select Node Enter Nodes from SNF (Simulator Netlist File)and then in the popped
up box click List button to display the names of input and output nodes in the box labeled
Available Nodes & Groups. Select the nodes if not selected, and click => button to copy
them into Selected Nodes & Groups box. Click OK to return to waveform editor. The
nodes are now displayed in waveform display.
10. Now the values to the inputs will be given. Select File End Time to specify the total
amount of time for simulation. If not specified it will take default time.
11. Select View Fit in Window so that entire time range is visible in the waveform editor
display. Select Options Grid Size to give appropriate grid size.
12. Either the single value or different values at different grids can be given to the input signals.
To give single value select the entire signal and click the required value which is activated
in the left side of the window. To give different values select a section of the signal by
dragging the mouse over it and then by clicking the required value. After giving the values
save the file with same name as before but with .scf (Simulator Channel File) extension.
13. Select MAX + plus II Simulator. Click Start. A message box will be displayed
indicating no errors. Click OK. And then Open SCF to view the waveforms after
simulation.

Output:

V. Behavioral Specification of Logic Circuits

 Gate level primitives can be tedious when large circuits have to be designed.

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  Abstract expressions and programming constructs are used to describe the behavior of a
digital circuit.
 To define the circuit using logic expressions. The AND and OR operations are indicated
by the ‘&’ and ‘|’ signs, respectively.
 The assign keyword provides a continuous assignment for the output signal.
 Whenever any signal on the right-hand side changes its state, the value of output will be
re-evaluated.
module example2 (x1, x2, x3, f);
input x1, x2, x3;
output f;
assign f = (x1 & x2) | ( x2 & x3);
endmodule
Lab Exercises
1. Write the Verilog code to implement the circuit in the following figure.

i. Using gate level primitives

ii. Using continuous assignment statements.

2. Write the Verilog code to implement the circuit in the following figure.

i. Using gate level primitives

ii. Using continuous assignment statements.

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Additional Exercises
1. Write Verilog code to describe the following functions
f1 =ac’+bc+b’c’
f2 = (a+b’+c)(a+b+c’)(a’+b+c’)
2. Check whether f1 and f2 in question 1 are functionally equivalent or not.

Lab No 2: Date:
SIMPLIFICATION USING K-MAP
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Understand the steps for optimization using K-map.

2. Design minimum cost circuit.
3. Write Verilog code for the simplified expression.

I. Steps for Optimization using K-map:

K-map

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  A systematic way for performing optimization.
 Finds a minimum-cost expression for a given logic function by reducing the
number of product (or sum) terms needed in the expression, by applying the
combining property.
 Implicant- A product term that indicates the input valuation(s) for which a given
function is equal to 1.
 Prime Implicant- An implicant is called a prime implicant if it cannot be combined
into another implicant that has fewer literals.
 Essential prime implicant-If a prime implicant includes a minterm for which f = 1 that
is not included in any other prime implicant, then it must be included in the cover and
is called as an essential prime implicant.
 The process of finding a minimum-cost circuit involves the following steps:
1. Generate all prime implicants for the given function f.
2. Find the set of essential prime implicants.
3. If the set of essential prime implicants covers all valuations for which f = 1,
then this set is the desired cover of f. Otherwise, determine the nonessential prime
implicants that should be added to form a complete minimum-cost cover.
II. Incompletely Specified Functions
 A function that has don’t-care condition(s).
 Using the shorthand notation, the function f is specified as
f (x1, . . . , x4) =∑m(2, 4, 5, 6, 10) + D(12, 13, 14, 15)
where D is the set of don’t cares.
Solved Exercise:
Simplify the following function using K-map and write Verilog code to implement this.
f (x1, . . . , x4) =∑m(2, 4, 5, 6, 10) + D(12, 13, 14, 15)

̅̅̅+ x3𝑥4
f=x2𝑥3 ̅̅̅

Verilog code:

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 module example4(x2,x3,x4,f);
input x2,x3,x4;
output f;
assign f=(x2 & ~x3) | (x3 & ~x4);
endmodule

Lab Exercises
1. Simplify the following functions using K-map and implement the circuit using logic gates.
a) f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m (2,3,4,5,6,7,10,11,12,15)
b) f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1,3,4,9,10,12) + D(0,2,5,11)
2. Simplify the following functions using K-map and implement the circuit using logic gates.
a) f(A,B,C,D) = ∏M(0,1,4,6,8,9,12,14)
b) f(A,B,C,D) = ∏M(6,9,10,11,12) + D(2,4,7,13)
3. Simulate a circuit that has four inputs, x1, x2, x3, and x4, which produces an output value
of 1 whenever three or more of the input variables have the value 1; otherwise, the output
has to be 0.
Additional Exercises:
1. Simplify the following function using K-map and implement the circuit using logic gates.
f(A,B,C,D,E) = ∑m (0,1,8,9,16,17,22,23,24,25)
2. Using only basic gates, simulate a circuit which has four inputs and one output. The output
is high if exactly two or exactly three of its variables are equal to 1.

Lab No 3: Date:

MULTILEVEL SYNTHESIS

Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Design multilevel NAND and NOR circuits.

2. Write Verilog code for multilevel circuits.
3. Use functional decomposition for synthesis of multilevel circuits.

 Multilevel NAND and NOR Circuits

 Multilevel AND-OR circuit can be realized by a circuit that contains only NAND gates
or only NOR gates.
 Each AND gate is converted to a NAND by inverting its output.

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  Each OR gate is converted to a NAND by inverting its inputs.
 Each AND gate is converted to a NOR by inverting its inputs.
 Each OR gate is converted to a NOR by inverting its output.
 Inversions that are not a part of any gate can be implemented as two-input
NAND/NOR gates, where the inputs are tied together.
 Functional decomposition- Complex logic circuit can be reduced by decomposing a two-
level circuit into subcircuits, where one or more subcircuits implement functions that may
be used in several places to construct the final circuit.

Solved Exercise
Apply functional decomposition for the following function to obtain a simplified circuit and
simulate using Verilog.

Factoring x3 from the first two terms and x4 from the last two terms, this expression becomes

Verilog code:

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 module example5(x1,x2,x3,x4,f);
input x1,x2,x3,x4;
output f;
assign g=(x1 & ~x2) | (~x1 & x2);
assign f=(g & x3) | (~g & x4);
endmodule

Lab Exercises
1. Minimize the following expression using K-map and simulate using only NAND gates.
f(A,B,C,D)= πM(2,6,8,9,10,11,14)
2. Minimize the following expressions using K-map and simulate using only NOR gates.
f(A,B,C,D)= ∑m(0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
3. Use functional decomposition to find the best implementation of the function and simulate
the circuit using Verilog.
f (x1, . . . , x5) = ∑m(1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 18, 19, 25, 31) + D(0, 15, 20, 26).
4. Minimize the following expressions using K-map and simulate using NOR gates only.
f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1,3,5,7,9) + D(6,12,13)
Additional Exercises
1. Minimize the following expression using K-map and simulate using only NAND gates.
f(A,B,C,D) = ∏(1,3,5,8,9,11,15)+D(2,13)
2. Find the minimum cost SOP implementation for the following function f using K-map.
f=A’C’D’+A’C+AB’C’+ACD’
3. Using functional decomposition find the minimum-cost circuit for the following function
f. Assume that the input variables are available in uncomplemented form only. Simulate
the circuit using Verilog.
f (x1, . . . , x4) = ∑m(0, 4, 8, 13, 14, 15).

Lab No 4: Date:
ARITHMETIC CIRCUITS
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Design arithmetic circuits using combinational logic.

2. Simulate arithmetic circuits using Verilog.

I. Adder circuit:
 Half adder- Circuit which implements the addition of only two single bit inputs.

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 Full adder- Circuit which implements the addition of two single bit inputs and one carry
bit.
 Ripple-carry adder
 For each bit position we can use a full-adder circuit, connected as shown in Fig. 4.1.
 Carries that are produced by the full-adders propagate to the left.

Figure 4.1 An n-bit ripple carry adder

 Adder/Subtractor unit-
 Only difference between performing addition and subtraction is that for subtraction it
is necessary to use the 2’s complement of one operand.
 Add/Sub control signal chooses whether addition or subtraction is to be performed.
 Outputs of the XOR gates represent Y if Add/Sub = 0, and they represent the 1’s
complement of Y if Add/Sub = 1.
 Add/Sub is also connected to the carry-in c0. This makes c0 = 1 when subtraction is to
be performed, thus adding the 1 that is needed to form the 2’s complement of Y.
 When the addition operation is performed, we will have c0 = 0.
 The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.2

Figure 4.2 Adder/subtractor unit

 Binary multiplier

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  Multiplication of binary numbers is performed in the same way as in decimal numbers.
The multiplicand is multiplied by each bit of the multiplier starting from the least
significant bit.
 Each such multiplication forms a partial product. Successive partial products are
shifted one position to the left. The final product is obtained from the sum of the partial
products.
 BCD Addition
In Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) representation each digit of a decimal number is
represented by 4 bit binary. When 2 BCD numbers are added,
 If X +Y ≤ 9, then the addition is the same as the addition of 2 four-bit unsigned
binary numbers.
 A correct decimal digit can be generated by adding 6 to the result of four-bit
addition whenever result exceeds 9 or when the carry is generated.

II. Designing subcircuits in Verilog

 A Verilog module can be included as a subcircuit in another module.
 Both modules must be defined in the same file.
 The general form of a module instantiation statement is given below.

module_name [#(parameter overrides)] instance_name (

.port_name ( [expression] ) {, .port_name ( [expression] )} );

 The instance_name can be any legal Verilog identifier and the port connections
specify how the module is connected to the rest of the circuit.
 The same module can be instantiated multiple times in a given design provided that
each instance name is unique.
 The #(parameter overrides) can be used to set the values of parameters defined inside
the module_name module.
 Each port_name is the name of a port in the subcircuit, and each expression specifies
a connection to that port.
 Named port connections -The syntax .port_name is provided so that the order of
signals listed in the instantiation statement does not have to be the same as the order
of the ports given in the module statement of the subcircuit.
 Ordered port connections-If the port connections are given in the same order as in
the subcircuit, then .port_name is not needed.

Using Vectored Signals

 Multibit signals are called vectors.
 An example of an input vector is
input [3:0] W;

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  This statement defines W to be a four-bit vector. Its individual bits can be referred
using an index value in square brackets.
 The most-significant bit (MSB) is referred to as W[3] and the least-significant bit
(LSB) is W[0].

Solved Exercise
Write Verilog code to implement a 4-bit adder.

Verilog code:
module adder4 (carryin, x3, x2, x1, x0, y3, y2, y1, y0, s3, s2, s1, s0, carryout);
input carryin, x3, x2, x1, x0, y3, y2, y1, y0;
output s3, s2, s1, s0, carryout;
fulladd stage0 (carryin, x0, y0, s0, c1);
fulladd stage1 (c1, x1, y1, s1, c2);
fulladd stage2 (c2, x2, y2, s2, c3);
fulladd stage3 (c3, x3, y3, s3, carryout);
endmodule

module fulladd (Cin, x, y, s, Cout);

input Cin, x, y;
output s, Cout;
assign s = x ∧ y ∧ Cin;
assign Cout = (x & y) | (x & Cin) | (y & Cin);
endmodule

 Separate Verilog module for the ripple carry adder instantiate the fulladd module as a
subcircuit.

Lab Exercises
Write behavioral Verilog code to implement the following and simulate
1. Half adder, full adder and decomposed full adder.
2. Four bit adder using full adders.
3. Four bit adder/ subtractor using four bit adder.
4. 2-bit multiplier using 2-bit adder and basic gates.
5. Single digit BCD adder using four bit adder(s).
Additional Exercises

1. Design and simulate a circuit that determines how many bits in a six-bit unsigned number
are high.

18
 2. Design and write Verilog code for a 2 digit BCD adder.
3. Design 2-bit multiplier using half adders and logic gates. Write Verilog code to implement
this design.

Lab No 5: Date:
COMPARATORS AND CODE CONVERTERS
Objectives:
In this lab,student will be able to

1. Learn the concept of comparators and code converters.

2. Write Verilog code to simulate comparators and code converters.

Arithmetic Comparison Circuits

 Compare the relative magnitude of two binary numbers.

Code Converters
 Convert from one type of input representation to a different output representation.

19
Parameters
 A parameter associates an identifier name with a constant.
 Using the following declaration, the identifier n can be used in place of the number 4.
parameter n = 4;

Verilog Procedural Statements

 Rather than using gates or logic expressions, circuits can be specified in terms of their
behavior.
 Also called sequential statements.
 Procedural statements are evaluated in the order in which they appear in the code
whereas concurrent statements are executed in parallel.
 Verilog syntax requires that procedural statements should be inside an always block.

Always Block
 An always block is a construct that contains one or more procedural statements.
 It has the form
always @(sensitivity_list)
[begin]
[procedural assignment statements]
[if-else statements]
[case statements]
[while, repeat, and for loops]
[task and function calls]
[end]

 The sensitivity_list is a list of signals that directly affect the output results generated by the
always block.
 If the value of a signal in the sensitivity list changes, then the statements inside the always
block are evaluated in the order presented.

Variables:

 A variable can be assigned a value and this value is retained until it is overwritten in a
subsequent assignment statement.
 There are two types of variables, reg and integer.
 The keyword reg does not denote a storage element, or register. In Verilog code,
reg variables can be used to model either combinational or sequential parts of a
circuit.
 Integer variables are useful for describing the behavior of a module, but they do
not directly correspond to nodes in a circuit.

20
for Loop
 general form of for loop

for (initial_index; terminal_index; increment)

begin
statement;
end

 The initial_index is evaluated once, before the first loop iteration, and typically performs
the initialization of the integer loop control variable.
 In each loop iteration, the begin-end block is performed, and then the increment statement
is evaluated.
 Finally, the terminal_index condition is checked, and if it is True (1), then another loop
iteration is done.

Solved Exercise
Write Verilog code to simulate 1-bit equality comparator.

Verilog code:

module compare(A, B, AeqB);

input A, B;
output reg AeqB;
always @(A,B)
begin
AeqB=0;
if (A==B)
AeqB=1;
end
endmodule

Lab exercises
1. Design a 5-bit comparator using only logic gates. Write behavioral Verilog code to
simulate the design.
2. Using for loop, write behavioral Verilog code to convert an N bit grey code into an
equivalent binary code.

21
 3. Write behavioral Verilog code to simulate a code converter that converts a decimal digit
from 8, 4,-2,-1 code to BCD.
4. Write and simulate the Verilog code for a 4-bit comparator using 2-bit comparators.

Additional exercises
1. Write behavioural Verilog code to design an n-bit adder with carry out and overflow
signals.
2. Write Verilog code for a 4-bit signed comparator circuit with three outputs AequaltoB,
AlessthanB, AgreaterthanB designed using full adders and other necessary gates.
3. Using for loop, write behavioral Verilog code to convert an N bit binary number into an
equivalent grey code.
4. Write Verilog code to perform BCD to excess-3 code conversion. Use K-map to derive the
simplified expressions for excess-3 code.

Lab No : 6 Date:
MULTIPLEXERS
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Understand the concept of multiplexers.

2. Learn more about behavioral style of Verilog programming.
3. Design and implement simple multiplexers.
4. Design and implement large multiplexers using small multiplexers.

I. Multiplexers
 Multiplexer has a number of data inputs, one or more select inputs, and one output.
 It passes the signal value on one of the data inputs to the output.
 A multiplexer that has N data inputs, w0, . . . ,wN−1, requires log2N select inputs.
 Fig. 6.1a shows the graphical symbol for a 2-to-1 multiplexer.
 The functionality of a multiplexer can be described in the form of a truth table. Fig. 6.1b
shows the functionality of a 2-to-1 multiplexer.

22
 Figure 6.1a Graphical symbol Figure 6.1b Truth table

The Conditional Operator

 In a logic circuit it is often necessary to choose between several possible signals or values
based on the state of some condition.
 Verilog provides a conditional operator (?:) which assigns one of the two values depending
on a conditional expression.
Syntax of conditional operator
conditional_expression ? true_expression : false_expression

 If the conditional expression evaluates to 1 (true), then the value of true_expression is

chosen; otherwise, the value of false_expression is chosen.
The if-else Statement
 The general form of the if-else statement is given below.

if (expression1)
begin
statement;
end
else if (expression2)
begin
statement;
end
else
begin
statement;
end

 If expression1 is true, then the first statement is evaluated.

 When multiple statements are involved, they have to be included inside a begin-end block.
 The else if and else clauses are optional.
 Verilog syntax specifies that when else if or else are included, they are paired with the most
recent unfinished if or else if.

23
The case Statement
 The general form of a case statement is given below.

case (expression)
alternative1: begin
statement;
end
alternative2: begin
statement;
end
[default: begin
statement;
end]
endcase

 The bits in expression, called as controlling expression, are checked for a match with each
alternative.
 The first successful match causes the associated statements to be evaluated.
 Each digit in each alternative is compared for an exact match of the four values 0, 1, x, and
z.
 A special case is the default clause, which takes effect if no other alternative matches.
 The casex statement reads all z and x values as don’t cares.

Functions and Tasks

 The purpose of a function is to allow the code to be written in a modular fashion without
defining separate modules.
 A function is defined within a module, and it is called either in a continuous assignment
statement or in a procedural assignment statement inside that module.
 A function can have more than one input, but it does not have an output, because the
function name itself serves as the output variable.
 Function general form

24
 function [range | integer] function_name;
[input declarations]
[parameter, reg, integer declarations]
Begin
statement;
end
endfunction

Verilog task
 A task is declared by the keyword task and it comprises a block of statements that ends
with the keyword endtask.
 The task must be included in the module that calls it.
 It may have input and output ports.
 The task ports are used only to pass values between the module and the task.

Solved Exercise
Write behavioral Verilog code for 2 to 1 multiplexer using always and conditional operator.

Verilog code:
module mux2to1 (w0, w1, s, f);
input w0, w1, s;
output f;
reg f;
always @(w0 or w1 or s)
f = s ? w1 : w0;
endmodule

Lab Exercises
1. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 2 to 1 multiplexer using if-else statement. Use this to
write the hierarchical code for a 4 to 1 multiplexer.
2. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 4 to 1 multiplexer using conditional operator. Use
this to write the hierarchical code for a 16 to 1 multiplexer.
3. Write behavioral Verilog code for an 8 to 1 multiplexer using case statement. Use this
along with a 2 to 1 multiplexer to write the hierarchical code for a 16 to 1 multiplexer.
4. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 2 to 1 multiplexer using function. Use this to write
the hierarchical code for a 4 to 1 multiplexer.

25
Additional Exercises

1. Write behavioral Verilog code for an 8 to 1 multiplexer using if-else statement. Use this to
write the hierarchical code for a 32 to 1 multiplexer.
2. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 4 to 1 multiplexer using function. Use this to write the
hierarchical code for a 16 to 1 multiplexer.

Lab No : 7 Date:
MULTIPLEXER APPLICATIONS
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Learn how to synthesis logic functions using multiplexers.

2. Write Verilog code to synthesis logic functions using multiplexers.

Synthesis of Logic Functions Using Multiplexers

26
  Procedure to synthesis a logic function is as shown in Fig. 7.1
 One of the input signals, w1 in this function, is chosen as the select input to the 2 to 1
multiplexer
 When w1 = 0, f has the same value as input w2, and when w1 = 1, f has the value of w2’.

Solved Exercise
Realize the function f= w1 ⊕ w2 using a 2 to 1 multiplexer and other necessary gates. Write
Verilog code to implement the design.

Figure 7.1a Truth table

Figure 7.1b Circuit

Verilog code:

module mux2to1 (w1, w2, f);

input w1, w2;
output f;
reg f;
always @(w1 or w2)
f = w1?~w2:w2;
endmodule

27
Lab Exercises
1. Implement the following functions using the specified multiplexers and write the Verilog
code for the same.
a. F(a,b,c,d) = a’b + ac’ + abd’ + bc’d using 8 to 1 multiplexer.
b. G(a,b,c,d) = Σm(0,2,3,5,7) using 4 to 1 multiplexer.
2. Implement a 3 input majority function using the given multiplexers and write the Verilog
code for the same.
a. 2 to 1 multiplexer and other necessary gates.
b. Only 2 to 1 multiplexer.
3. Design and write the Verilog code for a BCD to Excess 3 code converter using 8 to 1
multiplexers and other necessary gates.
4. Design and write the Verilog code for a 4 bit binary to gray code converter using 4 to 1
multiplexers and other necessary gates.

Additional Exercises

1. Design and write the Verilog code for a BCD to 2421 code converter using 4 to 1
multiplexers and other necessary gates.
2. Design and simulate a full adder using 2 to 1 multiplexers and other necessary gates.
3. Use Shannon’s expansion to design and implement the function F(a, b, c, d) = ∑m(0, 2, 5,
9, 11) with a 4 to 1 multiplexer and any other necessary gates.
4. Using 2 to 1 multiplexers, design a circuit that can shift a four-bit vector W=w3w2w1w0
one bit position to the right when a control signal Shift is equal to 1. Let the outputs of the
circuit be a four-bit vector Y=y3y2y1y0 and a signal k, such that if Shift=1 then y3=0,
y2=w3, y1=w2, y0=w1 and k=w0. If Shift=0 then Y=W and k=0. Write Verilog code to
simulate this design.

Lab No : 8 Date:
DECODERS AND ENCODERS
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to
1. Learn the concept of decoders, encoders and priority encoders.
2. Write Verilog code for decoders, decoder trees and encoders.

Decoders
 Decoder circuits are used to decode the encoded information.

28
  A binary decoder, depicted in Fig. 8.1, is a logic circuit with n inputs and 2n outputs.
 Each output corresponds to one valuation of the inputs, and only one output is asserted at
a time.
 The decoder also has an enable input En, that is used to disable the outputs; if En = 0, then
none of the decoder outputs is asserted.
 If En = 1, the valuation of wn−1 · · ·w1w0 determines which of the outputs is asserted.
 Larger decoders can be built using smaller decoders referred to as decoder tree.

Figure 8.1 Decoder

Binary Encoders
 A binary encoder encodes information from 2n inputs into an n-bit code, as indicated in
Fig. 8.2.
 Exactly one of the input signals should have a value of 1, and the outputs present the
binary number that identifies which input is equal to 1.

Figure 8.2 Encoder

Priority Encoder

 In a priority encoder each input has a priority level associated with it.
 When an input with a high priority is asserted, the other inputs with lower priority are
ignored. Since it is possible that none of the inputs is equal to 1, an output, z, is provided
to indicate this condition.
 The truth table for a 4-to-2 priority encoder is shown in Fig. 8.3.

29
 Figure 8.3 Truth table for a 4 to 2 priority encoder
Casex Statement:

 Verilog provides variants of the case statement that treat the z and x values in a different
way.
 The casez statement treats all z values as don’t cares.
 The casex statement treats all z and x values as don’t cares.

Solved exercise
Write behavioral Verilog code for 2 to 4 binary decoder using for loop.

Verilog code:

module dec2to4 (W, Y, En);

input [1:0] W;
input En;
output [0:3] Y;
reg [0:3] Y;
integer k;
always @(W or En)
for (k = 0; k <= 3; k = k+1)
if ((W == k) && (En == 1))
Y[k] = 1;
else
Y[k] = 0;
endmodule
Lab Exercises
1. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 2 to 4 decoder with active high enable input and active
high output using if else statement. Using the 2 to 4 decoders above, design a 3 to 8 decoder
and write the Verilog code for the same.
2. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 3 to 8 decoder with active high enable input and active
high output using for loop. Using the 3 to 8 decoders above, design a 4 to 16 decoder and
write the Verilog code for the same.

30
 3. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 2 to 4 decoder with active high enable input and active
low output using case statement. Using the 2 to 4 decoders above, design a 4 to 16 decoder
with active high enable input and active low output and write the Verilog code for the same.
4. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 4 to 2 priority encoder using casex statement.
5. Write behavioral Verilog code for 16 to 4 priority encoder using for loop.

Additional Exercises

1. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 2 to 4 decoder with active high enable input and active
high output using case statement. Using the 2 to 4 decoders above, design a 4 to 16 decoder
with active low enable input and active high output and write the Verilog code for the same.
2. Write behavioral Verilog code for a 3 to 8 decoder with active high enable input and active
low output using if else statement. Using 3 to 8 decoders and a 2 to 4 decoder, design a 5
to 32 decoder with active high enable input and active low output and write the Verilog
code for the same.

Lab No : 9 Date:
APPLICATIONS OF DECODERS
Objectives:
In this lab,student will be able to

1. Implement logic functions using decoders and other necessary gates.

2. Write Verilog code to implement logical functions using decoders.

Applications of Decoders

31
The decoder generates a separate output for each minterm of the required function. These outputs
are combined using the OR gate as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Solved Exercise
Implement the function f(w1,w2,w3)=∑m(0,1,3,4,6,7) by using 3 to 8 binary decoder and an OR
gate. Write Verilog code to implement the same.

Solution:

Figure 9.1

Verilog code:

module logicfn(W, En,f);

input [2:0] W;
input En;
output f;
wire [0:7] Y;
dec3to8 decoder(W,Y,En);
assign f=Y[0] | Y[1] | Y[3] | Y[4] | Y[6] | Y[7];
endmodule
module dec3to8 (W, Y, En);
input [2:0] W;
input En;
output [0:7] Y;
reg [0:7] Y;
always @(W or En)
begin
if (En == 0)
Y = 8'b00000000;
else
case (W)
0: Y = 8'b10000000;

32
 1: Y = 8'b01000000;
2: Y = 8'b00100000;
3: Y = 8'b00010000;
4: Y = 8'b00001000;
5: Y = 8'b00000100;
6: Y = 8'b00000010;
7: Y = 8'b00000001;
endcase
end
endmodule

Lab Exercises
1. Implement the function, F(a, b, c, d) = Σm (1,3,6,7,9,14,15) using a 4 to 16 binary decoder
and an OR gate.
2. Design and simulate a combinational circuit with external gates and a 4 to 16 decoder built
using a decoder tree of 2 to 4 decoders to implement the functions below.
F= ab’c + a’cd + bcd’ , G=acd’ + a’b’c and H=a’b’c’ + abc + a’cd
3. Design and implement a 3 input majority function using 2 to 4 decoder(s) and other
necessary gates.
4. Design and implement an 8 to 1 multiplexer using 3 to 8 decoder and external gates.

Additional Exercises
1. Design and implement a full adder using 2 to 4 decoder(s) and other gates.
2. Simulate a BCD-to-7 Segment decoder.
3. Design and simulate the circuit with 3 to 8 decoder(s) and external gates to implement the
functions below.
F(a, b, c, d)= ∑m(2,4,7,9) G (a, b, c, d)= ∑m (0,3,15) H(a, b, c, d)= ∑m(0,2,10,12)
Lab No 10: Date:
FLIP FLOPS AND REGISTERS
Objectives:
In this lab. student will be able to

1. Learn different types of Flip Flops.

2. Understand the concept of triggering of flip flops and different types of reset.
3. Understand the concept of registers and shift registers.
4. Write Verilog code for Flip Flops and registers.

I. Flip Flops and Registers

33
Flip Flops:

 Flip flop circuit can maintain a binary state until directed by an input signal to switch the
state.
 Major differences among various types of flip flops are in the number of inputs they process
and in the manner in which the inputs effect the binary state.

Triggering of Flip-Flops:

 The state of a flip flop is switched by a momentary change in the input signal which is
called triggering the flip flop.

Positive Edge and Negative Edge:

 A positive clock source remains at 0 during the interval between pulses and goes to 1 during
the occurrence of a pulse.
 The pulse transition from 0 to 1 is called positive edge and return from 1 to 0 is called
negative edge.
Registers:

 A register is a group of binary cells suitable for holding binary information.

Shift Registers:

 A register capable of shifting its binary information either to the right or to the left is called
a shift register.

II. Verilog Constructs for Storage Elements

 The Verilog keywords posedge and negedge are used to implement edge-triggered circuits.
 The keyword posedge specifies that a change may occur only on the positive edge of Clock.
 The keyword negedge specifies that a change may occur only on the negative edge of
Clock.

Blocking and Non-Blocking Assignments

Blocking

 A Verilog compiler evaluates the statements in an always block in the order in which
they are written.
 If a variable is given a value by a blocking assignment statement, then this new value is
used in evaluating all subsequent statements in the block.
 Denoted by the ‘=’ symbol
 Example
Q1 = D;

34
 Q2 = Q1;

 The above statement results in Q2=Q1=D

Non-Blocking
 Verilog also provides a non-blocking assignment, denoted with ‘<=’.
 All non-blocking assignment statements in an always block are evaluated using the
values that the variables have when the always block is entered.
 Thus, a given variable has the same value for all statements in the block.
 The meaning of non-blocking is that the result of each assignment is not seen until the
end of the always block.
 Example
Q1 <= D;
Q2 <= Q1;
 The variables Q1 and Q2 have some value at the start of evaluating the always block, and
then they change to a new value concurrently at the end of the always block.

Flip-Flops with Clear Capability

 By using a particular sensitivity list and a specific style of if-else statement, it is possible
to include clear (or preset) signals on flip-flops.

Solved Exercise:
Write behavioral Verilog code for positive edge triggered D FF with synchronous reset.

Verilog Code:
module flipflop (D, Clock, Resetn, Q);
input D, Clock, Resetn;
output Q;
reg Q;
always @(posedge Clock)
if (!Resetn)
Q <= 0;
else
Q <= D;
endmodule

Lab Exercises

35
 1. Write behavioral Verilog code for a positive edge triggered D FF with asynchronous active
high reset.
2. Write behavioral Verilog code for a negative edge triggered T FF with asynchronous active
low reset.
3. Write behavioral Verilog code for a positive edge triggered JK FF with synchronous active
high reset.
4. Write structural Verilog code for a 5 bit register.
5. Write structural Verilog code for a 6 bit shift register.

Additional Exercises

1. Write Verilog code for an N bit register.

2. Write Verilog code for an N bit shift register.
3. Design and simulate a sequential circuit with two JK flipflops A and B, two inputs x and y
and one output z. The flipflop input functions and the circuit output functions are
JA = Bx’ + B’y KA= B’x’y’
JB = A’x KB = A’+ xy z=A’xy + Bx’y’
4. Design and simulate a shift register with parallel load that operates according to the
following function table:
Shift Load Register Operation

0 0 Shift left

0 1 Load parallel data

1 X No change

Lab No: 11 Date:

COUNTERS
Objectives:
In this lab, student will be able to

1. Learn the concept of synchronous/asynchronous up/down counters.

2. Learn the concept of ring and Johnson counters.
3. Write Verilog code for different types of counters.

Counters:

 A counter is essentially a register that goes through a predetermined sequence of states

upon the application of input pulses.
 A binary counter with a reverse count is called a binary down counter.

36
Ripple Counters
 Also called as asynchronous counters.
 The CP inputs of all flip flops (except the first) are triggered not by the incoming pulses,
but by the transition that occurs in other flip flops.
 Four bit binary ripple counter is shown in Fig. 11.1

Synchronous Counters
 The input pulses are applied to the CP input of all the flip flops.
 The common pulse triggers all flip flops simultaneously.
 The change of state of a particular flip flop is dependent on the present state of other flip
flops.
 For synchronous sequential circuits the design procedure is as follows:
3. From the given information (word description/state diagram/timing diagram/other
pertinent information) about the circuit, obtain the state table.
4. Determine the number of flip flops needed.
5. From the state table, derive the circuit excitation and output tables.
6. Derive the circuit output functions and the flip flop input functions by
simplification.
7. Draw the logic diagram.

Ring Counter
 Circular shift register with only one flip flop being set at any particular time, all others
are cleared.
 N bit ring counter will have N states and requires N flip flops.
 Fig. 11.2 shows a 4-bit ring counter using decoder and counter.

37
 Figure 11.1 4-bit binary ripple counter

Figure 11.2 4-bit ring counter

Johnson counter or Switch tail ring counter

 Circular shift register with the complement output of the last flip flop connected to the
input of the first flip flop.
 k-bit switch tail ring counter with 2k decoding gates provide outputs for 2k timing
signals.

38
  k- bit Johnson counter requires k flip flops.
 Fig. 11.3 shows a 4-bit Johnson counter

Figure 11.3 4-bit Johnson counter

Solved Exercise
Write Verilog code for a 2-bit asynchronous up counter.

module tff1(T, Clock, Q);

input T, Clock;
output Q;
reg Q;
always @(negedge Clock)
if (!T)
Q <= Q;
else
Q <= ~Q;
endmodule

module twobit (clock, Q);

input clock;
output [1:0]Q;
tff1 f1(1,clock,Q[0]);
tff1 f2(1,Q[0],Q[1]);
endmodule

Lab Exercises
1. Design and simulate the following counters
a) 4 bit ring counter.
b) 5 bit Johnson counter.
c) 4 bit asynchronous up counter

39
 d) 4 bit synchronous up counter
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅. If up/𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
e) 4 bit synchronous up/down counter with a control input up/𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 1,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 0, then the circuit
then the circuit should behave as an up counter. If up/𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
should behave as a down counter.

Additional Exercises
1. Design and simulate a sequential circuit which produces a high output for every 6th clock
pulse.
2. Design and simulate a synchronous Mod 11 counter. Treat the unused states as don’t-care
conditions.
3. Assume a 4 bit signal A and a clock as inputs and a 4 bit signal Y as output. Design a circuit
which repeats the operations cyclically with clock as follows:
Clock(input) Y(output)
st
1 clock cycle rotate A by 1 bit to the left
nd
2 clock cycle rotate A by 2 bit to the left
rd
3 clock cycle rotate A by 3 bit to the left
th
4 clock cycle complement of A
And then repeats in the same pattern.
4. Design and simulate a synchronous counter using T FFs with a control input w which
operates in the manner given. When w=0, the counter should follow the repeated binary
sequence: 0, 2, 3, 4, 6 and when w=1, the counter should follow the repeated binary
sequence: 6, 4, 3, 2, 0.
5. Assume two single bit signals A, B and a Clock as inputs and a 2 bit signal Y as output.
Design and simulate a sequential circuit which repeats the operations cyclically with clock
as follows:
Clock(input) Y(output)
1st clock cycle A’
2nd clock cycle A’ + 1
rd
3 clock cycle B’
4th clock cycle B’ + 1
th
5 clock cycle 2A
6th clock cycle 2B
th
7 clock cycle A’ + B’
th
8 clock cycle A+B
And then repeats in the same pattern.

40
Lab No: 12 Date:
SIMPLE PROCESSOR DESIGN
Objectives:
In this lab student will be able to

1. Learn the concept of bus structure.

2. Understand the concept of simple processor and bit counting circuit.
3. Write Verilog code to implement bus structure, simple processor and bit counting
circuit.

Bus Structure:

 When a digital system contains a number of n-bit registers, to transfer data from any
register to any other register, a simple way of providing the desired interconnectivity is to
connect each register to a common set of n wires, which are used to transfer data into and
out of the registers. This common set of wires is usually called a bus.
 If common paths are used to transfer data from multiple sources to multiple destinations,
it is necessary to ensure that only one register acts as a source at any given time and other
registers do not interfere.
There are two arrangements for implementing the bus structure.

 Using Tri-State Drivers

 Using Multiplexers

Using Tri-State Drivers to Implement a Bus:

 Consider a system that contains k n-bit registers, R1 to Rk. Figure 12.1 shows how these
registers can be connected using tri-state drivers to implement the bus structure. The data
outputs of each register are connected to tri-state drivers. When selected by their enable
signals, the drivers place the contents of the corresponding register onto the bus wires. The
enable signals are generated by a control circuit.
 In addition to registers, in a real system other types of circuit blocks would be connected
to the bus. The figure shows how n bits of data from an external source can be placed on
the bus, using the control input Extern.
 It is essential to ensure that only one circuit block attempts to place data onto the bus wires
at any given time. The control circuit must ensure that only one of the tri-state driver enable
signals, R1out, . . . , Rkout, is asserted at a given time. The control circuit also produces
the signals R1in, . . . , Rkin, which determine when data is loaded into each register.
 In general, the control circuit could perform a number of functions, such as transferring the
data stored in one register into another register and controlling the processing of data in
various functional units of the system. Figure 12.1 shows an input signal named Function

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 that instructs the control circuit to perform a particular task. The control circuit is
synchronized by a clock input, which is the same clock signal that controls the k registers.

Fig 12.1 A digital system with k registers.

Solved Exercise
Consider a system that has three registers, R1, R2, and R3. The control circuit performs a single
function—it swaps the contents of registers R1 and R2, using R3 for temporary storage. The
required swapping is done in three steps, each needing one clock cycle. In the first step the contents
of R2 are transferred into R3. Then the contents of R1 are transferred into R2. Finally, the contents
of R3, which are the original contents of R2, are transferred into R1. To transfer the contents of
one register into another buses are used. The control circuit for this task can be explained in the
form of a finite state machine as shown in Figure 12.2. Its state table is shown in Table 12.1

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 Fig. 12.2

Initially, the bus is loaded with the data when Extern=1. Initial state is A corresponding to load the
data from the bus to register R1. To initiate the state transition from state A to state B, an input
signal w is made equal to 1. In state A and state B, Extern = 1 to load two different data to the bus
and then from the bus to the registers R1 and R2. The states B, C and D change their states if
Extern = 0. From B, it goes to C state where R1 is copied to R3. From C it goes to state D where
R2 is copied to R1. From D, the next state is E to copy R3 to R2 and an output Done = 1 to indicate
that swap is completed. Form E the next state is the initial state A. All transfers are taking place
through the bus.
Table 12.1
PS NS Outputs
Extern=1 Extern=0 Rinext1 Rinext2 R1in R1out R2in R2out R3in R3out done
A B A 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B B C 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C C D 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
D D E 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
E A A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

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Verilog code
module regn (R, L, Clock, Q);
parameter n = 8;
input [n-1:0] R;
input L, Clock;
output [n-1:0] Q;
reg [n-1:0] Q;
always @(posedge Clock)
if (L)
Q <= R;
endmodule // Code for 8-bit register

module swap1 (Resetn, Clock, w, Data, Extern, R1, R2, R3, BusWires, Done);
parameter n = 8;
input Resetn, Clock, w, Extern;
input [n-1:0] Data;
output [n-1:0] BusWires ,R1, R2, R3 ;
reg [n-1:0] BusWires, R1, R2, R3;
output Done;
wire R1in, R1out, R2in, R2out, R3in, R3out, RinExt1, RinExt2;
reg [2:0] y, Y;
parameter [2:0] A = 3'b000, B = 3'b001, C = 3'b010, D = 3'b011, E = 3'b100;
// Define the next state combinational circuit for FSM
always @(w or y)
begin
case (y)
A: if (w) Y = B;

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else Y = A;
B: Y = C;
C: Y = D;
D: Y = E;
E: Y = A;
//F: Y = A;
endcase
end
// Define the sequential block for FSM
always @(negedge Resetn or posedge Clock)
begin
if (Resetn == 0) y <= A;
else y <= Y;
end
// Define outputs of FSM
assign RinExt1 = (y == A);
assign RinExt2 = (y == B);
assign R3in = (y == C);
assign R1out = (y == C);
assign R2out = (y == D);
assign R1in = (y == D);
assign R3out = (y == E);
assign R2in = (y == E);
assign Done = (y == E);

always @(Extern or R1out or R2out or R3out)

if (Extern) BusWires = Data;

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else if (R1out) BusWires = R1;
else if (R2out) BusWires = R2;
else if (R3out) BusWires = R3;

regn reg3 (BusWires, R3in, Clock, R3);

regn reg4 (BusWires, RinExt1 | R1in, Clock, R1);
regn reg5 (BusWires, RinExt2 | R2in, Clock, R2);
endmodule

Output:

Lab Exercises
1. Implement the swap example shown in the solved exercise using multiplexers.
2. Simulate a simple processor that can perform the following functions:

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Additional Exercises
1. Simulate a bit counting circuit.

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References:
1. Stephen Brown and Zvonko Vranesic, “Fundamentals of digital logic with Verilog design”,
Tata MGH publishing Co.Ltd., 3rd edition, 2014.
2. M.Morris Mano, “Digital design”, PHI Pvt. Ltd., 2nd edition, 2000

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