J nat Rubb Res 9(4), 241-252

Review of the Permeation of Organic Substances

through Rubber Latex Films
M D MORRIS* AND AMIR HASHIM M Y * *

Literature describing experimental methods, reporting data and discussing theory relating to
permeation is reviewed Emphasis is placed on data from natural rubber latex films and
comparison of such films with other materials used in elastomenc gloves In total, permeation
data for 40 permeants and 30 glove materials is covered Large discrepancies are noted in
results obtained from different laboratories and these can only partly be attributed to differences
in experimental methods Overall, natural rubber generally provides better resistance than
sihcone or PVC materials but are inferior to mtnle or Neoprene-based materials, particularly
m resistance to hydrocarbons Theories describing permeation rate and lag time in terms of
Picks laws are described, and the dependence of diffusion coefficient on concentration is
discussed

One of the major uses for natural and synthetic with particular emphasis on the behaviour of
rubber latices is in the production of gloves for films made from natural rubber latex
barrier protection. Barrier protection is taken
to mean providing both a physical and a When a polymer membrane is challenged
chemical barrier It is well known that properly by a fluid (liquid or vapour), the permeation
made rubber gloves provide an excellent behaviour is generally described by the curves
physical barrier, even to sub-micron sized given in Figures 1 and 2. The two important
particles the size of the AIDS virus, HIV. The characteristics of any membrane/permeant
effectiveness of glove materials as barriers to combination are the steady-state permeation
small molecules such as solvents, however is rate and the breakthrough and/or lag time
seldom complete because of the ability of these These terms will be used throughout this
molecules to diffuse through the polymer itself. review
A considerable amount of work has been
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
carried out on measuring and understanding
the permeation of substances through rubber The methods used to determine permeation
films or membranes The research falls into characteristics of elastomeric materials have
two distinct categories Firstly, there are been reviewed recently1 The principle in all of
empirical studies aimed at evaluating the the methods is that a sample of the material
barrier performance of various types of gloves with defined surface area is held firmly in a
and other similar products The other area of device usually called a permeation cell The
interest has been in understanding and permeating substance is admitted on one side
developing the theory of permeation. This of the membrane and some detection system
review aims to cover both areas of research, detects the substance on the other side. Two
k
Malaysian Rubber Producers' Research Association, Bnckendonbury, Hertford SG13 8NL, United Kingdom
"*Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, P O Box 10150, 50908 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

241
 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

Steady
Cumulative state
permeation

Breakthrough
time
Lag time

Time

Figure L Model permeation curve showing cumulative permeation against time.

Steady state
permeation
rate

Cumulative
permeation

Time

Figure 2. Model curve of permeation rate against time.

fundamental types of permeation cell exist. either continuously or periodically on that

The preferred type is the open-loop set-up in chamber's contents. This close-loop arrange-
which permeant is continuously removed from ment requires a different theoretical treatment
the reception side of the membrance and taken which has been well covered in a recent
to a detector so that no build up in concentration review2.
is allowed. The alternative type of permeation
cell is the closed-loop cell. In this set-up the A number of standard permeation cells have
collection chamber is essentially closed and been described in recent years. The first was
concentration determination is carried out documented in the ASTM test method3 of 1981
COPYRIGHT © MALAYSIAN RUBBER BOARD
242
 M.D. Morris & Amir Hashim MY.: Permeation of Organic Substances through Rubber Latex Films

which has since been twice updated4, and also are the exposed surface area of the test piece
appears in EN 374-3:19945. An alternative and the collecting fluid flow rate.
method was developed by the British Occu-
pational Hygiene Technology Committee6 and The method of detection chosen for
submitted to both the BSI and ISO. This cell permeation studies depends on the nature of
has been described in recent European and ISO the permeant, whether an open- or closed-
Standards7. A number of variables still exist loop is used and whether continuous or periodic
when a standard cell is used and a standard monitoring is required. In the simplest open-
procedure followed. The chief variables are loop set-up, the reception side can be open to
the nature of the collecting medium, the atmosphere and permeation levels
temperature, collecting medium flow rate and measured by weight changes"'13. Likewise,
method of analysis. The dependence on the amount of permeated substance in a simple
temperature is unsurprising since diffusion is closed-loop system can be measured by
known to be temperature dependant. The nature pressure changes in the closed reception
of the collection fluid and its flow rate however, chamber14. The preferred method of analysis
should ideally not affect the results as the aim for quantitative work with an open-loop is
is to maintain zero concentration of the flame ionisation detection, usually via a gas
permeant at the membrane surface. In practice, chromatograph (GC)1-15"1". Infra-red1*'20 and
an infinite flow rate would be required to ultra-violet1" analytical methods have also been
achieve that situation. If non-standard cells are employed for the same purpose. Specific, non-
used, exposed sample area, collecting chamber continuous detection methods have been used
volume and sampling mode become other for the detection of specific permeants. These
important variables. It has been necessary to include charcoal air-sampling tubes16, Drager
use cells other than of a standard design, for tubes 16 , mutagenicity testing 21 and non-
example for the study of highly toxic or continuous gas chromatograph analysis22.
hazardous chemicals8, or for testing of complete
gloves9. Permeation Data for Elastomeric Glove
Materials
A number of comparisons have been made
between different permeation cells and the The most comprehensive study of the
effect of different variables on the results. The permeation behaviour of glove materials, in
most complete study is that by Mellstrom who terms of materials covered, is that by Nelson
tested both the two standard cells and another et a/.19 The breakthrough times and steady-
cell design with gaseous collection in an open- state permeation rates of 29 common organic
loop"1. The main findings were that break- chemicals through 28 different glove materials
through times were little affected by cell design were determined. Six of the gloves tested were
or collection gas flow rate within reasonable made from natural rubber latex, seven from
limits (120-500 ml/min through the ASTM and Neoprene and the others were made from
ISO cells) but that steady-state permeation rates nitrile, PVC, polyethylene or a Neoprene/
were dependant on cell design and gas flow natural rubber blend. It was found that both
rate. For example, the ISO cell at 500 ml/min breakthrough times and permeation rates
gave permeation rates 2.6-5.2 times higher than varied considerably, even between gloves made
those obtained from the ASTM cell at 120ml/ from the same polymer. Glove thickness was
min. It was found that the two important factors identified as one important variable. Tests on
affecting permeation rates in open-loop systems materials of identical origins with different

243
 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

thicknesses revealed the inverse propor- substances have longer breakthrough times and
tionality of permeation rate with thickness lower rates. Within the overall trend however,
expected from theory19. Whilst thickness was some anomalies exist. For example,
an important factor, it could not account for all cyclohexane, carbon tetrachloride and xylene
of the differences in permeation rates between are generally considered to be non-polar, yet
gloves of the same polymer composition are in the intermediate group with respect to
(Table 1). Clearly, factors other than the nature breakthrough times whilst butyl acetate, which
of the polymer are important in determining is more polar than many of the other permeants
permeation characteristics. studied, has one of the highest permeation
rates.
Breakthrough times for the various
substances through the six types of natural Molecular weight or molecular size of
latex gloves could be grouped into three permeant does not seem to be an important
categories (Table 2). More precise ranking of factor in determining breakthrough time or
breakthrough times could not be achieved permeation rate. Toluene and phenol, which
because of discrepancies between different NR have almost the same molecular weight and
gloves. Also the differences in breakthrough similar molecular structures, have widely
times between different solvents tended to be differeing breakthrough times. Even for
small. Overall, some correlation seems to exist homologues with the same functional group,
between breakthrough time, permeation rate molecular weight does not seem to be the
and permeant polarity. Thus, non-polar decisive factor. This is illustrated by the
solvents tend to have short breakthrough times permeation rate of methyl ethyl ketone being
and high permeation rates whilst more polar higher than that of acetone, and that of ethanol

TABLE 1. SELECTED PERMEATION DATA FOR ORGANIC SOLVENTS

THROUGH NATURAL RUBBER GLOVE MATERIALS"
Glove number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Av. thickness (mm) 0.21 0.31 0.47 0.52 0.45 0.59
Permeation rate
(u,g/min/cm2)
Acetone 210 110 82 46 66 45
Butyl acetate 2900 1400 940 640 880 510
Chloroform 15 4 7.6 4.4 5.6 7.0
Ethanol 14 4 <4 <4 <4 <4
Toluene 9.2 4.7 2.7 3.8 3.6 2.8
Breakthrough time
(min)
Acetone 2.2 5.2 6.0 8.0 15 27
Butyl acetate 2.0 4.0 6.4 9.2 8.0 14
Chloroform 0.8 1.6 2.6 6.4 3.2 2.8
Ethanol 12 28 >60 >60 >60 >60
Methanol 2 20 >60 24 18 >60
Toluene 0,5 2.0 3.5 5.0 3.0 4.1

"Reference 19

244
M.D. Morris & Amir Hashim M.Y.: Permeation of Organic Substances through Rubber Latex Films

TABLE 2. OVERALL RANKING OF PERMEATION RATES AND BREAKTHROUGH TIMES OF

ORGANIC SOLVENTS THROUGH NATURAL RUBBER GLOVES3
Breakthrough time Permeation rate
Pentane Pentane
Toluene Cyclohexane
Methylene chloride Butyl acetate
Chloroform Freon TF
Short Trichloroethylene Isoamyl acetate
Benzene Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl iodide Dioxane
Ethylene dichloride Acetone
Tetrahydrofuran Tetrahydrofuran
Acetone Methyl iodide
Butyl acetate Trichloroethylene
Carbon tetrachloride Chloroform
Cyclohexane Carbon tetrachloride
Methyl ethyl ketone Increasing Methylene chloride
Medium — Pyridine rate Benzene
Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethane
111 -Trichloroethane Toluene
Xylene 111-Trichloroethane
Dioxane Xylene
Isoamyl acetate Aniline
Freon TF m-Cresol
Aniline Dimethyl sulphoxide
m-Cresol Ethanol
Ethanol Ethylene dichloride
Long Ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol
Methanol Methanol
Phenol Phenol
Trifluoroethanol Pyridine
Dimethyl sulphoxide Trifluoroethanol
"Reference 19

being higher than the permeation rate of esters tested exhibited similar behaviour
methanol. Although the overall trend for suggests that it is more than an anomaly of a
permeation rates is the same as that for particular solvent.
breakthrough times, no clear correlation can
be established between the two parameters. A comparison of the data obtained from
The relatively high permeation rates of the NR glove materials with those from synthetic
esters butyl acetate and isoamyl acetate, for glove materials (Tables 3 and 4) shows that
instance, does not tie in with either the moderate natural rubber performs reasonably well against
breakthrough times or the known polarity of most permeants. For example, acetone has a
these compounds. Yet the fact that both of the longer breakthrough time for NR than for

245
 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

TABLE 3. PERMEATION RATES OF SELECTED SOLVENTS THROUGH FOUR TYPES

OF GLOVE MATERIAL OF SIMILAR THICKNESS1

Material NR PVC Neoprene Nitrile

Thickness (mm) 0.31 0.31 0.29 0.32

Acetone 110 C 140 1500
Butyl acetate 1400 3300 350 880
Chloroform 4 5.4 4.4 7
Ethanol 4 28 <4 <4
Methanol 8 18 <4 29
Toluene 4.7 2.1 2.5 0.8
Pentane 2700 100 21 10

"Reference 19
All figures are in |ig/min/cm2
C indicates catastrophic failure

TABLE 4. BREAKTHROUGH TIMES OF SELECTED SOLVENTS THROUGH

FOUR TYPES OF GLOVE MATERIAL OF SIMILAR THICKNESS3

Material NR PVC Neoprene Nitrile

Thickness (mm) 0.31- 0.31 0.29 0.32

Acetone 5.2 C 16 3.0
Butyl acetate 4.0 2.4 11 20
Chloroform 1.6 0.4 3.6 4.4
Ethanol 28 11 >60 >60
Methanol 20 3 >60 39
Toluene 2.0 2.9 4.0 10
Pentane 1.7 9.2 20 5.6

"Reference 19
All figures are in minutes
C indicates catastrophic failure

nitrile, and a lower permeation rate through separate study". Permeation rates of benzene,
NR than through Neoprene or nitrile. It is only cyclohexane, heptane and isooctane through
in resistance to permeation by hydrocarbons 10 different rubber materials were measured.
like toluene and pentane that the oil-resistant The results (Table 5) show that natural rubber
materials clearly outperform NR. provided less resistance to permeation than
any of the synthetic rubbers apart from silicone.
Permeation of hydrocarbon liquids through The permeation rate of benzene was about
elastomeric materials was the subject of a twice as high through NR as it was through

246
M.D. Morris & Amir Hashim M.Y.: Permeation of Organic Substances through Rubber Latex Films
TABLE 5. RELATIVE PERMEATION RATES OF FOUR HYDROCARBONS
THROUGH VARIOUS ELASTOMERS"

Elastomer Benzene Cyclohexane Heptane Isooctane

Hex afluoropropylene/ vinyl - 1 1 1 1

idine fluoride copolymer
Nitnle (48% acrylonitrile) 439 2 2 1
Polysulphide 300 90 40 24
Nitrile (32% acrylonitrile) 1418 365 220 50
Chlorosulphonated PE 104 5000 1000 240
Polyurethane 1525 6000 2000 1000
Polychloroprene 1739 24000 6000 1000
SBR 2832 182000 117000 40000
NR 2714 327000 315000 294000
Sihcone (50 Shore A) 4070 1120000 1580000 2580000

"Reference 11

TABLE 6. PERMEATION CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARTICULAR NITRILE GLOVE

OBTAINED FROM SEPARATE STUDIES

Breakthrough time Steady-state permeation

Reference (min) rate (u,g/min/cm2/mm)

9 3.84 3.4
15 2.80 43.1
23 2.61 67.2
24 1.27 21.0

Neoprene, nitrile or polyurethane, but the results. This study was able to identify several
difference was much greater for the saturated elastomer/permeant combinations which had
hydrocarbons. These results provide further been examined by other researchers in the
proof, if required, that natural rubber provides field, allowing direct comparison of data. Such
a poor barrier to hydrocarbon solvents. a comparison gives cause for concern. For
instance, a particular nitrile glove (Edmont 37-
Jencen and Hardy measured the permeation 175) was studied by four different groups with
characteristics of six common solvents through widely differing results (Table 6).
NR, polyurethane, polychloroprene, PVC and
nitrile materials'5. In general, breakthrough A possible reason for such large
times were- shorter and permeation rates higher discrepancies is provided by Henry and
for NR than for the other materials except for Schlatter18 who studied the permeation of
PVC. Some of the data obtained for poly- toluene and dimethylformamide through three
urethane were also inferior to comparable NR types of elastomeric material. Using the same

247
 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

basic equipment, major differences in results latex and PVC gloves21. Another investigation
were found between experiments when produced semi-quantitative data for the
different collecting fluids or different methods permeation of fluorouracil and methotrexate
of analysis were used. For example, the through the same materials26, those being the
permeation rate of toluene through Neoprene glove materials normally encountered in
was found to be 2727 mg/min/cm 2 with medical environments.
isopropanol as the collection fluid and GC
detection. When UV detection was employed The overall picture which emerges from
with the same collection liquid, the respective the permeation testing of a wide range of
result was 400 mg/min/cm2. With IR detection materials by various laboratories is
and nitrogen as the collection fluid, a higher characterised by the following features:
permeation rate of 3502 mg/min/cm 2 was
recorded. Different laboratories using exactly • Breakthrough times generally exhibit poor
the same protocol generally produced reproducibility and poor agreement
permeation rates agreeing within 20%-30%. between laboratories. This parameter
Breakthrough times however, tended to vary seems to be critically dependent on
widely between laboratories, even when experimental protocol as well as being
measured under nominally identical conditions. seriously affected by minor differences
in sample characteristics such as surface
One further wide-ranging permeation study irregularities.
reported in the literature covers the permeation • Steady-state permeation rates show
of four solvents through eleven different glove
reasonable consistency and agreement
materials, excluding NR16. The solvents were between laboratories provided the same
benzene, chloroprene, dichloromethane and experimental conditions are used.
carbon tetrachloride, and the best glove Differences in some of the important
material in terms of overall solvent resistance experimental conditions however, such
was a supported PVA glove. Polychloroprene as the collecting fluid or detection
gloves performed worst in this particular study. method, can lead to widely differing
Other studies in this area provide qualitative or results.
semi-quantitative data for solvent permeation
through elastomeric materials12'13'27-28. • Natural rubber based materials show good
permeation resistance to polar liquids
Taken together, the research described such as alcohols, phenols, amines and
above has reported permeation data for a total dimethyl sulphoxide, but poor resistance
of 40 common organic liquids through at least to hydrocarbons, particularly the
30 glove materials covering all of the major aliphatics.
polymers. Other papers have reported data of a
more specialised nature, generally where a • The permeation resistance of NR latex-
practical need for barrier protection existed. derived glove materials to most organic
The permeation of several N-nitrosamines solvents is generally inferior to that of
through glove materials has been studied22 as Neoprene and nitrile based products but
has that of the petrol additives ethy lene bromide better than that of silicone or PVC
and tetraethyllead 25 . In the medical field, materials. Polyurethane materials
Laidlaw et al, obtained qualitative data on the perform better than NR under some
permeation of 20 antineoplastic drugs through circumstances but worse under others.

248
 M.D. Morris & Amir Hashim M.Y.: Permeation of Organic Substances through Rubber Latex Films

Theory of Permeation In the case where the exposed surface of

the membrane is in contact with the pure
The theory of permeation in general, and permeant, or at least saturated, Cj is given by
permeation of organic molecules through the solubility of the permeant, 5. Equation 4
elastomeric films in particular, has been then becomes:
covered in a number of excellent reviews2'29'30.
The theory will not be covered in detail in this Q = DS ... 5
review, but certain aspects which are
particularly relevant will be highlighted. The lag time, L which is defined as the
extrapolation of the steady-state portion of the
Permeation can be considered as consisting cumulative permeation curve to zero time, can
of three distinct processes, namely absorption be shown to be:
at one face, diffusion through the polymer
layer and evaporation or desorption at the other L = 12/6D ...6
face.
The main complication to the theory
Desorption does not generally play a described above arises due to the concentration
significant part in the overall process, so that dependence of D. In order for a molecule of
permeation is usually described by the solution- size comparable to a monomer unit to diffuse
diffusion model. The diffusion of liquids through a polymer, co-operative motion of a
through polymers which are well above their polymer segment consisting of several
glass transition temperature is known to be monomer units is required. As the con-
Fickian in character, so equations derived from centration of the diffusant increases, the
Pick's first and second laws are applicable. polymer mobility tends to increase, so the
The permeation rate, q is therefore given by: diffusion coefficient also increases.

dc ... I When D is dependent only on concentration,

q = -D
dx the time lag, L was derived by Frisch31 as:
where D is the diffusion coefficient and dc/dx
is the concentration gradient acorss the D(u)du dc
membrane. L =
Integration of Equation 1 between cl and c2
with I as the membrane thickness we obtain:
[i: D(c)dc

where ce is the equilibrium or saturation

- c) ...2 concentration.
q =
This equation can, in principle, be
where D is in fact an average diffusion converted to find D as a function of
coefficient. concentration. In practice, however, this
requires prohibitively accurate knowledge of
The specific permeation rate, Q is defined as: L. It is more useful as a means of checking
whether D is in fact only dependant on
Q = ql = 0 ( C ] - c 2 ) ...3
concentration.
If c, » c2 = 0 as is usually the case, then Breakthrough time which, unlike lag time,
= Dc ...4can be directly measured experimentally, is a
249
 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

complex function of several experimental 2. SCHWOPE, A.D., GOYDAN, R., REID, R.C.
parameters. For any chemical-material pair, AND KRISHNAMURTHY, S. (1988) State
breakthrough time is a function of thickness, of the Art Review of Permeation Testing and
analytical sensitivity, flow rate and surface the Interpretation of its Results. Am. Ind. Hyg.
Assoc. /., 49, 557.
area2. This parameter has not been amenable to
theoretical analysis. It must therefore be 3. ASTMStandard F 739-81 (1981) Test for Resist-
accepted that comparison of breakthrough ance of Protective Clothing Materials to
times is valid for comparing permeation Permeation by Hazardous Liquid Chemicals.
behaviour of different materials under the same 4. ASTM Standards F 739-85 (1985) and (1991).
conditions but not as a means of obtaining Test for Resistance of Protective Clothing
fundamental information about a chemical- Materials to Permeation by Hazardous Liquid
material pair. Chemicals.
5. 557(1993) BS EN 374:1994. Protective Gloves
The theory of permeation through polymer Against Chemicals and Micro-organisms.
blends has been well described in two
reviews32-33 and agreement between theory and 6. BOHS Technology Committee working party
experiment is generally good. Most of the on protective clothing (1986) Development of
blends studied have consisted of synthetic a Standard Test Method for Determining Per-
meation of Liquid Chemicals Through
polymers, but Barbier did study the Protective Clothing Materials. Ann. Occup.
permeability of nitrogen through natural rubber Hyg., 30,381.
- nitrile rubber blends34. Although the author
did not analyse the data in terms of a theoretical 7(a) 557(1993) BS EN 369:1993. Protective Cloth-
model, later analysis showed the results to ing - Protection Against Liquid Chemicals -
agree well with the Maxwell model theory33. Test Method: Resistance of Materials to Per-
meation by Liquids.
In addition to polymer blends, permeation (b) ISO 6529 (1990) Protective Clothing - Protec-
through polymer laminates or composites has tion Against Liquid Chemicals - Deter-
been studied from a theoretical point of view. mination of Resistance of Air-impermeable
The work of Frisch 35 who first derived Materials to Permeation by Liquids.
expressions for time lags of permeation through 8. WAHLBERG, J.E. (1965) Percutaneous Ab-
laminae, and others is discussed by Barrer32. sorption of Radio-labelled Sodium Chromate,
Good agreement has again been found between Cobalt and Mercuric Chlorides Through
theory and experiment, including results on Excided Human Skin and Guinea Pig Skin.
the diffusion of propane through natural rubber/ Acta derm.-vener., 5, 415.
silicone rubber laminates of the AB and ABA 9. FORSBERG, K. AND FANIADIS, S. (1986)
types36. The Permeation of Multi-component Liquids
Through New and Pre-exposed Glove Mate-
Date of receipt: June 1994 rials. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 47, 189.
Date of acceptance: August 1994
10. MELLSTROM, G.A., LANDERJO, L. AND
REFERENCES BOMAN, A.S. (1989) Permeation of Neo-
prene Protective Gloves by Acetone:
1. MELLSTROM, G. (1991) Protective Gloves of Comparison of Three Different Permeation
Polymeric Materials. Acta derm.-vener., Cells in an Open-loop System. Am. Ind. Hyg.
Suppl. 163. Assoc. J., 50, 554.

250
M D Morns & Amir Hashim M.Y Permeation of Organic Substances through Rubber Latex Films

11 BERGAULT, A M AND MOLLARD, M to 20 Antmeoplastic Drugs Am J Hosp

(1975) Permeabihte des Matenaux Elasto- Pharm, 41,2618
menques Aux Hydrocarbures Rev tnst Fran
Petrole , 30, 803 22 SANSONE, EB AND TEWARI, Y B (1977)
12 MUELLER, W J (1957) Permeability to Or- The Permeability of Laboratory Gloves to
ganic Liquids Rubb Age , 982 Selected Nitrosammes Environmental Aspects
of N Nitroso Compounds, Durham, USA 22-
13 McFEE, DR (1964) How Well Do Gloves 24 August 1977 I ARC Scientific Publication
Protect Hands Against Solvents1' A S S E J , No 19, Lyon 1978, 517
9,11
14 CURRY, JE AND McKINLEY, M D (1973) 23 FORSBERG, K OLSSON, K G AND
Transient Permeation of Organic Vapours SPERLING, L (1982) Development of Pro-
Through Elastomenc Membranes / Polym tective Gloves Gloves for Work with Metal
Sci, 11, 2209 Cutting Fluids Ergolab Report S82 17, ASF
Contract 81-1187 (Sweden)
15 JENCEN, D A AND HARDY, J K (1988)
Method for the Evaluation of Permeation
24 SPENCE, MW (1984) Glove Materials for
Charactensties of Protective Glove Mate- Chlorinated Solvents Permeation Resistance
rials Am Ind Hyg Assoc J , 49, 293
Companson for Four Solvents Am Ind Hyg
16 WILLIAMS, JR (1979) Permeation of Glove Conf, Detroit, May 1984
Materials by Physiologically Harmful Chem-
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(1948) Permeability of Protective Glove
17 MELLSfROM, G A , LONDERJO, L AND
Materials to Tetraethyllead and Ethylene
BOMAN, A S (1991) Permeation Testing of
Bromide Ind Eng Chem, 40, 332
Protective Gloves by Using Two Different
Permeation Cells in an Open-loop System
Am Ind Hyg Assoc J , 52, 309 26 STOIKES, M E , CARLSON, J D , FARRIS,
FF AND WALKER, PR (1987) Permeabil-
18 HENRY,NW ANDSCHLATTER,C N (1981) ity of Latex arid Polyvinyl Chloride Gloves
The Development of a Standard Method for to Fluorouracil and Methotrexate Am J
Evaluating Chemical Protective Clothing to Hosp Pharm, 44, 1341
Permeation by Hazardous Liquids Am Ind
Hyg Assoc J , 42, 202
27 SANSONE, EB AND TEWARI, Y B (1978)
The Permeability of Laboratory Gloves to
19 NELSON, G O , LUM, B Y , CARLSON, G J , Selected Solvents Am Ind Hyg Assoc J
WONG, C M AND JOHNSON, J S (1981) 39, 169
Glove Permeation by Organic Solvents Am
Ind Hyg Assoc J 42, 217 28 SCHWOPE, A D , GOYDAN, R , ENTHOLT,
D , FRANK, U AND NIELSON, A (1992)
20 SCHWOPE, A D , CARROLL, T R , HUANG, Permeation Resistance of Glove Materials to
R AND ROYER, M D (1988) Test Kit for Agricultural Pesticides Am Ind Hyg Assoc
Field Evaluation of the Chemical Resistance J , 53, 352
of Protective Clothing 2nd Symp ASTM STP
989, Philadelphia 29 CRANK, J AND PARK, GS (eds) (1968)
Diffusion in Polymers London Academic
Press
21 LAIDLAW, J L CONNOR, T H , THEISS, J C ,
ANDERSON, R W AND MATNEY, T S 30 VAN AMERONGEN, G J (1964) Diffusion in
(1984) Permeability of Latex and PVC Gloves Elastomers Rubb Chem Technol, 37,1065

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 Journal of Natural Rubber Research, Volume 9, Number 4, 1994

31. FRISCH, H.L. (1957) The Time Lag in Diffu- 34. BARBIER, J. (1955) A Study of Permeabi-
sion. J. Phys. Chem., 61, 93. lity to Gases. Mixtures of Natural Rubber and
Other Elastomers. Rubb. Chem: Technol., 28,
814.
32. BARKER, R.M. (1968) Diffusion and Permea-
tion in Heterogeneous Media. Ref. 29, Ch.6. 35. FRISCH, H.L. (1959) The Time Lag in Diffu-
sion. IV. J. Phys. Chem., 63, 1249.
33. HOPFENBERG, H.B. AND PAUL, D.R. (1978) 36. BARRIE, J.A., LEVINE, L.D., MICHAELS,
Transport Phenomena in Polymer Blends, A.S. AND WONG, P. (1963). Diffusion and
Polymer Blends (Paul, D.R. and Newman, S. Solution of Gases in Composite Rubber Mem-
eds.), Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press. branes. Trans. Faraday Sac,, 59, 869.

252