Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

For BE Mechanical Engineering

Compiled By

Prof. R. S. Yadav

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Nanasaheb Mahadik College of Engineering, Peth.
 List of Experiments

As per Shivaji University Syllabus

Minimum eight experiments from Group A and all experiments from Group B are to
be performed.

Group A.
1. Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout and vehicle body
parts and its materials.
2. Study and Demonstration of working of single plate automobile clutch and
clutch plate lining materials.
3. Study and demonstration of synchromesh gearbox. (necessity, interlocking
mechanism, gear shifting mechanism (Troubleshooting)
4. Study and demonstration of final drive and differential. (Types of final drive
gear, Troubleshooting)
5. Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry and steering
mechanism. (Troubleshooting)
6. Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-wheeler. (Any one
suspension system from conventional or independent, troubleshooting)
7. Study and demonstration of working Hydraulic braking system. (Air bleeding
of hydraulic brake, Troubleshooting)
8. Study and demonstration of Lead acid Battery. (Troubleshooting)
9. Study and demonstration of electrical charging system. (Troubleshooting)
10.Study and demonstration of electrical starting system.(Troubleshooting)
11.Study and demonstration of
a) D. C. Electric horn b) Electric fuel Gauge c) Flasher unit. d) Wiper
circuit
12.Study of automobile air conditioning system.

Group B.
1 Experiment on wheel balancing & front wheel alignment.
2 Visit to servicing station for study of vehicle maintenance, repairs and report.
OR
2. Visit to Automobile manufacturing industry.
 Index

Exp. No. Name of Experiment Page No.

Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout

1 1
and vehicle body parts and its materials.
Study and Demonstration of working of single plate
2 6
automobile clutch and clutch plate lining materials.

3 Study and demonstration of synchromesh gearbox. 10

4 Study and demonstration of final drive and differential. 18

Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry

5 22
and steering mechanism.
Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-
6 28
wheeler.

7 Study and demonstration of hydraulic braking system. 34

Study and demonstration of

8 a) D. C. Electric horn. b) Electric fuel Gauge. c) Flasher 39
unit. d) Wiper circuit.

9 Experiment on wheel balancing & front wheel alignment. 43

10 Visit report 46
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 1
Title : Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout and vehicle body parts and its
materials.

Aim : To study and demonstrate of four wheeler chassis layout and vehicle body parts
and its materials.

Theory:
Types of four wheeler chassis layout
i) Front engine front wheel drive
ii) Front engine rear wheel drive
iii) Rear engine rear wheel drive
iv) Four wheel drive

i) Front engine front wheel drive

In this arrangement the engine is located at front of the vehicle & drive is also given to front
wheels.

Fig. 1 Front engine front wheel drive

Advantages

(a) Propeller shaft, universal joints are eliminated so reduction in cost.

(b) As propeller shaft is eliminated so low chassis height can be provided which improves the
stability of vehicle due to lowered centre of gravity.
(c) Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part if the vehicles’ weight being carried on the
driving wheels under normal conditions
(d) As weight of engine clutch, gear box and final drive are situated on front axle due to this
understeer characteristic is produced which is preferred over the oversteer characteristic.
(e) Engine pulls the vehicle rather pushing it which avoids skidding tendency & thus increases
stability.
(f) As engine is placed at front side natural cooling improves the cooling efficiency.
(g) As engine & transmission system components are placed at front so there is increase in boot
space.

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 1
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Disadvantages

(a) Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels steering system makes complicated.
(b) Special types of universal joints i. e. constant velocity (C V) joints are required.
(c) The tractive effort which most needed on steep gradients and during acceleration is reduced.
(d) As engine is at front so passenger compartment experience some heat & noise.
(e) Visibility is also hampered somewhat as engine & transmission system components are at front of
the driver’s cabin.

ii) Front engine rear wheel drive:

In this arrangement engine is located at front & drive is transmitted to the rear wheels.

Fig. 2 Front engine rear wheel drive

Advantages

(a) Reasonably balanced weight distribution between the front and the rear axles providing good
handling characteristics
(b) Front wheel steering arrangement is simplified.
(c) Behind the rear seats, large luggage space is available providing increased carrying capacity as
well as space for easy body movement
(d) Accessibility to various components like engine, gear box and rear axle is better in comparison to
other layouts
(e) The tractive effort which most needed on steep gradients and during acceleration is increases due
to increase in weight on drive wheels.
(f) As engine is placed at front side natural cooling improves the cooling efficiency.

Disadvantages

(a) Propeller shaft, universal joints are required to transmit power

(b) Due to use of the propeller shaft the chassis height is increased which hampers the stability of a
vehicle.
(c) As engine is at front so passenger compartment experience some heat & noise

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 2
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

iii) Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive

This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine is mounted
adjacent to the driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gearbox-is mounted at rear side & drive is also
given to rear wheels.

Fig. 3 Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive

Advantages

(a) It has a simpler steering system arrangement in comparison to front wheel drive.
(b) The weight of rear engine on the riving wheels provides excellent traction and grip due to
increase in tractive effort especially on steep hills as well as when accelerating.
(c) Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
(d) Due to the absence of the propeller shaft the chassis height is reduced which improves the
stability.
(e) The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow.
(f) The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried away from the passengers.
(g) This drive arrangement results in compact layout and short car.

Disadvantages

(a) It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front, which houses the fuel tank also.
(b) Natural air cooling is not possible, it requires a powerful fan.
(c) Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box controls.
(d) The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side winds at high
speeds. This makes the vehicle unstable resulting in oversteer characteristics.

iv) Four-Wheels Drive

To increase manoeuvrability of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed roads

and trucks another arrangement known as Four-wheel drive is provided. Due to all the four wheels
getting driven, whole weight of the vehicle is available for traction. But this advantage is not worth
the additional cost on good road surfaces. The system is provided in jeeps which are known as 4 x 4
wheel drive vehicles.

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 3
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Fig. 4 Four-Wheels Drive

Any wheel of a vehicle can comes out from a ditch or from slippery surface as all wheels are
power driven so it is mainly used in military vehicles and sports cars. Some drawbacks are increased
cost as use of special device such as transfer case & reduced fuel economy as all wheels are supplied
with drive.

Materials for vehicle body parts :

Steel
The main factors of selecting material especially for body is wide variety of characteristics
such as thermal, chemical or mechanical resistance, ease of manufacture and durability. So if we
want to choose a material with these characteristics, Steel is there first choice. There was many
developments in irons and steels over the past couple decades that made the steel more light-weight,
stronger, stiffer and improving other performance characteristics. Applications include not only
vehicle bodies, but also engine, chassis, wheels and many other parts. Iron and steel form the critical
elements of structure for the vast majority of vehicles, and are low-cost materials.
The past several years have seen steady increases in the use of high-strength steels that are
referred to as high-strength, low-alloy steels. These materials formed the basis of Ultra-light Steel
Auto Body (ULSAB). The ULSAB car body demonstrated a 19% mass reduction in a body structure
that had superior strength and structural performance. Comparable mass reductions and other benefits
were achieved for doors, hoods, deck lids, and the hatchbacks.
The prime reason for using steel in the body structure is its inherent capability to absorb
impact energy in a crash situation.

Aluminium
There is a wide variety of aluminium usage in automotive powertrain, chassis and body
structure. Use of aluminium can potentially reduce the weight of the vehicle body. Its low density
and high specific energy absorption performance and good specific strength are its most important
properties. Aluminium is also have resistance to corrosion but according to its low modulus of
elasticity, it cannot substitute steel parts and therefore those parts need to be re-engineered to achieve
the same mechanical strength, but still aluminium offers weight reduction.
Aluminium usage in automotive industry has grown within past years. In automotive
powertrain, aluminium castings have been used for almost 100% of pistons, about 75% of cylinder
heads, 85% of intake manifolds and transmission. For chassis applications, aluminium castings are

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 4
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

used for about 40% of wheels, and for brackets, brake components, suspension, steering components
and instrument panels. Aluminium is used for body structures, closures and exterior attachments such
as crossbeams, doors or bonnets.
Recent developments have shown that up to 50% weight saving for the body in white (BIW)
can be achieved by the substitution of steel by aluminium. This can result in a 20-30% total vehicle
weight reduction. The cost of aluminium and price stability is its biggest obstacle for its application.

Magnesium
Magnesium is another light metal that is becoming increasingly common in automotive
engineering. It is 33% lighter than aluminium and 75% lighter than steel/cast iron components.
Magnesium components have many mechanical/physical property disadvantages that require unique
design for application to automotive products. Although its tensile yield strength is about the same,
magnesium has lower ultimate tensile strength fatigue strength, and creep strength compared to
Aluminium. The modulus and hardness of magnesium alloys is lower than aluminium and the
thermal expansion coefficient is greater.
Magnesium alloys have distinct advantages over aluminium that include better
manufacturability, longer die life and faster solidification. Also magnesium components have higher
machinability. Because of its too low mechanical strength, pure magnesium must be alloyed with
other elements. The most common alloying elements for room temperature applications is Mg-Al-Zn
group that contains aluminium, manganese, and zinc.

Advanced composite materials

Fibre reinforced composites offer a wide range of advantages to the automotive industry. It
has the potential for saving weight offered by their low density. Component designs can be such that
the fibres lie in the direction of the principal stresses, and amount of fibre used is sufficient to
withstand the stress, thus optimising materials usage.

Carbon-fibre epoxy composite

Most recently, the most of the racing car companies much more rely on composites form
whether it would be plastic composites, Kevlar and most importantly carbon-fibre epoxy
composition. It is because the composite structures are the high strength/low weight ratio. The most
common materials used for racing cars are carbon (graphite), Kevlar and glass fibres. Epoxy
composites have been the first choice in Formula 1 car industries and other race cars.

Glass-fibre composites
Glass fibre is being used mostly for the sports car which includes Formula 1 cars. It is lighter
than steel and aluminium, easy to be shaped and rust-proof. And more important factor is that it is
cheap to be produced in small quantity.

Materials used for chassis frame :

Nickel alloy steel

Mild steel Plate Carbon steel plate
plate
Carbon 1.15-0.20 0.22-0.27 0.25-0.35
Manganese 0.40-0.6 0.50-0.70 0.35-0.75
silicon 0.7 Max 0.07 Max 0.05 Max
Phosphorous 0.5 Max 0.05 Max 0.05 Max
Sulphur 0.005 Max 0.05 Max 0.05 Max

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 5
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 2
Title : Study and Demonstration of working of single plate automobile clutch and clutch plate
lining materials.

Aim : To study and demonstrate working of single plate automobile clutch and clutch plate
lining materials.

Theory :

Function of clutch: -

Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the wheels instantaneously and to
engage drive from the engine to the road wheels gradually while moving the vehicle from rest. Clutch
is mechanism while enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted, when desired, to a
second shaft the axis of which is coincident with that of first.

Construction & working of single plate clutch.

i) Single plate coil spring type clutch:

It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicles. It consists of only one clutch
plate, mounted on the spines of the clutch shaft. The fly wheel is mounted on the engine crank shaft
and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the fly wheel through clutch springs, and is free to
slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged, the clutch
plate, having friction linings on its both sides, is gripped between the fly wheel and pressure plate.
The coil spring s exerts axial force on a pressure plate, which is further applied on clutch plate by the
pressure plate. So pressure plate forces the clutch plate in a contact with flywheel. Due to the friction
between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure plate revolves; the clutch shaft which is connected to
the transmission system also revolves

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 6
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of the
springs, and the clutch plate becomes free between the fly wheel and pressure plate. Thus, the
flywheel and pressure plate remains rotating as long as the engine is running and the speed of the
clutch shaft reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the
clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise it remains engaged due to the force of springs.

Advantages:

1. Gear changing is easier than the cone clutch.

2. No dis advantages of binding of cones etc.

Disadvantage:

As compared to cone clutch more stiff springs are required which requires greater force for
disengaging the clutch.

ii) Single plate diaphragm spring type clutch:

The construction of this type of clutch is similar to that of coil spring type except that here
diaphragm springs are used instead of the ordinary coil springs. In the free condition , the diaphragm
spring is of conical form, but when assembled it is constrained to an approximately flat condition
because of which it exerts a load upon the pressure plate.
It is seen from the above figures that the diaphragm spring is supported on a fulcrum retaining
ring so that any section through the spring can be regarded as a simple lever. The pressure plate E is
movable axially, but it is fixed radially with respect to cover. The drive from engine flywheel is
transmitted through the cover, pressure plate & friction plate to gear box input shaft.
The clutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal which actuates the release fingers by
means of a release ring. This pivots the spring about its fulcrum, relieving the spring load on the
outside diameter thereby disconnecting the drive.

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 7
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Clutch Facing materials:

Requirements of clutch facing materials:

1. Good wear resistance
2. Presence of good binder on it.
3. High co-efficient of friction
4. Cheap & easy to manufacture
4. High resistance to heat

Types of clutch facing materials:

1. Millboard type:
This only asbestos sheet treated with certain impregnates. From this sheet the facing disc are
cut according to different size requirements.

2. Moulded type:
This is made by mixing asbestos fibres with a suitable binding material, heating to a well-
defined temperature & then moulding in dies under pressure. Metallic wires are also sometimes
inserted to improve wearing qualities.

3. Woven type:
This type consist of a cloth impregnated with certain binders or by wearing threads of brass or
copper wires covered with long fiber asbestos or cotton. These are further classified as laminated
type & solid woven type. The laminated type friction material is prepared by holding one layer over
the other with a binder between them. In solid woven type the cloths is just woven to required
thickness.

Common clutch facing materials:

1. Asbestos.
2. Cork
3. Leather
4. Reybestos & ferodo
5. Non asbestos clutch facing materials such as SW3-AF, HWK 200 etc.

Troubles causes & remedies in clutch:

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. No free play in pedal Adjust the free play

2. Weak thrust spring Replace

3. Oil, grease or other such materials Clean clutch plate, replace
on clutch facing soaked clutch plate.
1. Slipping of clutch 4. Excessively worn pressure plate &
Reface or replace
flywheel

5. Worn splines on clutch shaft Replace shaft

6. Uneven adjustment of clutch
Adjust it
release levers

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 8
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

1. Dirt or foreign material in the

Clean the clutch plate
clutch plate
2. Clutch drags – When 2. Improper pedal adjustment Adjust the free pedal play
pedal is pressed clutch fails
to disengage 3. Warped clutch plate Replace
4. Damaged pressure plate or clutch
Install new parts
cover
1. weak or broken pressure springs Replace

2. Excessive worn splines Replace

3. Worn release bearing Replace

3. Clutch noises
4. Worn clutch plate Replace

5. Oily facing Clean

6. Loose clutch plate hub Replace

1. Insufficient pedal play Adjust

2. Overriding of the clutch pedal Avoid

4. Rapid wear of lining
3. Weak or broken clutch spring Replace

4. Incorrectly adjusted clutch fingers Adjust properly

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 9
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 3
Title : Study and demonstration of synchromesh gearbox.

Aim : To study and demonstrate working of synchromesh gearbox.

Objectives: 1. To understand necessity of a gearbox in a vehicle.

2. To understand construction & working of synchromesh gearbox.
3. To understand gear shifting mechanism.
4. To understand interlocking mechanism.
5. To understand troubleshooting of a gear box.
Theory:

Introduction:
The transmission (gear box) is used very commonly in the literature for a mechanism which
provides us with suitable variation of the engine torque at the road wheels, whenever required. This
may be a gearbox (also called manual transmission) or an automatic transmission.

Function of gear box:

The tractive effort produced by the engine varies with speed only within narrow limits. But
for the practical considerations for the running of automobile under different conditions demands a
large variation of torque available at the wheels. The main purpose of the gear box is to vary the
leverage or torque ratio between the engine and the road-wheels as required.
The gearbox also provides a neutral position so that the engine and the road-wheels are
disconnected even with the clutch in the engaged position.
A mean to back the car by reversing the direction of rotation of the drive is also provided by
the gear box.

Necessity of transmission:

The question as to how far is the transmission necessary in a vehicle may be answered by
considring –
a) The variation of resistance to the vehicle motion at various speeds.
b) Variation of tractive effort of the vehicle available at various speeds.

Total resistance to vehicle motion:

It consists of

a) Resistance due to wind - This is taken to be proportional to the square of the vehicle speed.

b) Resistance due to gradient – This remains constant at all speeds. This is the component of vehicle
weight parallel to the plane of the road.

c) Miscellaneous - Apart from the above two types, various other factors also contribute towards the
vehicle resistance. These are- types of road, tyre friction, etc. this may also be taken approximately to
remain constant with the speed.

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 10
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Fig. a Fig. b

Tractive Effort:
The force available at the contact between the rear wheel tyres and road is known as tractive
effort.
Tractive effort available at different gears:

Fig. c

By now we understand the variation of total resistance to the vehicle motion and the tractive
effort of the vehicle with speed. It is obvious that whenever the tractive effort exceeds the total
resistance, vehicle will accelerates to a speed where tractive effort becomes equal to the total
resistance.
For further classification consider above fig. which is obtained by superimposing fig.
(b) & (c). Let the vehicle be in the top gear and suppose the vehicle is traveling on a gradient which
gives total resistance curve I. From fig (d) it is seen that OA is the stabilizing speed. If the speed at
any instant is less, say OB the excess tractive effort will accelerate to a speed OA. Similarly if the
speed at any instant is OC, the excess of resistance will decelerate it to OA.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Now let the vehicle go on next gradient of curve II. In this case it is noticed that stabilizing
speed has decreased. Next consider further curve III. At this gradient, we see that nowhere dose the
curve (3) cross curve III. Therefore the vehicle will not be able to go at this gradient in the top gear.
However, if we pass on to second gear, we get a stabilizing speed OD, similarly in second
gear also the vehicle will not be running on gradient IV, for which we shall have to shift to first gear.
Again at start more acceleration is needed to gain speed quickly. This can be best done in first gear
because in this gear more tractive effort is available for acceleration. However, when the necessary
speed has been obtained, we may shift in to higher gears, because then the vehicle speed has to be
simply maintained and no acceleration is required.

Construction & working of synchromesh gearbox:

Figure shows the construction and working of a synchromesh gear box. In most of the cars,
however, the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all the gears as shown. They are fitted only on the
high gears and on the low & reverse gears ordinary dog clutches are only provided. This is done to
reduce the cost.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

In figure, A is the engine shaft, gear B, C, D, E are free on the main shaft and are always in
mesh with corresponding gears on the lay shaft. Thus all the gears on main shaft as well as lay shaft
to rotate so long as shaft A is rotating. Members F1 & F2 are free to slide on splines on the main
shaft. G1 & G2 are ring shaped members having internal teeth fit onto the external teeth members F1
& F2 respectively; K1 and K2 are dog teeth on B & D respectively and these also fit onto the teeth of
G1 & G2. S1 & S2 are the forks. T1 & T2 are the balls supported by springs. These tend to prevent
the sliding of members G1 (G2) slides over F1 (F2). There are usually six of these balls
symmetrically placed circumferentially on one synchromesh device, M1, M2, N1, N2, P1, P2, R1, R2
are the frictional surfaces.
To understand the working of this gear box, consider figure which shows in steps how the
gears are engaged, for direct gear, member G1 and hence member F1 is slide towards left till cones
M1 & M2 rub and friction makes their speed equal. Further pushing the member G1 to left cause it to
override the balls and get engaged with dogs K1. now the drive to the main shaft is direct from B via
F1& the splines. However, if member G1 is pushed too quickly so that there is not sufficient time for
synchronization of speeds, a clash may result. Likewise defect will arise in case springs supporting
the balls if have become weak.
Similarly for second gear the members F1 and G1 are slide to right so that finally the internal
teeth on G1 are engaged with L1. Then the drive to main shaft will be from B via V1, V2, C, F1 and
splines. For first gear G2 and F2 are moved towards. The drive will be from B via V1, V3, D, F2 and
splines to the main shaft. For reverse, G2 and F2 are slide towards right. In this case the drive will be
from via V1, V4, V5, E, F2 and splines to the main shaft.

Gear shifting mechanism:

There are many mechanisms which have been used for selecting the desired gear and sliding
the same to engage with the corresponding gear on the lay shaft. Broadly speaking these can be
divided into two categories viz. the mechanisms where the gear shift lever is mounted on the top of
transmission case and the ones where the gear shift lever is mounted on the steering column.
However in these two types most of the mechanism is similar and only external linkage is different.

Mechanism with gear lever on top of transmission case:

A typical mechanism for a forward and reverse gearbox is described. The gear lever is ball
mounted in the gear box cover. This facilitates its movement in any direction. The lower end of the
gear lever fits into a slot in the selector sleeve.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

There are forks mounted on the sleeve on three separate selector rods which are supported in
the gearbox casing engagement of gears slots are made on the selector rods and the sleeves are
provided with spring loaded balls. These balls resist movement of the forks until some force is
applied to the gear lever to overcome their resistance. In some case the forks are fixed on the selector
rods by means of pins and the assembly can slide. Grooves are provided on the gear boxes where the
selector fork can fit in. transverse motion of the gear lever selects the fork which is to be engaged and
the longitudinal movement then slides the fork and its gear to engage the selected gear.

Interlocking mechanisms:
An interlocking mechanisms which ensures that only one gear can be engaged at a time, is
shown. The middle selector rod (2) has a radial hole chamfered on both sides. An interlocking pin C
is fitted inside this hole on the other two selector rods there are single grooves cut fastening the
central rod. There are holes in the gear box casing as shown. Which holds the interlocking balls A
and B.? In some cases spherical ended plungers used instead of balls. When a particular gear is to be
engaged, the corresponding selector rod is moved in the desired direction e.g. if rod (2) is moved
towards left as shown in figure.
The contacting interlocking balls A and B are pushed outwards and away from the rod, so that
the balls now contact the straight sides of the rod. This movement of the balls pushes them on to
grooves in other rods, locking them in to the neutral position in the same way if the selector rods 1 or
3 are to be moved, rods 2, 3 and 1, 2 will be locked in the neutral position as shown thus mechanism
allows only one rod to be operated at a time.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Troubleshooting Gearbox:
Troubles causes & remedies of a gear box

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. Overload Decrease load or use a larger model
2. Insufficient or excessive Adjust oil level so it aligns with mark
lubricating oil on oil gauge
3. Contaminated oil Flush interior and replace oil
Change oil with one having the proper
Gear case 4. Oil viscosity is improper
viscosity
becomes
Reassemble and tighten properly
unusually hot 5. Bearing are improperly mounted
(Consult dealer)
6. Shaft is connected improperly Align properly

7. Air vent port is closed Remove rubber plug from oil cap
Install cooling fan or move to cooler
8. Ambient temperature is too high
area
1. Improper meshing Adjust properly (Consult dealer)

2. Bearings are damaged or worn Replace bearings (Consult dealer)

Unusual or
3. Overloaded Decrease load or use a larger model
excessive noise
4. Insufficient oil Add oil so level aligns with oil gauge

5. Oil seal is not wet with oil Lubricate

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 15
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

6. Improper installation or
Tighten loose bolts and align correctly
connection
7. Bearing are improperly mounted Adjust (Consult dealer)

8. Input rpm is too high Reduce

Remove foreign particles and replace
9. Foreign particles are mixed in oil oil after flushing interior. (Consult
dealer)
1. Gear teeth are worn Replace wheel (Consult dealer)
Remove foreign particles and replace
2. Foreign particles are mixed in oil oil after flushing interior. (Consult
dealer)
Vibration is
excessive 3. Bearings are worn or damaged Replace bearings (Consult dealer)

4. Mounting bolts are loose Tighten

5. Wheel is improperly aligned Replace wheel (Consult dealer)

Replace worm and wheel (Consult
1. Teeth seizure
dealer)
Input/output
2. Bearings are worn or damaged Replace bearings (Consult dealer)
shafts do not
rotate at all Remove foreign particles and replace
3. Foreign particles are mixed in oil oil after flushing interior. (Consult
dealer)
1. Wheel teeth is worn Replace wheel (Consult dealer)
Input/output
2. Wheel boss or shaft key are
shafts rotates in Replace wheel or key (Consult dealer)
damaged
idle condition
3. Input shaft or worm teeth are Replace shaft or worm (Consult
and output shaft
damaged dealer)
is not driven
4. Input shaft is broken Replace shaft (Consult dealer)

1. Overload Reduced load

2. Contaminated oil Replace oil after flushing interior

3. Insufficient oil Add oil

Replace oil with one having the proper
4. Oil viscosity is too low
viscosity
Teeth are worn Install cooling fan or move to cooler
5. Ambient temperature is too high
area
Remove foreign particles, clean
6. Foreign particles are mixed in oil
interior and replace oil

7. Excessive rpm Reducer rpm or use a different model

8. Backlash is improper Reassemble and adjust

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 16
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

1. Overload Reduce load or use a larger model

2. Impact load is greater than rated Reduce impact load or use a larger
Main body has
load. model
cracks or shaft is
broken 3. Connection is improper Align properly
4. Gear case has partial thickness or
Replace gear case (Consult dealer)
cavities
1. Oil seal is defective Replace oil seal

2. Cover mounting bolts are loose Tighten bolts

3. Air does not escape Check oil cap

Oil leaks 4. Input and output shafts are marred Replace shafts (Consult dealer)
Adjust oil level so it aligns with mark
5. Excessive oil
on oil gauge
6. Gear case has cavities Replace gear case (Consult dealer)

7. Gear case has fissures Replace gear case (Consult dealer)

1. Improper clutch adjustment,
preventing clutch from being Adjust clutch properly
completely released
2. Transmission shaft splines are
Hard shifting; Replace.
distorted.
sticking in gear
3. shifter lock springs are too strong Replace the springs.

4.Gear teeth damaged Replace.

1. Improper alignment of
Align it properly
transmission to engine
2. Too much clearance between teeth
Keep proper clearance.
Slipping out of in mesh
gear 3. Worn gears, bearings, bearing
Replace it.
retainers
4. Weak or broken shifter lock
Replace it
springs

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 17
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 4
Title : Study and demonstration of final drive and differential.

Aim : To study and demonstrate final drive & differential of a vehicle.

Objectives: 1. To understand construction & working of propeller shaft, slip joint & universal joint.
2. To understand different types of final drive gear.
3. To understand construction & working of differential.
4. To understand troubleshooting of a differential.

Theory:

Propeller shaft:
This is a shaft which transmits the drive from transmission to the bevel pinion or worm of
final drive in front engine, rear drive vehicles; it is also connected to drive shaft. It consists mainly of
three parts.
A. Shaft:
As this has to withstand mainly torsional load, it is usually made of tabular cross-section. It
also has to be well balanced to avoid whirling at high speeds.
B. One or Two Universal Joints:
Depending upon the type of rear axle drive used, the universal joint used for the up and down
movement of the rear axle when vehicle is running.
C. Slip joint:
Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in the shaft. This adjusts the
length of propeller shaft when demanded by rear axle movements. Fig. shows a propeller shaft with
two universal joints. Slip joint is formed by internal splines on sleeve attached to left universal joint
and external splines on propeller shaft.
In some design, slip arrangement is slightly different. In this a universal joint and splined slip
yoke are located at the transmission end of the shaft where these are held in alignment by a busing in
the transmissions rear extension. The splines are lubricated internally by transmission lubrication or
grease. Sometimes a rubber element is incorporated in between the two sliding tubes to make relative
movement smooth and noiseless.

Universal Joints:
A universal joint is a particular type of a connection between two shaft those axes are inclined
at each other. The simplest type of universal joint is the HOOK’s joint which is most commonly used
because of the fact that it is reasonably efficient at the small angle of propeller shaft movement at up
and down movement say up to 18 degree and its simple construction.
The axes of shaft A and B are intersecting. Each of these contains a yoke. The cross c has

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

four arms. The two opposite arm of cross are supported in bushes in yoke of shaft A. thus shaft A has
angular rotation about the axis X-X and shaft B, about the axis Y-Y. it is thus seen that it will be
possible with HOOK’s joint for shaft A and B to have positive drive.
An improved form of HOOK’s joint used needle roller bearing to support cross in yokes, thus
results in increase of joint efficiency. A perfect circle U joint is shown which has a special feature in
that bearing races on inside are crowned, which minimize flaking by load.

Final Drive:
The function of the final drive is to provide a permanent speed reduction and also to turn
drive through 90º. The reduction provides is up to 4:1 in case And 10:1 in heavier vehicle. This is
done either done in one or two stages. For lesser reduction up to 7:1 single reduction is used, while
higher reduction is achieved in two steps. The double reduction has to be restored to, because the size
of large gear becomes too much. The final drive in practice, consist of a bevel pinion and a crown
wheel or alternatively. Worm and worm-wheel arrangement is used. The bevel pinion is mounted on
a shaft which is connected to the propeller shaft. From crown wheel the drive goes to differential.

Three type of gears are used for final drive gearing.

A. Straight Bevel Gear:

These contain the straight teeth. However, with straight bevel gears at one instant only one
pair of teeth of pinion and crown wheel will be in contact. As a result an uneven transmission of
motion of motion will take place as the load is transformed from one pair of teeth to the next. Thus,
these gears are noisy and suffer from high wear.
B. Spiral Bevel Gear:
The spiral bevel gear has curved teeth which result in greater contact of teeth. Because of this
spiral bevel gears are silent running and stronger than straight bevel gear.
C. Hypoid Gear:
These types of gears are widely used for final drive these days. The name HYPOID is derived
from “HYPER-BOLOID”. The basic surface on which the teeth cut in their case is hyperboloid,
which is a solid obtained by rotating a hyperboloid about on offset axis, such gear is similar to in case
of spiral bevel gears. As seen in the fig. in case of the hypoid gear the pinion shaft is placed between
axis of shaft. Thus, allowing chassis tight. Moreover, with hypoid gears, pitch diameter of pinion for
a given size of the crown wheel for a given speed reduction is more an account of offset. This
increases the strength of pinion by 20 to 30% and also provides a larger pitch overlap, resulting in
silent running.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Differential :

Necessity of differential:
When the car is taking turn, the outer wheel will have to travel greater distance as compared
to inner wheel in the same time. If the car has a solid rear axle only and no other device, there will be
tendency for the wheel to skid, hence if the wheel skidding is to be avoided some mechanism must be
incorporated in rear axle, which should reduce the speed of inner wheel at the same it should increase
the speed of outer wheel.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Construction & working of differential:

To understand the principle consider figure. The crown wheel final drive is attached to a cage
which carries a cross-pin/ spider. Four-Two gear mesh with two or four gear mesh with two or four
planet pinions. Axle half shaft is splined to each of this sun gear. The crown wheel is free to rotate.

When the vehicle is going straight the cage and inner gear rotate as single unit and two half
shaft revolve at same speed. To understand what happen when vehicle taking turn, Consider cage is
stationary. Then turning one sun gear will cause the other to rotate in opposite direction. The rotation
is supported on normal wheel speed, when vehicle is taking turn. Thus for axel consider a vehicle
with wheel speed N rpm going on straight, when it takes turn. Thus, for an e.g. Consider a vehicle
with a wheel speed of N rpm, at this time there will be a resistance to motion of the right wheel to
rotate back at N’ rpm. This will give resultant speed of the left wheel as (N+N’) and right wheel as
(N-N’) rpm.

Troubleshooting of a differential:

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. Less lubricating oil in differential housing Fill it
2. wrong adjustment of crown wheel & pinion
Adjust properly
teeth
Noisy differential 3. Worn out hub bearing Replace
4. Worn out or broken teeth of crown wheel or
Replace
pinion
5. Less backlash in crown wheel & pinion adjust it

1. broken propeller shaft Replace

Vehicle does not
move when put in 2. Broken teeth of crown wheel & pinion Replace
gear
3. broken cross or star pinion Replace

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 21
 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 5
Title : Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism.

Aim : To study and demonstrate front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism.

Objectives: 1. To understand steering geometry of a vehicle.

2. To understand Ackerman’s steering mechanism.

Theory:

Introduction:
Primary function of steering system is to achieve angular motion of front wheels to negotiate
a turn. This is done through linkage & steering gear which convert rotary motion of steering wheel
into angular motion of the front road wheels. Secondary functions of steering system are.
1. To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.
2. To provide perfect steering condition i.e. perfect rolling motion of the wheels at all times.
3. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing turn.
4. To minimize tire wear.
Till recently all vehicles are steered by turning the front wheels in the desired direction, with
the rear wheels following, however lately all wheels steering has been designed & employed in some
selected vehicles. Here only front wheel steering would be discussed which is being used universally
till today.

The requirements of a god steering system are:-

a) The steering mechanism should be very accurate & easy to handle.
b) The effort required to steer should be minimal & must not be tiresome to driver.
c) The steering mechanism should also provide directional stability.
d) It implies that that the vehicle should have a tendency to its straight ahead position after turning.

Steering geometry:-
1. Camber:-
Definition: -
Camber is tilt at the car wheels from the vertical, camber is positive if the till is outward at the
top. Camber is also called as wheel rake.
Effect:-
It is always desirable that tyre should roll on the ground vertically so that the wear is uniform,
if while running the tires are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward, they will wear more
on one side than the other.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Fig. shows on front left tyre on an exaggerated scale, in running condition. It is seen because
of this positive camber, the radius at different points of the tyre thread is different as a result of which
the tyre tends to roll like a truncated cone about centre of rotation ‘o’ Thus the tendency of wheel
should be to toe out, as is made clear in the plan. In addition the tyre will wear more on outer side. In
the same manner, a negative camber will cause the front wheels to toe in & wear more on inside.
Initially positively camber is provided to wheel so that when the vehicle is loaded, they automatically
vertical position
. Obviously the tyre will maximum when camber angle running condition is zero average
load. A positive camber causes the wheel to toe out. Therefore if the camber on the two front wheels
is not equal, the vehicle tries to pull towards the side where the camber is higher. In the some way,
when the vehicle equal camber on both wheels will running on road which highly crowned, it has
tendency to pull away the car towards the side of road. To obviate this is in such a case the right
wheel may be provided slightly higher than the left one. Similarly for left hand drive vehicles, higher
camber may be provided on the left wheel.
On the convectional rigid axle, the camber remains almost fixed. However, independent
suspension usually the change of spring height changes the camber. When camber is zero, slight
irregularities on the road may cause the wheel load to change from one bearing to the other, also
changing the direction of the camber effect. This situation may thus cause a phenomenon called
‘wonder’.
Amount: - Camber should be not generally exceeding 2° However the exact amount of
camber is specified taking into account the king pin inclination

2. King pin Inclination (Steering Axis Inclination)

Definition:-
Inclination of the king pin from vertical is called king pin inclination or king pin rake. In
modern cars where the king pin has been replaced by the ball joints, this term has also been of the
ball joint axis from the vertical steering axis is an imaginary line drown through the lower & upper
steering pivot points. SAI is non-adjustable, since it would change only if the wheel spindle or
steering knuckle is bent.

Effect:-
King pin inclination helps the straight ahead recovery thus providing directional stability.
When the vehicle takes a turn the inclination of king pin causes the vehicle body to move up, in
relation to the wheels. So as soon as the steering wheel is left after the turn is completed, the weight
of the vehicle tends to return the wheels to the straight ahead position.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Amount:-
About 7 to 8 degree. However, the exact amount is decided considering the wheel rake value.

3. Combined angle & scrub radius:

Definition:-
Combined angle or inclined angle is the angle formed in the vertical plane between the wheel
centre line & the king pin centre line. Combined angle is equal to camber plus king pin inclination. In
rear-wheel drive vehicle, the tractive force the vehicle plus suspension cross member & the body
forwards during drive. Thus the forward tractive force acts at the point on the road where the steering
axis or king pin axis meets when projected.
The road resistance act at the wheel contact point on the road. The distance between these two
points is called scrub radius. It is positive when the tire centre line lies outside the steering axis. It is
negative when the tyre centre line is inside the steering axis. It is measured in ‘mm’. The wheel offset
& suspension height. In front wheel drive vehicle, the tractive force imported to the front wheel so
that it acts forward through the wheel contact point on the road. Thus the effect is in nature to that the
rare wheel drive described above.

Effect:-
Fig. shows the effect of combined angle variation on the scrub radius & hence on the faces
acting to turn the wheel in case of a rear-wheel drive vehicle. It is seen that unless scrub radius is
zero, a torque act to turn the wheel away from the straight ahead position.
1. If the scrub radius is negative the wheel tends to toe-in.
2. If the scrub radius is positive the wheel tends to toe-out.
3. If the scrub radius is zero the wheel keeps its straight position, without any tendency to toe in or
steering. Previously the centre point steering was considered ideal to achieve, now it has been proved
by expensive that best results are obtained in the practice if the point of intersection of wheel & king
pin centre lies in straight below the ground.

Amount:-
Combined angle may be 9-10° the scrub radius should be up to about 12mm.

4. Castor:-

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Definition:-
The angle between the king pin centreline & the vertical in a plane of wheel is called the
castor angle. If the king pin centreline meets the ground at a point a head of the vertical wheel
centreline, it is called positive castor while if behind the vertical wheel centreline, it is called negative
castor.
Effect:-
In rear wheel drive vehicle the steering axis pulls the front tires whereas the tire drag on
account of the vehicle weight is on the vertical line at the centre of the foot print. Since in positive
castor steering axis would meet the ground ahead of the centre of tire print, the latter would always
follow the former. Thus positive castor on wheels provides directional stability. This can be
understood by considering the similar castor effect provided on the furniture rollers and the front
wheels of the bicycles.
In both cases a positive castor is provided. This causes the wheel to be pulled in any direction.
The wheel simply follows the king pin which has some lead over the former. It may be noted that in
case of negative castor there would be poor directional control, as the centre of the tire point leads the
steering axis in that case, however compared to castor the effect of SAI & KPI on directional stability
is greater. Therefore poor stability is caused by negative castor is overcome by using SAI. Positive
castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide the required return
ability, since the higher effort required steering the wheels is provided by power steering. On the
other hand with manual steering, SAI with negative or very small positive castor is used. It can be
visualized easily that in a vehicle with positive castor on front wheels the body is lifted up as the
front wheels toe out & it is lowered when these toe in. the positive castor in the wheels therefore
results in a natural tendency in the wheels to toe in. the negative castor would have the opposite
effect i.e. the wheels will tend to toe out.
In case of both the wheels have the same positive castor both will have equal tendencies to toe
in, which will be balanced by each-other, because track rod is provided to maintain the distance
between the wheels rigidly. However if the castor at the two wheels is not equal the tendency to toe
in at the wheel with larger castor will be more which will cause the vehicle to pull constantly
towards the side of the wheel with lesser castor.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Castor has another effect also. When the vehicle having positive castor takes a turn, the outer
side of the vehicle is lowered while inner one is raised. i.e. positive castor helps the centrifugal force
in rolling out the vehicle. Negative castor tend to roll in the vehicle i.e. the effect of centrifugal force
is counteracted. As the steering axis position changes with the attitude of the vehicle body,
overloading or weak springs will change castor angle. When the body is lower at rear, castor will
increase, enhancing the directional stability & thus the steering effort. On the other hand when the
body is lower at the front, castor angle & hence directional stability will be reduced, which will result
in poor vehicle control. The castor angle & the camber angle are interrelated in that when the wheel
is turned towards the centre of the vehicle the camber angle is reduced in direct proportional to the
amount of castor angle provided on the wheel. This helps in measuring the castor angle from
measurement of change of camber when the wheel is turned through a known angle
As the change of castor angle results in the change of the other angles of the steering
geometry i.e. camber, king pin inclination & toe in or toe out, it is very important that this angle is
adjusted first of all while doing the adjustment job.

Amount:-
About 3° of castor gives good results.

5. Toe-in or Toe-out:-
Definition:-
Toe in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front than at the
rear when the vehicle is stationary i.e. toe in = B-A. on the other hand the wheel may be set closer at
the front in which case the difference of the distance between the front wheels at the front & the rear
is called toe-out.
Effect:-
There is usually an inherent tendency for the wheels to toe out because of powerful deviation
from centre point steering & also due to errors in steering angles of the inner & outer wheels on
moderate bends. To offset this tendency a small amount of toe in is initially provided so that the
wheels move perfectly straight ahead under normal running conditions. However in case of some
front wheel drive cars, initial toe out has been provided to counter the tendency to toe in present
therein. The toe in or toe out as provided is sometimes called wheel alignment.
Amount:-
Toe in initially provided generally does not exceed 3 mm.

Ackerman Mechanism:-
Figure shows this mechanism link RA &S’B are integral with the stub axles. These links are
connected with each other through track & rod AB. When the vehicle is in straight ahead position
these links make equal angles oe with the centre line of the rear. The dotted lines indicate the position
of mechanism, when the car is turning left. In fig. the details of the mechanism are shown on
enlarged scale.
Let l= length of track rod.
r = length of lines RA & SB.
Referring fig. (b) & neglecting the obliquity of the track rod in the position, the movements of
A & B in the horizontal direction may be taken to be same. (Each equal to x)
Then
Sin (oe+ø) = ((y+x)/r)
Sin (oe-ø) = ((y-x)/r)
Adding, sin (oe+ø) +sin (oe-ø) = (2y/r) =2sinoe

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

The mechanism gives only ø position for correct steering one when ø=0 & the other two each
corresponding to the turn to right or left. However, for other angles also it gives a circle
approximation to the ideal condition. Further this has the advantages that it employs pivots &not
sliding constraints, due to which reason its maintenance is easier. That is why it is universally
employed. However, automobile designers do not care to follows the Ackermann mechanism very
strictly on account of the improvement in the suspension & tires. Any small deviation from the true
rolling angles can be readily corrected by the tires. Side wall flexibility & tread distortion, rather it is
endeavoured to obtain the smallest value of the turning circle. It may be noted that while parking, it is
easier to steer a vehicle in reverse than in the forward direction because the rear wheels turn on
smaller radius than the front wheels.

Troubleshooting of a steering system:

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. Looseness in steering gear Readjust, replace worn parts.
Excessive play in 2. Looseness in linkages Readjust, replace worn parts.
steering system
3. Worn steering knuckle parts Replace
4.Loose wheel bearing Replace
1. Power steering inoperative Repair power steering.
2. Low or uneven tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure
3. Friction in linkages Lubricate, readjust if necessary.
Hard steering.
4. Misalignment of caster, camber, toe Check alignment & readjust as
in, steering axle inclination necessary.
5. Front springs sagging Replace or readjust.
1. Uneven tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure
Check alignment & readjust as
2. Uneven caster or camber
Car pulls to one side necessary.
during normal driving 3. Tight wheel bearing Readjust replace if necessary.
Check tracking straighten
4. Wheels not tracking
frame, tighten loose parts.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 6
Title : Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-wheeler.

Aim : To study and demonstrate suspension system of a four-wheeler.

Objectives: 1. To understand functions of suspension system.

2. To understand components of suspension system.
3. To understand types of suspension system.
4. To understand construction & working of hydraulic shock absorber.
5. To understand troubleshooting of a suspension system.
Theory:

Introduction:
The automobile frame and body are mounted on the front and rear axle not directly but
through the springs and shock absorbers. The assembly of parts, which perform the isolation of parts
from the road shocks, may be in the forms of bounce, pitch and roll is called suspension system.

Functions of suspension system:

1. It prevents the vehicle body and frame from road shocks.

2. It gives stability of the vehicle.
3. It safeguards the passengers and goods from road shocks.
4. It gives the good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
5. It gives cushioning effect.
6. It provides comfort.

Components of Suspension system:

Coil springs, Leaf springs, shock absorbers, spring shackles, stabilizer etc.

Types of suspension systems:

1. Conventional suspension system. (Leaf spring type)
2. Independent suspension system.

Conventional leaf spring type suspension:

Leaf springs are formed by bending. They are made of long strips of steel. Each strip is
named as Leaf. The long leaf is called Master Leaf, and it consists of eyes at its both ends. One end is
fixed to the chassis frame; the other end is fixed to the shackle spring. The spring will get elongated
during expansion and shortened during compression. This change in length of spring is compensated
by the shackle. The U-bolt and clamps are located at the intermediate position of the spring. The
bronze or rubber bushes are provided on both eyes on the master leaf.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Types of Spring may be either cambered initially or flat Highly cambered springs provide soft
suspension but increases the tendency of yaw. Flat springs reduces tendency of vehicle dip i. e.
pitching when braking. Also use of longer springs gives softer suspension. Generally rear springs are
kept longer than front.
Fatigue strength & hence life of spring can be increased by shot peening the top surface of
each leaf. When spring deflects the upper side of each leaf rub against lower side of leaf above it, this
produces some damping which reduces spring vibrations.

Independent suspension:-

When a vehicle with rigid axle suspension encounters road irregularities, the axle tilts and the
wheels no longer remain vertical .This causes the whole of the vehicle to tilt on one side such a state
of affairs is not desirable. Apart from causing rough ride, it causes ‘Wheel wobbles’ The road
adhesion is also decreased. To avoid this, the wheels are sprung independent of each other, so that
tilting of one does not affect the other besides, the independent suspension also has following
advantages.
1) The elastic strain energy per unit spring weight. Stored in a coil is greater.
2) Unsprung weight is reduced, which reduced tyre scrub and increases tyre life.

Independent suspension has become almost universal in the case of front axle, due to the
simplicity of construction of such a suspension system.
• Five types of independent suspension are in use for front axle.
1) Wishbone type
2) Macpherson type
3) Vertical guide type
4) Trailing link type
5) Swinging half-axle type.

1) Wishbone type suspension:-

Fig shows suspension with coil springs the use of coil spring in the front axle suspension of
cars now almost universal. It consists of upper and lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame
member. The spring is placed in between the lower wishbone and underside of the cross member.
The vehicle is weight is transmitted from the body and the cross member to the coil spring through
which it goes to lower member .A shock absorber is placed inside the coil spring and it attached to
cross member and to lower member.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

2) Macpherson Strut type of suspension:-

In this layout, only lower wishbones are used. A strut containing shock absorber and the
spring carries also the stub axle on which the wheel is mounted. The wishbone is hinged to cross
member and positions the wheel as well as resists accelerating, braking and side forces .This system
is simpler than wishbone type and also lighter.

3) Vertical Guide Suspension:-

It is shown in fig the king pin is attached directly to the cross member of the frame. It can be
side up and down as shown corresponding to the up and down motion of the wheel, thus compressing
or elongating the springs. In this the track, wheel base and wheel attitude remain unchanged but the
system is having disadvantage of decreased stability.

4) Trailing link suspension:-

It is shown in fig a coil spring is attached to the trailing link which itself is attached to the
shaft carrying the wheel hub. When the wheel moves up and down, it winds and unwinds the spring
.A torsion bar has also been used in certain designs in place of the coil spring.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

5) Swinging half Axle-Suspension:-

In this wheels are mounted rigidity on the half axles which are pivoted on their ends to the
chassis member at the middle of the car. The main disadvantage of this system is that up and down
movement of the wheel cause the camber angle to vary.

Construction & working of hydraulic shock absorber:

Need of Shock Absorber:

If the suspension springs are rigid enough, they will not absorb road shocks efficiently, and if
they are flexible enough, they will continue to vibrate for longer time even after the bump has passed.
Therefore, the springing device must be compromise flexibility and stiffness and for that a shock
absorber is needed in Automobile Suspension system.

Types of Shock Absorbers: They are mainly two types

1. Mechanical.
2. Hydraulic – a. Van type
b. Piston – i )Single Acting ii). Double Acting
c. Telescopic type

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Telescopic type shock absorber:

Construction:
Fig. shows a twin tube telescopic shock absorber. Rod G is attached to the two way valve A,
while another similar two way valve B is attached to the bottom end of cylinder C. There is fluid in
the space between the valves, and also in annular space between tube C & D. H is the gland in the
head J which brings back the fluid scrapped off by rod G through the slot shown. The eye E is
connected to the axle, while eye F is connected to the chassis frame.

Working:
When vehicle came across the bump then eye E would move up & therefore fluid will pass
from lower side of valve A to its upper side and also from upper side of valve B to lower side. This
passing of a fluid through valve openings provides a damping.
Similarly for downward motion of eye E i. e. during rebound or while moving across a pitch
the fluid will pass from upper side of valve A to lower side and also from lower side of valve B to
upper side which provide the damping.

Troubleshooting of suspension system:

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. Worn bushing Replace bushing

2. Loose mounting bolts or stud Tighten to specifications.

Noisy shock absorber
3. Air trapped in shock absorber Purge air from it.

4. Undercoating on reservoir Clean shock absorber

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Oil dripping from shock

1. Damaged shock absorber Replace
absorber
1. Uneven or low tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure

2. Loose linkages Readjust, replace worn parts

Front wheel shimmy at low
3. front springs too flexible Replace, tighten attachment.
speeds
4. Incorrect or unequal camber Readjust
Replace worn tyres match
5. Irregular tyre tread
treads
1. Excessive tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure

Rough ride 2. Defective shock absorber Replace

3. Excessive friction in
Lubricate parts
suspension
1. Overloading Avoid

2. Loose centre bolt Tighten

Breakage of springs
3. Defective shock absorber Replace

4. Tight spring shackle Loosen as necessary

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 7
Title : Study and demonstration of Hydraulic braking system.

Aim : To study and demonstrate hydraulic braking system of a vehicle.

Objectives: 1. To understand functions of braking system.

2. To understand classification of brakes.
3. To understand different components of hydraulic brake system.
4. To understand working of hydraulic brake system.
5. To understand procedure of brake bleeding.
6. To understand troubleshooting of a braking system.
Theory:

Introduction:
Braking is the mechanism in the motor vehicle which is used to slowing down and stopping
the vehicle to rest in the shortest possible distance.

Principle of braking system:

While operating the braking system the kinetic energy of moving vehicle is converted in to
heat energy.

Functions of braking system:

1. It is used to stop the vehicle.
2. It is used to control the speed where and when required.
3. It is used to control the vehicle while descending along the slope.
4.To park the vehicle and held it in stationary position without the presence of driver.

Hydraulic braking system:-

Layout and components:-

Most of the cars today use hydraulically operated foot brakes on the four wheels with an
additional hand brake mechanically operated on the rear wheels. An outline of the hydraulic braking
system is shown.

The main component in the system is master cylinder which contain reservoir for brake fluid.
Master cylinder is operated by the brake pedal and is further connected to wheel cylinders in each
wheel through steel pipelines, unions and flexible hoses. In case of Hindustan Ambassador car on
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front wheels each brake shoe is operated by separate wheel cylinder (thus making the brake two shoe
- leading) where as in case of rear wheels there is only one cylinder on each wheel which operates
both the shoes (thus giving one leading &one trailing shoe brakes).As the rear wheel cylinders are
also operated mechanically with the hand brake, they are made floating, further all the shoes in the
ambassador car are of the floating anchor type.
The system is designed so that even when brakes are in the release position .A small pressure
of about 50 kpa is maintained in the pipeline to ensure that the cups of wheel cylinder are kept
expanded. This prevents the air from entering; the wheel cylinder when the brakes are released
pressure also serves the following purposes.
-It keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction springs.
-During bleeding it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line to return thus quickly purging air
from the system.

Master cylinder:-
This can be rightly named as heart of hydraulic system .There is two main chambers - The
fluid reservoir and compress chamber in which the piston operates. The fluid in the reservoir
compensate for any change in the fluid volume in the pipe lines. Due to temperature variation and to
some extent due to leakage .To prevent leakage there are rubber seals on the both ends of piston in
the compression chamber. The reduced diameter region of the piston is always surrounded by the
fluid. Rubber boot covers the push rod end of the master cylinder to prevent the dirt from entering
inside it.
Towards the brake line side of the chamber, there is fluid check valve with a rubber cap
inside. It serves to retain the residual pressure in brake line, even when brakes are released. There are
number of holes in the piston head on primary seal side. Two holes connect fluid reservoir to the
compression chamber. The smaller one is about 0.7 mm diameter is called the bypass or
compensation port. The second hole is called intake or recuperation port. The push rod is operated
with foot brake pedal through linkage. As the pedal is pressed, push rod moves the piston to left.
Against the force of spring, till it covers the bypass port. Further movement of the push rod
causes building up of pressure in the compression chamber. Finally, when sufficient pressure has
built up, the inner rubber cup of the fluid check valve is deflected, forcing the fluid under pressure in
the lines. The fluid enters the wheels cylinder & moves the pistons thereby applying the brakes.

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When the brake pedal is released, the spring pressure in the compression chamber moves the
piston to the right extreme position. This same force of the spring keeps the fluid check valve pressed
on its seat for same time & there by delays return of the fluid from the lines into the compression
chamber again. Some delay is also caused by the inertia of the fluid in the lines. This produces
vacuums in the compression chamber again & unless this is destroyed immediately, there all chances
of air leaking into the system. Even a very small amount of air will render the brakes useless. The air
is being compressible. The problem is solved by having intake port as shown. The problem is solved
by having intake port as shown .As soon as vacuum is formed, the atmospheric pressure in the fluid
reservoir forces the fluid through the intake port & holes in piston which deflects .The rubber cup &
enters the compression chamber, destroying the vacuum.
But by the time this vacuum is destroyed, the fluid from line comes back into reservoir by
lifting the fluid check valve off its seat. This extra fluid now has to be accommodating somehow
because compression chamber is already full. If this is not done, the compression chamber is already
fully and there are all chances of brake shoes rubbing with the drum, once this is happens there will
be more heat generated at the drum, which can be transmitted to the wheel cylinder will cause the
fluid to expand and exert still the more pressure causing the shoes to move still further towards the
drum .In this way, a various circle will start, causing the brakes to jam ultimately. This is avoided by
means of bypass port. The extra fluid is coming from the fluid reservoir, where pressure is
maintained at atmospheric by providing air ventilation.

Wheel Cylinder:-

Wheel cylinders in the brake system are meant to force the brake shoe against the drum. The
construction is very simple each wheel cylinder is provided with piston, rubber seals (cups) cup
spreaders, spring and dust cover (boots).The brake line from the master cylinder is attached to the
inlet port and a bleeder screw with cover is provided to bleed air from the system whenever required
wheel cylinder are mounted on the back plate. When brakes are applied the fluid under pressure from
the master cylinder enters the inlet port and forces the piston to move upward to push the shoe
against the drum, similarly when the brakes are released, the brake shoe retractor spring force the
brake fluid out of the wheel cylinder by pushing the piston inward

With the contamination of the brake fluid, the cylinder bore area between the rubber cups is
subjected to corrosion. With the gradual wear of the brake lining, distance between the cups is
increased due to which larger area of the cylinder bore gets corroded. In such case if brake lining is
placed without first servicing the wheel cylinder, the rubber cups would be pushed back inward and
would thus operate on the corroded area of the bore. This will cause damage to cups and leakage of
the brake fluid resulting ultimately in brake failure.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Bleeding of hydraulic brakes:-

In hydraulic cylinder brake care must be taken that not even a small quantity of air enters into
the braking system. The air being compressible, it gets compressed when brake pedal is pressed. The
result is that fluid pressure is not transmitted to the brakes which as a consequence are not actuated.

The procedure of driving air out of the braking system is called bleeding valve is provided for
this purpose on the shoe expander or the disk calliper. For bleeding the master cylinder is topped up
completely with brake fluid & pipe is connected to the bleeding valve nipple as shown. The other end
of this pipe is dipped in the brake fluid contained in a same jar. One person sit on the driver seat &
presses the brake pedal, after which bleeder valve is open by second person with spanner when some
air bubbles will come out of the pipe & escapes through the brake fluid into atmosphere. The bleeder
valve is now closed & brake pedal is released & pressed ones more after which bleeder valve is
opened again when some more air bubbles will come out. This process is repeated till on pressing the
brake pedal in the pressed position the bleeder valve is closed .The reservoir is the topped up with
fresh fluid. This procedure is then repeated for all wheels

Troubleshooting of braking system:

Trouble Causes Remedies

1. Excessive free play in brake
Adjust
pedal
2. Brake shoe not adjusted
Adjust properly
properly
Excessive brake pedal play &
Replace shoe which has bent,
poor stop 3. Partial contact of lining with
Replace shoe lining if not
drum
riveted properly.
4. Brake oil of poor quality Replace with proper quality
1. Weak or broken springs of
Replace
brake shoe
2. Clogged bypass port of
Clean the port
Brake drags; i.e. they remain master cylinder
applied without pressing the pedal
3. Weak or broken pedal spring Replace
4. Seized piston in wheel Clean wheel cylinder &
cylinder replace the piston

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Straighten or replace back

1. Bent back plate
plate
Straighten or replace brake
2. Bent or twisted brake shoe
shoe
Remove foreign matter on
Noisy brakes 3. Dirty lining
brake lining
4. Loose brake lining rivets Replace

5. Drum distorted Replace

1. Air in hydraulic brakes Bleed the system

Use brake oil with proper
2. Improper brake oil
quality
Spongy brakes
3. Brake drum out of round Replace

4. Poor shoe adjustment Adjust

1. Grease/ Oil soaked in lining Clean with emery paper

2. Brake shoe unequally
Adjust properly
adjusted
Vehicle pulls to one side
3. Loose brake back plate Tighten properly

4. Improper brake lining Replace

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 8
Title : Study and demonstration of
a) D. C. Electric horn. b) Electric fuel Gauge. c) Flasher unit. d) Wiper circuit.

Aim : To study and demonstrate different electrical components of a vehicle

Objectives: 1. To understand working of

a) D. C. Electric horn.
b) Electric fuel Gauge
c) Flasher unit.
d) Wiper circuit.
Theory:

Electric horn:
The horns are employed on present day automobiles are invariably electrically operated. The
construction of such a horn is shown in fig. It consists of a diaphragm and an armature inside a field
coil. In fig. the contacts are shown closed which is the position when the horn switch is in OFF
position. When the driver pushes the horn switch the circuit is completed and the field coil produces
an emf which cause the armature and along with it the diaphragm to move down. But the movement
of the armature moves down. The contacts separate opening the electrical circuit. The field coil is
then de-energized and the armature again moves up on account of the force of a mechanical spring
which keeps it in to the uppermost position. This upward movement of the armature causes the
contacts to close again.
There by cooling the armature and diaphragm down. In this way the diaphragm starts
vibrating up and down causes the vibrations of the air column below it. These vibrations of the air
column subsequently produce the horn sound, which depends upon the frequency of diaphragm
vibrations.
A relay is usually inserted in the horn circuit. It protects the contacts at the horn button and
provides a more direct connection between the horn and the battery. The reason for this becomes
clear when we consider that the current required for the horn operation is quite large (about 15-20
amps). The least length of current carrying cable is necessary with the relay in the circuit to the heavy
load required is only from the battery to the relay and hence the horn which may be placed near one
another thus requiring shorter leads only. The relay itself can be operated with a light current only
and therefore the cable from the relay to the horn push button may be of a smaller cross section.

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Fuel gauges:
It is a precision engineered instrument to record the fuel contact of the vehicles petrol tank. It
cautions when to look for the next petrol pump. It in fact, gives advance information to avoid
embarrassment at odd hours and places due to vehicle running out of fuel fig. shows two types of fuel
gauges manufactured in India by auto meters.
Balancing type:
Fig. shows the schematic wiring diagram of the balancing coil type fuel gauge. It has two
units the dash unit and the tank unit. These are connected in series by a suitable wire to the battery
through the ignition switch when the ignition switch is turned ON, the current from the battery
flow through both the units.
The tank unit consists of a float mounted at one end of the hinged arm and a sliding contact
moves along up or down when changes in fuel level in the tank takes place. When the fuel level in
the tank begins to empty the sliding contact moves to the left. Thus current flows through the left
hand coil of the dash unit and little of it flows through the right hand coil. This results in the left hand
coil being magnetically stronger than the right hand one. The armature along with the pointer is
moved towards the left side thus indicating the low fuel level in the tank.
On the other hand when the fuel in the tank is high the float moves up thus making the sliding
contact to insert most of the resistance into the circuit. Now most of the current that flows through the
left hand coil also flows through the right hand coil. The right hand coil is relatively stronger and this
cause the armature and pointer to swing to the right thereby indicating a high fuel level in the tank.

Flasher unit
One light on each side is fitted both at the front as well as on the rear side of the vehicle. The
wiring diagram is shown. The current is taken from the battery through a fuse and a flasher unit. The
flashing indicator switch is usually mounted on the steering column so that when its arm is actuated
upwards the left side indicator lights are operated and the downward movement of the switch arm
operates the right side indicator lights.
The flasher unit consists of a thermostatic blade. The blade extends due to flowing of the
current through it. Wraps and opens a pair of contact thus opening the circuit. But as the current stops
flowing the blade cools and straightens to close the circuit again. In this way the lights are made to
flash about 80 times in a minute. It has been established from laboratory tests that amber light for this

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type of indicator is distinguished most readily. The interior pilot light on the dashboard ensures the
driver all the time that the indicator is working all right. Mostly the indicator switches are so
constructed that when the vehicles has completed the turn and the steering comes back to its straight
position the indicator is automatically switched OFF.

Wiper circuit:
These are employed to keep the windscreen clear during rain to ensure good visibility. An
electrically operated windscreen wiper is shown in fig. It is operated by means of a small motor,
through some manufacturers use compressed air for this purpose. The motor drive the worm A which
rotates the wheel B. Link D connects the wheel with the toothed gear ‘E’. As wheel ‘B’ rotates,
sector ‘E’ reciprocates about fulcrum ‘G’. This motion is imparted to similar section ‘F’ on the
spindle on which is mounted the wiper arm. Wiper blade is attached to wiper arm by means of spring
lock. A rubber wiping element is held in place in the wiper arms pivot against the wind screen under
spring pressure to ensure adequate wiper blade pressure against the glass. Wiper blades can be lifted
from the glass surface against this spring pressure for replacement of blade or cleaning of glass
underneath.
In Lucas TVS windscreen wiper consists of shunt wound motor, gear box wiper arm, wiper
blade. In this type of windscreen wiper, the arm always stops at edges to wind screen irrespective of
instant of switching OFF. This is made possible by means of limit switch, controlled by crank pin. A
parallel earth connection is provided through limit switch a part from the connection through wiper
section. The limit switch connections remain closed for the greater path of each wiping cycle an
opens only each time the blades reach the edge of the screen. That is why the motor continues to run
even when the wiper switch is brought to OFF. Position till the blade reaches the edge of the screen,
when the parallel connections through the limit switch also opens causing the motor and hence the
blades to stop.

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Some wiper models are also provided with overload safety devices so that if the wiper motor
is overloaded due to any reason e.g. heavy snow, the device operates to cut OFF the electrical circuit
which causes the motor to stop. But as motor cools OFF after stopping, the thermostatic device again
closes the circuit so that the motor is restarted. Thus the motor does not burn out on the account of
overloading.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 9
Title : Experiment on wheel balancing & front wheel alignment.

Aim : To study wheel balancing & wheel alignment of a vehicle.

Objectives: 1. To understand wheel balancing of vehicle

2. To understand wheel alignment process.

Theory:

Wheel Balancing Equipment

Wheel balancers for both on and off the car wheel balancing are available. ‘Motobalance
5000’ made Laycock Engineering Limited, England. It enables simultaneous indication of both static
and dynamic unbalance. One simply has to mount the wheel on the high speed mounting plates, dial
the wheel width and diameter, push the start and digital readout indicates the value and position for
weights required on both inner and outer planes.
The specifications of the unit are:
Maximum wheel diameter = 432 mm
Maximum wheel width = 203 mm
Maximum increment value readout = 5 gram
Maximum increment weight position readout = 5 degrees
Drive Motor = 0.75 kW
In the above type of equipment, wheel has to be taken off the car for determining unbalance.
Laycock offers also ‘Motospin’ which enables both the wheel and hub assembly to be balanced
without removing the wheel from the car. It is a portable unit which operates through a transducer
pick up placed under the vehicle suspension. With the operator seated the wheel is driven by the
roller. The unbalance is then indicating electronically.

Checking of wheel Alignment and Steering Geometry

Sophisticated equipment is available these days to check the wheel alignment and various steering
angles viz., chamber, castor and king pin inclination. However, before making any of the above
checks, it is advisable to see that:
1. Front wheels are true running and wheel bearings are properly adjusted.
2. Tyres are inflated as specified.
3. Front suspension springs are properly seated and ball joints are not excessively loose.
4. The vehicle is in the laden or unladen condition as recommended by the manufacturer.
5. As far as possible, the surface over which the vehicle is being checked should be perfectly level.
The equipment manufactured by Dunlop Garage Equipment Limited will be described here mainly.

Wheel Alignment Gauge

To check the wheel alignment with this gauge, the vehicle is allowed to rest with the front
wheels in the straight ahead position. Gauge members are fixed to the wheels, so that member with
mirror is fixed on one side, whereas member with view box etc. is fixed on the other side. The
mechanic then sees trough the periscope and adjusts the pointer so that a hair line in the view-box
coincides with the apex of the triangle between the two vertical lines on the vertical target plate
reflected in the mirror.

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The amount of toe-in or toe-out is then read off the scale. After noting the reading the vehicle
should be moved ahead so that wheels are exactly 180º ahead of previous position and fresh wheel
alignment determined. If the wheels are not true, the two readings will differ and in that case average
of the two readings is taken as the correct reading.
A simpler of gauge for checking wheels alignment is the toe-in gauge, recommended by
Maruti Udyog.

Camber Gauge:
The gauge serves to measure floor level as well as camber angle. A and B are dial gauges
reading in terms of degrees while C and D are spirit levels. First the floor level is checked by placing
the gauge in horizontal position and adjusting the dial gauge so as to bring the bubble in the spirit
level in the centre. In this position the reading on A gives the angle of floor level inclination. It
should be kept in mind that it is the side to side floor level that has to be determined since it affects
the camber angle measurement. After determining the floor level, the gauge is held against the tyre
wall. Again, the dial gauge B is adjusted to bring the bubble in the spirit level in the centre. The
camber angle is then read on the dial gauge B.

Castor and King Pin Gauge:

The vehicle is run on to turn tables and is securely positioned. The Castor and King Pin gauge
is then attached horizontally to the wheel stud by means on an angle bracket or special clamp in case
of central lock wheels. The turn tables are adjusted to read zero. One of the wheels is then turned
inwards through locking angle, say 20º, dials A and B are set to zero and screws E and F are turned
so as to centre the levels C and D.
Now the wheels are turned outwards through the same angle 20º, i.e., the locking angle in the
opposite direction and screws E and F are again adjusted to centre the levels C and D. The Castor
angle and the King Pin inclination is then given by the readings on the respective dial gauges.

Computerised Wheel Alignment Equipment:

Lately, computerised wheel alignment equipment is being extensively used for 2- wheel or 4-
wheel alignment. The use of such equipment greatly enhances the alignment accuracy. The operation
of such equipment is extremely simple and the time taken for alignment job is greatly reduced
compared to the mechanical or optical type of equipment.
It is, however, very important that vehicle must be inspected as follows prior to the alignment.
The inspection will detect many problems which have to be rectified before starting with the
alignment work. In case of failure to do so, it would not be possible to get the vehicle aligned since
the measurement of steering geometry angle will not be accurate. Various steps for inspection are:
1. The fuel tank should be full; otherwise the ride height of the vehicle will change.
2. Check the tyres. All tyres should of same make and size, in good condition and inflated to
specified pressure.
3. Check the front wheel and tyre assemblies. There should not be excessive radial run out.
4. Check the steering linkage and ball joints. There should not be any excessive play, binding, wear
or damage.
5. Check all suspension fasteners, which should not be loose.
6. Inspect all suspension components bushes. Replace any worn or damaged.
7. Check the ride height if the same is not within specified value, look for excessive weight in the
vehicle or some broken or weak suspension springs.

After inspection, position the vehicle on the alignment rack and install all the required
alignment equipment as per equipment manufacturer’s instructions. Read the front and the rear
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alignment settings and compare the same with specified values. If camber and castor are within the
allowable limits, proceed to adjust toe, if required. If camber and/or castor are not correct, you have
to first readjust the same if it provided for in the vehicle.
After the wheel alignment is complete remove the alignment equipment, drive the vehicle off
the alignment track and take the vehicle for a test drive. One such wheel aligner’s main features are,
1. Measurement of camber, toe, castor, set-back, run out and thrust angle.
2. On-line correction of camber, toe and castor.
3. Automatic compensation of run out, set-back and thrust angle.
4. Automatic tracking of left and right turns in the monitor.
5. 5000 vehicle data memory.

Attach wheel balancing & alignment report of any vehicle.

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 Automobile Engineering Lab Manual

Experiment No. 10
Title : Visit report

The visit report should contain following points:

a) Name of industry/service station.

b) Schedule of visit

c) Brief information of industry/service station.

d) Detail information about activities observed over there. (Maintenance of various vehicle systems)

e) Information related to various maintenance records & job sheets maintained at service station.

f) Proper plant layout.

Prepared By: Prof. Yadav R. S. Asst. Prof. Dept. of Mech. Engg. NMCOE Peth 46