Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Blvd., Ermita Manila

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

CE Shop 1
Engineering Shopwork 1

Assignment no. 2:

Handtools and Workshop

Procedures

Submitted by
Perlas, Jersey Mae G.
BSCE-1D

Submitted to:
Engr. Arnolfo G. Arcibal

Date of Submission:
July 12, 2018
 Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd., Ermita Manila
College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

BES11
Civil Engineering Orientation

Assignment no. 2:

Technological University of the

Philippines Colleges and
Campuses

Submitted by
Perlas, Jersey Mae G.
BSCE-1D

Submitted to:
Engr. Arnolfo G. Arcibal

Date of Submission:
July 05, 2018

Different Handtools Used in Carpentry

A. Measuring tools
a.1 Scale ruler - a tool for measuring distances and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio
of length; two common examples are an architect's scale and engineer's scale.

a.2 Four-fold metre ruler - it is capable of accurate measurement and very adaptable. It is
available in both plastics and wood, and calibrated in both imperial and metric units. Some
models (clinometer rules) also incorporate in their design a spirit-level and a circle of degrees
from 0° to 180°.

a.3 Flexible steel tapes - these tapes retract on to a small enclosed spring loaded drum and are
pulled out and either pushed back in or have an automatic return which can be stopped at any
distance within the limit of the tape’s length.

B. Setting- out, Marking-out & Marking-off tools

b.1 Try-squares - these (try) test pieces of timber for squareness or for marking lines at right
angles from either a face side or a face edge.

b.2 Combination square - it is composed of a ruler and one or more interchangeable heads that
may be affixed to it. The most common head is the standard or square head which is used to lay
out or check right and 45° angles.
 b.3 Marking and mortise gauges – these are used for scoring lines parallel to the edge of a
piece of timber. The main difference is that the marking gauge scores only a single line but the
mortise gauge scores two in one pass.

b.4 Cutting gauge – it is used to cut across the fibers of timber. It therefore has a similar
function to that of a marking knife.

C. Saws
Saws are designed to cut both along and across the grain of wood (except the rip), and the saw’s
efficiency will be determined by:
● the type and choice of saw,
● the saw’s condition,
● the application,
● the material being cut.

Types of Saw
Broadly speaking, saws can be categorized into four groups which are available in a variety of
sizes and shapes to suit particular functions.;
I. Handsaws,
II. Backed saws,
III. Framed saws,
IV. Narrow-blade saws.

Methods of use
The way the saw is used will depend on the following factors:
a. the type and condition of the wood being cut,
b. the direction of cut – ripping or cross-cutting,
c. the location – bench work or site work.
Type or Saw Function Blade Teeth Teeth Handle Remarks
Group length shape per type
(mm) 25mm

Handsaw Rip Cutting wood 650 4-6 Seldom used

with grain below six teeth
(ripping) per 25 mm

Cross Cutting wood 600 to 7-8 Can also be used

across the for rip sawing
cut grain 650

Panel Cross cutting 500 to 10 Easy to use

thinner wood handle
and some 550
manufactured
wood

Handpoint Can be used 500 to 7-10 Handpoint – non

for cutting sharpenable with
(crosscut) with and 600 extended cutting
across the life – up to 6 to 7
grain longer than
sharpenable blade

Universal Cuts along 500 to 7-10

and across
Saw the grain – 600
ideal for
cutting
manufactured
board

Backed Tenon Tenons and 300 to 12-14 Depth of cut

general work restricted by back
saw 450 strip (blade
stiffener)

Dovetail Cutting 200 to 18-20

dovetails and
fine works 250

Framed Bow Cutting 200 to 12

curves in Radius of cut
Saw heavy 300 restricted by
sectioned blade width
timber and
M/B
Coping Cutting 160 14
curves in
timber and
M/B
Narrow Hacksaw Cutting hard 250 to 14-32 Small teeth - to
and soft cut thin
blade metals 300 materials. The
saw larger the teeth,
the less liable to
clog – small
frame hacksaw

Compass Cutting slow 300 to 10 Interchangeable

curves in blade curves of
heavy, large 450 various widths –
work unrestricted by
a frame

Pad or key Enclosed 200 to 10 Narrow blade

cuts – partly housed in
hole piercing 300 a handle,
panels, etc. therefore length
adjusts
 Materials Being Cut by Different Saws

Ripping with a hand saw Tenon saw – starting a cut using a bench hook

Cross cutting with a hand saw Sawing down the grain with a Tenon saw

Sawing down the grain (vertically) with a Dovetail saw – starting a cut
panel saw

Sawing down the grain with the material Using a coping saw
angled – two saw lines are visible

Tenon saw – starting a cut, vice held Using a standard hacksaw

D. Planes
Group Plane Function Length (mm) Blade Remarks
width
(mm)
Bench Smoothing Finishing flat 240, 245, 260 45, 50, 60 50 mm the most
Planes surfaces common blade width
Record Finishing flat 245 60 ‘Norris’ type cutter
CSBB surfaces adjustment – combining
depth of cut with blade
adjustment
Jack Processing saw 355, 380 50, 60 60 mm the most
timbers common blade width
Fore Jointer Planing long 455, 560, 610 60 The longer the sole,
(Try plane) edges (not wider greater the degree of
than the plane’s accuracy
sole) straight &
true.)
Bench rebate Finishing large 235, 330 54 Its blade is exposed
(carriage or rebates across full width of
badger) sole
Special Block Trimming – end 140, 180, 205 42 Cutter seats at 20 or 12
Planes grain
Circular Planing convex 235, 330 54 Spring-steel sole adjusts
(compass or concave from flat to either
plane) surfaces concave or convex
curves
Rebate Cutting rebates 215 38 Both the width and
with or across the depth of rebate are
grain adjustable
Shoulder or Fine cuts across 152, 204 18, 25, Some makes adapt to
rebate grain, and 29, 32 chisel planes
general fine work
Bullnose or Fine cuts across 100 25, 29
shoulder grain, and
orking into
confined corners
Side rebate Widening rebates 140 Removable nose –
or grooves – with works into corners.
or across grain Double-bladed - right
and left hand. Fitted
with depth gauge and
fence.
Plough Cutting grooves 248 3 to 12 Both width and depth
of various widths of groove adjustable
and depths – with
and across grain
Combination Cutting grooves 254 18 cutters, Not to be confused
rebates, beading, various with a multi plane,
and tongues of shapes which has a rang 24
various widths and sizes cutters
and depths – with
and across grain
Open-throat Levelling bottoms 6, 12 and A fence attachment
router of grooves, V allows it to follow
trenches, etc. straight or round edges
Spokeshave Shaving convex 250 54 Available with or
flat bottom & ot concave without micro blade
round bottom surfaces - depth adjustment
types depending on
type
 Smoothing plane Rebate plane

Jack plane Shoulder/rebate plane

Jointer or try-plane Bullnose/shoulder/rebate plane

Bench rebate plane (carriage or badger Side rebate plane

plane)

Plough plane
Block plane

Spokeshave
Circular compass plane
E. Boring Tools
Group Type of bit/drill Function Motive Range of common Shank Remarks
power hole sizes section
Bits Centre bit Cutting shallow holes CB 1⁄4–21⁄4 in ❑
(standard) in wood
Irwin-pattern Boring straight holes CB 1⁄4–11⁄2 in, 6–38 ❑ General purpose bit
solid-centre in wood mm
auger bit
⁄4–11⁄2 in ❑
1
Jennings- Boring straight, CB
pattern accurate, smooth
auger bit holes in wood
⁄8 and 1⁄2 in ❑
3
Jennings- As above, only CB Used in conjunction
pattern shorter with wood dowel
dowel bit
Bits Combination Cutting very clean CB, 1⁄4–11⁄4 in Must only be used
(Special) auger bits holes in wood ED 6–32 mm with slow cutting
speeds
Countersink Enlarging sides of CB, 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 5⁄8 in ❑❍ Spring-steel sole
holes ED adjusts from flat to
either concave or
convex curves
Expansive Cutting large shallow CB 7⁄8–3 in ❑ Adjustable to any
(expansion) holes in wood diameter within its
bit range

Scotch-eyed Boring deep holes in T 1⁄4–1 in Turned by hand via

auger bit wood ‘T’ bar. Length
(hand) determined by
diameter of auger
Forstner bit Cutting shallow CB, 3⁄8–2 in ❑❍ Ideal for starting a
bottomed holes in ED stopped housing
wood
Dowel Chamfering end of CB ❑ Pointed dowel – aids
sharpener dowel entry into dowel
bit holes
Turn-screw Driving large screws CB 1⁄4, 3⁄16, 3⁄8, ❑ Very powerful
bit 7⁄16 in screwdriver
Flat bit Bores holesin all ED 1⁄4–11⁄2 in ❍ Deep holes may
forms of wood wander. Extension
quickly, cleanly shank available
Screw bit Drills pilot, clearance ED Screw size
1 ❍ Saves time changing
(Screwmate) and countersink in 1in x 6 to 1 in x 10 different bits
25mm x 26 to
one operator. 38mm x 10
❍
3
Screw sink Combination ED in 6 to 2 in 3 12 Depth of
4
counterbore all-in-one counterbore can be
boring of screw hole varied. Use with
and plug hole Stanley plug cutter
Plug cutter Cuts plugs to fill ED To suit screw gauges ❍ Use only with a drill
counterbored holes 6 to 12 and hole fixed into a bench
sizes 3⁄8, 1⁄2, 5⁄8 in drill stand, and with
the wood cramped
down firmly
Drills Twist drills Boring wood ED, 1⁄16 to 1⁄2 in ❍ A few sizes
HD 1–13 mm available as ❑
Masonry Boring masonry, ED Numbers 6–20 ❍ Available for both
drills brickwork, concrete HD 5⁄16 to 3⁄8 in† rotary and impact
(percussion-
action) drills
Note: † Larger diameter drills are available; CB – carpenter’s brace; HD – hand drill (wheel-brace);
ED – electric drill (N.B. Bits used in ED must never have screw point other than with a very slow
cutting speed and adjustable torque mechanism); ❏ – square-tapered shank; ❍ – straight rounded
shank;
 Center Bit Expansive Bit

Irwin Pattern Auger Bit Scotch-Eyed Auger Bit

Forstner Bit
Jennings at an Auger Bit

Turned Screw Bit

Jennings Pattern Dowel Bit

flat Bit

Combination Bits

Countersink
Plug Cutter

F. Chisels

firmer chisel mortice chisel

bevel edged chisel firmer gouge (out – cannel)

registered chisel scribing gouge (in – cannel)

G.Driving (Impelling) tools
These tools have been designed to apply a striking or turning force to fixing devices or cutting
tools. For example;
 hammers – striking,  mallets – striking,  screwdrivers – turning

Hammers
1. Claw hammers – used for driving 3. Engineer’s or ball-peen hammers – the
medium to large nails and are capable of larger sizes are useful as general purpose
withdrawing them with the claw. heavy hammers and can be used in
conjunction with wall-plugging chisels etc.

4. Club or lump hammer – used mainly by

2. Warrington or Cross-peen hammer - a stone masons and bricklayers, it is, however,
hammer with a blade-like peen at right a useful addition to your tool kit as a heavy
angles to the haft, used by carpenters. hammer capable of working in awkward
and/or confined spaces.

Punches
1. Pin and nail punch – struck by a 3. Centre punch - used to make a small
hammer, these punches sink a pin or nail indentation in the metal prior to drilling.
head just below the wood surface. The Thereby providing the drill bit with an
resulting small indentation left by the initial pilot and help prevent a drill bit
nail head can then be filled with the sliding at the start of its first rotation.
appropriate filler.

2. Nail drifter - used as a striking medium

4. Name punch - traditionally all jointers
between the hammerhead and a round
tools were personalized by embossing
headed nail in inaccessible places where
the jointers’ name or a code on them as
the hammerhead cannot accurately
means of recognition and security.
strike the nail head.
Lettered punches are available to stamp
wood, plastics and soft metal.
Mallets
The head of a mallet, which provides a large striking face, and its shaft, which is self-tightening
(tapered from head to handle), are usually made from Beech and weigh between 0.4 kg and 0.6
kg. Choice will depend on the mallet’s use and the user. Many joiners prefer to make their own
mallet, in which case it can be made to suit their own hand.

Screwdrivers
1. Rigid-blade screwdrivers – these work directly on the screw head (screw eye) to give
positive driving control.
2. Ratchet screwdriver – available to handle slotted and superdrive (posidrive) headed screws
and is operated by rotating its firmly gripped handle through 90º – then back –and repeating
this action for the duration of the screw’s drive. A clockwise or counterclockwise motion
will depend on the ratchet setting.
3. Spiral ratchet screwdriver – this is often termed a pump screwdriver, because of its pump
action, and is by far the quickest hand method of driving screws. Not only can it handle all
types of screws, it can also be adapted to drill and countersink holes.

H. Holding tools
1. Joiner’s bench vice– large hardwood faced wide opening jaws, single turn screw operation
with two solid steel bar guides and a quick release opening and closing mechanism. Some
models have a height adjustable steel ‘dog’ set into the face of the front jaw – used in
conjunction with ‘bench dogs’.
2. Bench Dogs– square, or round (with one flat face) pegs with integral springs to fit into holes
cut into the bench worktop. They work in conjunction with the bench vice dog to produce
a bench top cramping facility for holding frames, or short lengths of timber whilst being
worked on.
3. ‘G’ cramp – as the name implies it is ‘G’ shaped – different sizes are available with
cramping depths of 50 mm to 300 mm. The shoe on the end of the threaded spindle swivels
on a ball socket enabling it to remain still whilst the turn screw is being tightened.
4. Joiner’s hand screw (‘F’ cramp) –although not as strong as a ‘G’ cramp, they are often
favored for lighter work because of the effective quick clamping and release mechanism.
5. Trigger cramp– forward moving bar within a ‘C’ frame activated by squeezing a trigger –
pressure exerted limited to the grip of the operative.
6. Sash cramp – consists of two cramp shoes, one (the head shoe) is fixed to a screw spindle
to provide adjustment over a limited length. The second shoe (tail shoe) can slide over the
remaining length of the rectangular steel bar to a pre-determined length, any further
movement to facilitate the cramping process being restricted by the insertion of a steel pin
into any one of the holes in the bar.
7. ‘T’ bar cramp– works on the same principle as a sash cramp but in the main due to the ‘T’
profile of the bar it is much stronger. Lengthening ‘T’ bars are also available for those large
jobs.
8. Cramping heads – a light duty alternative to the sash cramp. The bar in this case is made-
up of a length of 25 mm wide timber. Holes to receive the pins are bored as and where
required along the timber bar.
9. Dowelling jigs– these are used to ensure that holes drilled into two eventual adjoining
members are accurately positioned to receive dowels. These jigs usually have provision for
dowel diameters of 6 mm, 8 mm, & 10 mm.
 Different Powertools Used in Carpentry
Drill Press - it drills small holes and bores big because its up-and-down sliding motor housing
ones. The depth can be accurately set. The table enables you to start and end a cut in the middle
adjusts for angled drilling. of a board.

Portable Circular Saw - they have either a

helical-gear or a worm-drive mechanism for
driving the blade. The helical-gear is popular, Portable Belt Sander - typically have belt
but the worm-drive has more cutting power. In sizes of either 3x18", 3x21", 3x24", or 4x24".
blade sizes from 4". The larger belt sizes cut more quickly.

Scroll saw – much safer than any other power Radial-arm Saw –If you can figure the angle,
saw, a scrollsaw is often a hobby in itself. Its the pivoting blade and motor assembly of a
thin blade can maneuver through the tiniest radial-arm saw can cut it. The most popular size
pattern detail. for home shops has a 10" blade.

Jointer – it allows one to create a straight edge Band saw –table size and blade height
on a board and also to remove slight warps. determine the size of wood that you can saw.
Smaller blades will cut tighter circles.

Router - they are fixed-base or of the plunge Table saw - besides their availability as either
type. The plunge router has more versatility floor or benchtop models, tablesaws are sold in
a contractor's style or a cabinetmaker's style. Planer - thickness planers self-feed, taking the
Both have the same blade adjustments, but the work out of dimensioning boards. They come
cabinetmaker's saw has more heft, power, and in portable and floor models with board-
less vibration. The cabinetmaker's saw also capacities to 15" wide and 6" thick board-
normally requires 220 voltage and costs more capacities to 15" wide and 6" thick.
than a contractor's saw.

Lathe - it provides the rotary power to spin a

piece of wood, which you shape with a chisel.
You make bowls by mounting wood to the
headstock, spindles by mounting the wood
Drill/Driver Cordless - drill/drivers look and
between the headstock and tailstock.
feel bulkier than corded models because they
contain a battery pack that draws up to 18 volts.
Drill-drivers cost more than drills or drivers due
to the clutch that controls the torque for driving
crews.
 Basic Woodworking Joints
There are many different joints that the carpenter and joiner may use. Joints generally fall into
three categories and carry out the following functions:
Category Joint Function
a. Lengthening End To increase the effective length of timber
b. Widening Edge To increase the width of timber or board material
c. Framing Angle To terminate or to change direction

A. Lengthening- end Joints

1. Lap Joint - The two adjoining lengths of timber are
lapped at their end.
2. Butt joint (cleated) - a joint formed by two surfaces
abutting at right angles.
3. Scarf joint - The first, for structural use will require a
slope of 1 in 12 or less. The second method
incorporates a hook that enables the joint to be
tightened with folding wedges
4. Laminated joint - by laminating (overlapping)
different lengths of timber together with nails and/or
glue, large long lengths of timber can be manufactured.
5. Finger joint - is produced by machine, then glued and
assembled by controlled end pressure. This is a useful
method of using up short ends and upgrading timber –
after the degraded portion or portions have been
removed, the remaining pieces are rejoined.
6. Half-lap & sloping halving joint - these joints are also
used as ‘Framing. They can also be used for
lengthening and intersecting wallplates in floor and
roof construction.

B. Widening- edge Joints

1. Dowelled joint - by inserting dowels at
approximately 300 mm intervals, the butt joint
can be both strengthened and stiffened.
2. Tongued-and-grooved joint– another method
of strengthening a glued butt joint, because it
increases the surface area to be glued (the glue
line). Floorboard and matchboard use this joint.
3. loose tongue joint –another method of
strengthening a glued butt joint because it
increases the surface area to be glued (the glue
line). It can also be used as a means of dry
jointing boards together.
4. Slot-screwed joint – this is a simple yet
effective method of edge jointing that can also
be used whenever a secret fixing is to be made.
C. Framing - angle Joints
Joints used to form angles and/or junctions can be divided into the following groups:
● housing ●mortise and tenon ● dowelled ● dovetail,
● halving ● bridle ● notched and cogged ● mitre and scribe

Housing Joints

Often used in the construction of shelf and cabinet units, partitions, and sectional timberframed
buildings. This type of joint can be further sub-divided into the following
a. Through housing – the simplest and probably most common housing joint. It gains its
bearing support from the notch when formed vertically, and resists side movement when
used horizontally.
b. Stopped housing – conceal the trench on one edge.
c. Double-stopped housing– conceal the trench on both edges.
d. Dovetailed housing– has one or both (not illustrated) sides of the trench sloping inwards,
thereby adding part or total resistance to withdrawal to the housed section.
Halving joints
These are used where timber members are required either to cross or to lap each other. The joint
is made by a combination of those methods used in forming the housing, tenon, and dovetail
joints.
Mortise-and-tenon joints

The joint’s name usually reflects its size, shape, or position. For example;
a. Through mortise and tenon– the mortise hole goes completely through the material;
b. Stub tenon – mortised only part way into the material-stopped mortise hole.
c. Double tenon – two tenons cut in the depth of a member;
d. Twin tenon– two tenons side by side (usually in the thickness of a member);
e. Barefaced tenon– only one shoulder;
f. Unequal shoulder– one shoulder longer than the other.
Bridle Joints

Known as an open or slot mortise – bridle joints slot over through-running members. They are
cut in a similar manner to tenons and halving joints.
Dowelled joints

Useful alternatives to mortise-and-tenon joints for joining members in their thickness or as a

means of framing members in their width
Notched and cogged joints

The notches of a notched joint are used to locate members in one or both directions and as a
means of making any necessary depth adjustments (joist to wallplates etc.). Cogged joints
perform a similar function, but less wood is removed, therefore generally leaving a stronger joint
– they do, however, take much longer to make.
Dovetail joints

Dovetailing has been used to prevent members from being pulled apart. The strength of a dovetail
joint relies on the self-tightening effect of the dovetail against the pins, as shown by the direction
of the arrows.
Mitre and scribe joints

A mitre is formed by bisecting the angle formed by two intersecting members and making two
complementary cuts. The scribe joint has its abutting end shaped to its own section profile,
brought about by first cutting a mitre.
 Wood Adhesives
An adhesive is a medium that allows the surfaces of two or more items to be attached or bonded
together. Adhesives are made from either natural or synthetic (man-made) materials. They come
in a liquid (one or two part), powder form, a combination of both powder and liquid, or as a
semisolid which requires melting.

1. Casein –derived from dairy by-products that are dried, treated and mixed with chemical
additives to produce a powder which, when mixed with water, is ready for use. It is used in
general joinery assembly work and in the manufacture of plywood. It tends to stain some
hardwoods.
2. Urea Formaldehyde (UF) – A very widely used synthetic resin adhesive, for such
things as general assembly work and binding within some manufactured boards (including
MDF). Strong mixes can achieve moistureresistant (MR) requirements. Most are designed for
close contact jointing, but formulations are available to satisfy gap-filling requirements When set
(chemically cured) these adhesives will either be clear or lightly coloured so glue lines can be
concealed.\
3. Melamine Urea Formaldehyde (MUF)-An adhesive with more melamine than
urea, which can enhance moisture resistance to bring it above boil-resistant (BR) rating. Its usage
is similar to that of UF.
4. Phenol Formaldehyde (PF)-The main purpose of these adhesive types is to provide
the best moisture resistance (weather and boil proof – WBP) to structural plywood. They are also
used as a binder in particleboard and wafer boards. Glue lines may show as slight red/brown
staining to the wood.
5. Resorcinol Formaldehyde (RF) Because of their WBP properties these adhesives
are highly suited to the assembly of external structures and marine applications. They are,
however, expensive. Glue lines can result in the staining of wood. Again, the glue lines may show
a red/brown staining to the wood.
6. Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAc) Thermoplastic adhesives consisting of a simple to use, one-
part water-based emulsion, with additives to produce either a standard interior type, cured mainly
by evaporation and used extensively for glueing internal joinery components and veneering. Or,
an improved PVAc, which gives higher moisture resistance by inducing a chemical reaction. This
so-called ‘crosslinking’ will put this type of PVAc in the class of a thermosetting adhesive.
7. Contact adhesives-Made of natural or synthetic rubber and a solvent that evaporates
when exposed to the air, giving off a heavy flammable vapour. They are used in the bonding of
wood and plastic veneers (laminated plastics) to wood based materials. Bonding is achieved by
coating both surfaces to be joined, leaving them to become tacky (for a time specified by the
manufacturer) and then laying one onto the other while excluding any air.
8. Hot melt synthetic (thermoplastic) adhesives-are either semisolid rods or
pellets or come in the form of tapes or films, which are melted for application by heat. As they
cool, they re-harden to their original strength. The most common type of application is with an
edge-banding machine, used for applying veneers of wood, plastics, and plastic laminates.
Handheld glue guns are quite popular for spot gluing or running narrow joints; glue guns use
cylindrical adhesive ‘slugs’, which are available in various formulations.
9. Epoxy synthetic (thermosetting) adhesives-This type of adhesive is limited
to specialized applications, for example, gluing wood to metal or glass reinforced plastics (GRP)
and small repair work
 Fixing Devices
Fixing devices can be broadly classified as:
● Nails ● Bolts (threaded) ● Plugs
● Wood screws ●Metal fixing plates ● Screw bolts

Nail
Nails offer the quickest, simplest, and least expensive method of forming or securing a joint

Materials: Finish/treatment: SH – sherardised Head shape: Drive mechanism:

A – aluminium alloy B – brass Z – zinc CKS – countersunk SD – Superdriv
B – brass BR – bronze BZ – bright zinc DM – dome (Pozidriver)
BR – bronze CP – chromium RND – round head SL – slotted
C – copper G – galvanised RSD – raised head (screwdriver)
P – plastics J – jappanned (black) SQ – square SP – square head
S – steel N – nickel (spanner)
SS – stainless steel SC – self-coloured
Wood screws
 Wood screws have a dual function – not only do they hold joints or articles together, they also
act as a permanent clamp, which in most cases can be removed later for either adjustment or
modification purposes.

Types of Screw

Materials: Finish/treatment: Z – zinc Head shape: Drive mechanism:

B – brass BZ – bright zinc CKS – countersunk SD – Superdriv
A – aluminium alloy BR – bronze DM – dome (Pozidriver)
B – brass CP – chromium RND – round head SL – slotted
BR – bronze G – galvanised RSD – raised head (screwdriver)
C – copper J – jappanned (black) SQ – square SP – square head
P – plastics N – nickel (spanner)
S – steel SC – self-coloured
SS – stainless steel SH – sherardised
Threaded bolts
It is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw
thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being
called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread.

Fixing plates
Movement plates have elongated slots to allow for either timber movement and/or fixing
adjustment, glass plates act as a hanging medium for fixing items to walls etc. Multipurpose
plates include angles, straights, tees, etc. aid or reinforce various joints used in car case
construction.

Plugs
Plugs are used where fixing directly to the base material is impracticable, for example, because
it is too hard, brittle, or weak. The type of plug or device used will depend on:
● the required strength of fixing;
● the type, condition, and density of the base material to receive the plug;
● whether fixing to a solid or a hollow construction.
 Wood Preservation and Finishing
Timber preservation became necessary because naturally durable timbers became scarce, so
ways of improving the durability of cheaper timbers were developed. It is it is generally treated
with either paint, water-repellent stain, preservative, or special solutions to either reduce or retard
the effects of:
a. weathering (erosion and discolouration)
b. exposure to sunlight
c. moisture movement,
d. fire;
and to reduce or even eliminate the risk of:
e. fungal attack,
f. insect attack.

Paint and varnishes

Exterior-quality paints and varnishes can protect timber from:
● the entry of water,
● abrasive particles (grit and dirt),
● solar radiation – discolouration (not clear varnishes).
Two ways of reducing the effect of moisture intake are:
1. By using paint which leaves a flexible film over the surface of the wood, then should any
small amount of movement occur this film can stretch as required.
2. by using a ‘breather’ ‘or micro-porous’ type of paint which allows any trapped moisture, or
water vapour which would otherwise become trapped behind the paint film to escape
through its surface via minute perforations.

Preservatives
Wood preservatives are solutions containing either an insecticide, fungicide, or both. Which are
either applied or introduced into the wood to make it toxic (poisonous) to insects and/or fungi.
There are three preservative groups:
I. Organic-solvent types (OS)
The solvents used are generally volatile and flammable, and extreme care must
therefore be taken at the time of application, and in storing containers. These preservatives
do not affect the dimensions of timber (cause swelling) or have a corrosive effect on
metals. The ability to glue or paint timber is unaltered after treatment once the
preservative has dried.
Use a medium of organic solvents to transmit the toxic chemicals into the wood.
After application, the solvents evaporate, leaving the wood toxic to insects and/or fungi.

Methods of application include:

● Low pressure processes (double vacuum)
● brushing,
● spraying,
● immersion
 II. Water-borne types (WB)
These preservatives are non-flammable. Drying is always necessary after treatment.
When dry treated timber can be painted over.
Use water to convey the toxic chemicals. There are three types:
1. One for treating unseasoned (green) timber’ where the preservative is
introduced into the wood by a method known as ‘diffusion’.
2. Types requiring a pressure treatment system.
3. Special formulations to allow for in situ and remedial application by non-
pressure method

III. Tar-oil types (TO)

Derived from coal tar, and are ideal for preserving exterior work which is not to be
painted. They do not usually have any corrosive effect on metals, but they will stain most
porous materials they contact. The most common form of tar-oil preservative is creosote,
which is light to dark brown in colour, and can be applied by various processes including
brushing and spraying. It has a strong odour for some time after its application.

Methods of applying preservatives

1. Pressure methods
Timber is put into a sealable chamber into which preservative is introduced under pressure as
described below:
High Pressure Methods: Low Pressure Method
● Full-cell process ● Double-vacuum process
● Empty-cell process

a. Full-cell process – After sealing the chamber, the air is removed by using a vacuum pump. With
the chamber still under a vacuum and after a prescribed period, preservative is introduced, filling
the chamber. Vacuum is then released and pressure applied. The chamber will remain filled until
the timber has absorbed sufficient preservative, which will vary according to the permeability of
the wood. Pressure is then released on completion; surplus preservative is pumped out of the
chamber back into its storage tank. Finally, a further vacuum is set up in the chamber, but only of
sufficient strength to remove any surface preservative – cell cavities will remain full. This process
may use creosote or water-borne preservatives.
b. Empty-cell (Lowry) process – In this case, the preservative is pumped into the chamber
subjected to normal air pressure. After the wood has absorbed sufficient preservative, the pressure
is released and surplus preservative is driven out of the wood by the expanding air in the wood
cells. A vacuum is then used to draw off any residue. Although the wood cells are emptied, their
walls remain fully treated. This process is used for both creosote and water borne preservatives.
c. Double-vacuum process –The chamber is sealed and a partial vacuum is created. The chamber
is then filled with preservative and pressurized to atmospheric pressure, or above, depending on
the process. After a prescribed period, it is then drained and a final vacuum is created to remove
excess preservative from the timber. This process is mainly used to apply organic solvent
preservatives into timber for exterior joinery – required depths of penetration are therefore less
than for the full-cell and empty-cell processes but better than for immersion. It does not cause
timber to swell or distort, and all machining should be done before treatment.
 2. Non-Pressure methods
Depth of preservative penetration with non-pressure methods is often limited to just below the
surface of the wood
a. Brushing – Can be used for applying creosote, organic solvent, and some waterborne types
of preservative but because of low penetration, it is not a suitable method for timbers that
come into contact with the ground. As a rule, re-treatment is advisable every three to four
years.
b. Spraying – Similar penetration and conditions apply as for brushing. Because of the health
risk associated with applying preservatives, precautions should always be taken –
particularly when spraying – to ensure that:
● only coarse sprays are used, to avoid atomisation;
● work areas are well ventilated;
● operatives are suitably clothed;
● hands are protected by gloves;
● mouth and nose are protected by an approved face-mask;
● eyes are protected with snug-fitting goggles – not glasses;
● Manufacturer’s instructions are followed.
c. Deluging – In deluging, the timber is passed through a tunnel of jets that spray it with
preservative.
d. Immersion
● Dipping – the timber is submerged in a tank of preservative (coal-tar oils or organic-
solvent types) for a short period, then allowed to drain.
● Steeping – The timber is submerged for periods ranging from a few hours to weeks,
depending on the wood species, the sectional size of the timber, and its end use. Steeping
is a suitable method for preserving fence posts etc.
e. Hot & Cold (open tank treatment) – The timber is submerged in a tank of preservative
(coal-tar oil) which is heated. It is then allowed to cool in the tank or is transferred to a tank
of cold preservative. This treatment is suitable only for permeable timbers and sapwood.
Coal-tar oils are flammable, therefore extra care is necessary with regard to the heat source.
f. Diffusion – This method of treatment is only associated with freshly felled green timber
which, at the saw mills, is immersed in a water-borne preservative (usually boron salts) and
then close-piled and placed under cover until the preservative has diffused into the wood.
The type of water-borne preservative used in this process is liable to leach out from the
wood, which makes the timber unsuitable in wet locations unless an impervious surface
treatment is given, i.e. paint or varnish.

Flame-Retardant Treatments
By impregnating the timber with a solution of various salts, other chemicals, or coating its
surface with special paints, it is possible to reduce the rate at which a flame would normally spread
over its surface. Timber impregnated with flame-retarding salts is not normally suited to exterior
use, because the salts are liable to leach out. Strength properties of timber will be reduced as a
result of this treatment. By using a special process, leaching can be avoided and strength properties
of the timber remain unaltered.

Paints & varnishes

Some paints and varnishes are ‘intumescent’ – they swell when subjected to heat and
protect the wood by forming an insulating layer over the surface of the timber. Others give off a
gas which protects against flaming