Chapter 7.

URBAN TRANSPORT

I. Introduction

1. People living in Metro Manila increasingly face traffic congestion, polluted air, unsafe
roads and vehicles, the absence of parks, sidewalks, and open spaces, and the realities of
more cars and motorcycles in the future. For these urban dwellers, costly delays, accidents,
and the health effects of pollution make city living a great burden. The cost of vehicle
congestion alone was estimated at about 100 billion pesos annually in 19961 or close to 5%
of the gross domestic product. The World Bank 2 noted in its review of the Philippine
infrastructure sector that the high levels of congestion, poor condition of parts of the road
network, inadequate connectivity for inter-city or inter-regional movement, and the lack of
sustainable road safety strategy had reduced the efficiency of the road sector in promoting
economic growth and providing safe access in the country.

2. Many cities in the Philippines are on the threshold of full urbanization and
motorization. In the last decade, many municipalities, mainly the capital towns of provinces,
have attained cityhood status despite their having agriculture as the principal economic base.
These cities include Tuguegarao, Sorsogon, Silay, Bago, Dapitan, Koronadal, Tacurong, and
Koronadal, to name a few. The price of economic growth includes the double-digit increase
in the number of motorcycles and tricycles, a new development occurring in most Philippine
cities, and associated problems of congestion and air and noise pollution. Transport
decisions taken now will affect how people will live in these cities in the future. Paradigms
have to shift from a focus mainly on vehicle transport to a focus on urban transport in a city
for people.

3. As an active member of the United Nations, the Philippines has committed to fully
implement the Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements and Habitat Agenda,3 notably the
transport system priorities to be accorded to “reducing unnecessary travel through
appropriate land-use and communication policies, developing transport policies that
emphasize mobility alternatives other than the automobile, developing alternative fuels and
alternative-fuel vehicles, improving the environmental performance of existing modes of
transport, and adopting appropriate pricing and other policies and regulations.”

4. The current focus on transport and the environment further strengthens the resolve to
pursue the country’s commitments to Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). While the
MDGs can best be achieved through a comprehensive multi-sector approach ranging from
health and education to political and economic reforms, the role of transport is important.
The mobility of people and of goods is a vital fabric of social, cultural, institutional, and
economic activities.

5. This review of the urban transport performance of key cities in the country aims to
assess the gaps and obstacles in the efficient and sustainable functioning of these urban
areas, the consequences of business-as-usual transport and land-use policies and
measures, and the opportunities for further concerted action to overcome these obstacles.

6. For purposes of this review, 65 cities were considered to provide representative

insights on the current situation and prospects of 117 cities in the Philippines. The list of

1
Metro Manila Urban Transport Integration Study, Final Report, JICA, 1999.
2
Philippines: Meeting Infrastructure Challenges, World Bank, 2005.
3
Report of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), Istanbul, 3-14 June 1996.

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these cities was taken from the continuing Philippine Cities Competitive Ranking Project4
(PCCRP) of the Policy Center of the Asian Institute of Management. The PCCRP is an
annual assessment of the capacity of cities to provide an environment that nurtures the
dynamism of their local enterprises and industries and to uplift the living standards of their
respective residents. An urban transport database of these 65 cities has been generated
through recent transport and urban studies and the research, including comprehensive land
use plans, posted on the web sites of local government units.

II. Current Trends in Urban Transport

A. Urbanization and Motorization

7. Asia holds 61% of the global population. The region’s share of the global urban
population has risen from 9% in 1920 to 48% in 2000, and it expected to increase to 53% by
2030. For the Philippines, the rate of urbanization is estimated at 3% annually. As of 2005,
Philippine urban population reached nearly 50% of the total—higher than Malaysia,
Indonesia, or Thailand. Metro Manila dominates the country’s urban scene, with a population
of 10.8 million within its 636-square-kilometer boundary, plus about seven million more in
adjoining areas within its urban sphere. Of the 16 highly urbanized cities (HUCs), 11 were
classified as entirely urban. These were the HUCs in Luzon and the Visayas and three
HUCs in Mindanao, namely, the cities of Cagayan de Oro, Marawi, and Cotabato (Table 7.1).
The HUCs that were not entirely urban were the cities of Zamboanga, Iligan, Davao, General
Santos, and Butuan, which are all in Mindanao.

Table 7.1 Highly Urbanized Cities, 2000

Highly Urbanized Cities Entirely Urban Not Entirely Urban
Luzon
Baguio City 9
Angeles City 9
Olongapo City 9
Lucena City 9
Visayas
Iloilo City 9
Bacolod City 9
Cebu City 9
Mandaue City 9
Mindanao
Zamboanga City 9
Cagayan de Oro City 9
Iligan City 9
Davao City 9
Marawi City 9
Cotabato City 9
General Santos City 9
Butuan City 9
Source: NSO, 2000 Census of Population and Housing

4
PCCRP started in 1999 with 10 cities. It categorizes cities into small-sized cities (with a population below
200,000 people), medium-sized and non-metropolitan cities (with a population at least 200,000 people), and
metropolitan cities (part of either Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, or Metro Davao).

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8. In terms of vehicle population, 31.2% of the 5.1 million total motor vehicles was
registered in the cities and municipalities of Metro Manila in 2005, not including close to 1.4
million vehicles from CALABARZON and Region III which mainly operate daily within the
metropolis. Table 7.2 presents the number of registered vehicles in the Philippines by region.

Table 7.2 Vehicle Registration by Region, 2000 and 2005

Average
Region 2000 2005
Annual Growth, %
I 194,635 268,697 6.7
II 124,049 178,501 7.5
III 438,742 628,086 7.4
IV 487,648 710,084 7.8
V 96,001 151,755 9.6
VI 200,019 276,458 6.7
VII 297,646 400,384 6.1
VIII 69,515 105,875 8.8
IX 89,842 148,698 10.6
X 83,902 137,791 10.4
XI 182,870 189,621 0.7
XII 66,586 164,794 19.9
Metro Manila 1,286,176 1,580,753 4.2
C.A.R. 47,213 63,921 6.2
CARAGA 36,329 54,335 8.4
Total 3,701,173 5,059,753 6.5
Source: Land Transportation Office

8. Appendix 7.1 illustrates the wide variety of Philippine cities that have collected
common urban transport indicators. The cities range in size from San Fernando, La Union,
the smallest city with a land area of 10.2 km2, to Puerto Princesa City, the largest city with an
area of 2,540 km2. In terms of both land area coverage and population, Davao City is the
largest city in the Philippines. Along with Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga, Davao City is
one of three cities included in the analysis which has a land area of more than 1,000 km2.
The average land area of cities which have common urban transport indicators is 303 km2
and the mean population density is 94 per km2.

9. The level of motorization of the 65 cities is more than double the national average of
50 vehicles per 1,000 population. Tagaytay City has the highest vehicle density at 687
vehicles per 1,000 population, while Marawi City has the lowest vehicle density at 5.3
vehicles per 1,000 population.

B. Road Transport Situation

10. The transport network system in most cities in the Philippines, including the
metropolitan regions, is road-based and characterized by the historic period they were
developed. Most local cities, such as Vigan, Cotabato, and Tacloban, still have the 19th
century Spanish road network pattern (Box 7.1). In this pattern, the road network at the
poblacion (town center) is narrow and the building structures are close to the streets. On the
other hand, cities like General Santos have new developments in road transport, e.g. wider
roads at city centers and dispersal of urban developments. Despite this observation, traffic

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congestion and other urban transport and traffic problems are present in these urban centers.

Box 7.1 Vigan Town Planning

Strategically located at the mouth of the Abra River along the northwestern coast of Luzon, Vigan was
an important coastal trading port from the pre-colonial era to the 19th century. The town plan is
representative of the style the Spanish colonizers had designed and established in the 18th century. It
conforms to the Law of the Indies that specified the lay-out of structures, street patterns, and open
spaces of all new settlements during the Spanish era in a grid street pattern radiating from a central
plaza.

Dominating the central plaza (Plaza Salcedo) are the administrative and religious buildings: the Casa
Real (Provincial Administrative Office), the Municipio (Municipal Hall), the Seminario (Archdiocesan
Seminary), the Colegio de Niñas (now St. Paul’s College), the Arzobispado (Archbishop’s Palace), and
the Cathedral (St. Paul’s Cathedral) with its detached belfry.
Source: Vigan City website (www.vigancity.gov.ph)

11. Thus far, there are three major metropolitan areas in the country: Metro Manila,
Metro Cebu, and Metro Davao. Of these three, only Metro Manila has a formalized
institutional organization, the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA). The other
metropolitan areas can still be considered more of having metropolitan arrangements among
the urban centers. The recent Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) study on
regional growth centers5 noted the emergence of Metro Bacolod, Iloilo, and Cagayan de Oro.
Table 7.3 shows the coverage of these new metropolitan areas.

Table 7.3 Emerging Metropolitan Areas

Metropolitan Cities and Towns Covered Total Land Vehicles per
Area Area, km2 1,000 People
Bacolod Victorias City and municipalities of Enrique 1,530.7 34.9
Magalona, Pulupandan, and Murcia in the
province of Negros Occidental
Iloilo Iloilo City and municipalities of Leganes, 460.9 50.4
Zarraga, Sta. Barbara, Pavia, Oton, San Miguel,
and Cabatnan, in the province of Iloilo
Cagayan de Cagayan de Oro City and the municipalities of 1,121.0 32.6
Oro Gitagum, Laguindingan, Alubijid, El Salvador,
Opol, Tagoloan, Villanueva, and Jasaan in the
province of Misamis Oriental
Source: JICA Study on Road Network Improvement for the Development of Regional Growth Centers

12. Based on Appendix 7.1, which shows comparative data on road infrastructure,
metropolitan cities have road densities greater than the national average of 0.7 km of roads

5
Study on Road Network Improvement for the Development of Regional Growth Centers, Final Report, JICA,
October 2004.

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per km2 of land area and paved road ratios ranging from 60% (Davao City) to 100% (Metro
Manila cities). For small to medium-sized cities, those traversed by the national trunkline
roads, such as the cities of Tarlac, Calamba, Cotabato, Ozamiz, Panabo, among others,
have similar road densities as metropolitan cities, with most roads having concrete or
asphalt pavements.

13. Most urban centers in the country already experience varying levels of traffic
congestion and other transport and traffic problems. The carrying capacities of the road
network in urban centers, notably at the city centers or Central Business Districts (CBDs)
cannot cope with the increasing volume of vehicles using the network. For instance,
Calamba has heavy traffic congestion at the national highway crossings and at market areas.
Tagbilaran has road traffic problems in the CBD, which led to its decision to establish a
satellite growth area in Barangay Dampas where the public market and the integrated bus
terminal were transferred. An analysis of Baguio City CBD peak hour traffic showed that
2,500 jeepneys converge daily in the city center, where the capacity of the seven main
thoroughfares has a combined total of only 581 jeepneys. Metro Cebu shares the same
transport and traffic problems of Metro Manila cities. Major sections of Metro Cebu, like
markets, schools, and business districts, are prone to traffic congestion. A number of cities
have stringent regulation on the use of tricycles, noting their surfacing as principal causes of
congestion because of their sheer number and extent of operation. For the emerging
metropolitan areas (Box 7.2), the increasing inter-city vehicle traffic creates another
dimension to the worsening traffic situation.

14. The condition of the urban center’s road network likewise reflects the level of service
of the overall urban transport system. Deteriorating conditions and lack of proper
maintenance further reduce the efficiency of the road network, resulting in longer travel times
and worsening traffic congestion. Similarly, an ineffective and outdated drainage system
contributes to the situation especially during the rainy season, resulting in flash floods which
have become normal occurrences in urban areas, particularly in Metro Manila cities.

C. Public Transport Situation

1. Public Transport Modes

15. The Philippines is home to many variants of urban public transport modes. Some of
the more conventional forms such as buses and urban railways are in use mainly within
Metro Manila and its surrounding areas. However, the jeepney dominates as public transport
mode in Metro Manila, as well as in many of the larger cities in the Philippines.

16. Other public utility vehicles include taxis, FX 6 , vans, multicab 7 , tricycles 8 , other
localized transport such as “kuliglig” (i.e., a cart pulled by small tractor), and “skylab/habal-
habal” (i.e., motorcycles which use extensions to allow more than one passenger to ride).
Non-motorized versions include the “trisikad,” is a pedal-powered tricycle.

6
An “FX” uses the type known as Asian Utility Vehicle (AUV) which usually has a basic capacity of ten or fewer
passengers, is arranged more like an automobile, but with short row seats at a hatched compartment.
7
A “multicab” has a jeepney-like arrangement but seats only twelve passengers. Its fare usually follows the
jeepney fare system.
8
A “tricycle” is a motorcycle with an attached, covered sidecar. Passengers may sit either behind the driver or in
the sidecar.

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 Box 7.2 Metro Iloilo Road Network Issues

The urbanized areas of the towns of Oton, Pavia, and Leganes are formed at a 10-km radius from the
Iloilo City proper. On the other hand, the towns of San Miguel, Sta. Barbara, and Zarraga are at a 15-
km radius, while Cabatuan is at a 23-km radius. Due to the lack of circumferential roads, trips
between these town propers (such as Oton to Pavia or vice versa) have to pass through Iloilo City.
Among inter-city roads, the Iloilo-Roxas Road carries the heaviest traffic, followed by Iloilo-Sta.
Barbara-Kalibo Road and Iloilo-Antique Road. When the airport is transferred to the Cabatuan/Sta.
Barbara site, the Iloilo-Sta. Barbara Road will carry the heaviest vehicle traffic volumes.

A mesh-type road network is formed within the Iloilo City proper. The sides of its roads have been
densely built-up, making the widening of existing roads or the construction of new roads difficult. In
the future, heavy traffic will be concentrated on roads not only inside Iloilo City but also within the 10-
km radius of Oton, Pavia, Leganes, and Iloilo City.

Inside Iloilo City, all radial roads will exceed their traffic capacity. Most roads have only a slight
possibility of being widened. Inside the Iloilo City proper, most roads, except the four-lane divided
roads, will exceed their road capacities. However, further widening of such roads is deemed difficult.

17. The rise of the tricycle as a principal mode of transport in most Philippines cities has
been attributed in part to their low capital and operating costs, which attracted investments
from overseas workers. Overall, motorcycles and tricycles comprised about 43% of all motor
vehicles in 2005. The phenomenal increase in the use of motorcycles and tricycles is more
pronounced in small and medium-sized cities, except Baguio City. In the country, where the
share of motorcycles and tricycles range from 22% (in San Fernando, Pampanga) to 80% of
the motor vehicle registrations (in Dipolog). Besides Dipolog, Sorsogon, Puerto Princesa,
Koronadal, Ozamiz, Pagadian, and Tagum have motorcycle/tricycle populations of more
than 70%. Box 7.3 presents the tricycle experience in Puerto Princesa.

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 2. Urban Rail Systems

18. So far, only Metro Manila has a network of rail-based mass transit systems that
augments the road network system in meeting the traffic demand in the metropolis. Three
mass transit systems are now operational and four more are in the planning stage or already
in the pipeline. The three mass transit systems in operation are the following:
• LRT Line 1 from Monumento in Caloocan City to Baclaran in Pasay City;
• LRT Line 2 from Santolan in Marikina to CM Recto in the City of Manila; and
• MRT Line 3 from North Avenue in Quezon City to EDSA in Pasay City.

Box 7.3 The Tricycles of Puerto Princesa

Puerto Princesa covers 253,982 hectares of land, making it the country’s largest city. It is located 306
nautical miles southwest of Manila and stretches 106 kilometers long with its narrowest breadth in
Bahile, where only 8.5 kilometers of land separate the east and the west coasts. Settled areas are
highly dispersed, while heaviest concentration exists on the east coast, where the city proper and the
urban growth point area lie close to each other.

The population increase in Puerto Princesa led to an increasing demand for mobility during the past
years. Except for year 2003, the volume of tricycles increased exponentially since 2000, with about
70% of the registered tricycles in Palawan located in Puerto Princesa City. In 2001, the tricycle
population increased dramatically. By 2003, the tricycle population had ballooned to more than 3,000
tricycles and traffic congestion was bad. In 2005, about 4,000 tricycles served commuters within the
poblacion and adjacent barangays while about 230 passenger multicabs plied their assigned routes
within the city proper and adjoining barangays and municipalities.

The 2005 ADB tricycle air and noise pollution study9 conducted a survey in Puerto Princesa City in
April 2004. The study established the population’s high dependence on tricycles as a means of public
transportation. About 58% of the total respondents are regular tricycle commuters who take at least
two rides daily. Moreover, tourists prefer taking the tricycle to go around the city because of the
convenience and comfort it offers. For transporting passengers and cargoes to distant destinations,
jeepneys and buses provide the required services.

Despite the health and environmental hazards that tricycles bring, the ADB study found that the city
continues to experience increases in tricycle population due to high unemployment and absence of
alternative livelihood, a limited road network, and an increase in the commuting population. To relieve
congestion, Mayor Edward Hagedorn implemented a number-coding system which later became a
color-coding scheme for the tricycles. Under this scheme, tricycles colored blue and white plied the
city streets on alternating days. This scheme effectively halved the number of tricycles plying the city
streets and reduced air and noise pollution.

19. Rail-based mass transit systems are also being studied by other major urban centers
like Metro Cebu and Metro Davao. Even regional cities, such as Cagayan de Oro, are also
clamoring for mass transit systems to address their urban transport and traffic problems.
There are groups proposing the development of busway systems in Metro Manila and in the
other major urban centers of the country. At present, a feasibility study of the development of
the busway system in Metro Manila is being undertaken. The Jakarta experience in busway
systems can serve as a model for Metro Manila.

3. Urban Public Transport Operation

20. With the exception of the LRT and MRT in Metro Manila, most investments in public
transport are on a small scale, with some operators having only a handful of vehicles. While
operators try to choose their routes based on their own perception of profitability, a franchise

9
Air and Noise Pollution Reduction from Tricycles: A Strategic Plan for Quezon City and Puerto Princesa City,
Philippines, Asian Development Bank, 2005.

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which describes the allowed route, service area, and other service characteristics must first
be granted by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).

21. The government provides neither operational subsidies nor incentives (e.g., tax
deductions) to would-be public transport providers. In contrast, rail transport is heavily
subsidized and incurs an estimated P4.2 billion per year. However, it should be noted that
that fares collected for LRT 1 and 2 and MRT 3 more than cover operating costs, although
not capital expenditures.
22. Fare structures for road-based public transport modes are regulated by the LTFRB,
while tricycle fares and operations fall under the jurisdiction of the LGU. Despite these
challenges, public transport operators manage to operate by reducing expenditures on
maintenance10 and by operating longer hours.

23. Table 7.4 shows a comparison of the fare rates of various public transport modes for
Metro Manila. The rates for buses, jeepneys, and taxis may be lower in other areas.

Table 7.4 Fare Rates in Metro Manila

Per Type of Passenger
Types of Public Transport Per Distance Travelled
Regular Student
First four km P 3.00 P 2.50
Ordinary bus
Per km if more than four km P 0.50 P 0.43
First four km P 4.75 P 3.80
Jeepney
Per km if more than five km P 0.60 P 0.50
Flagdown (first 500 meters) P 25.00
Taxi Every succeeding 300 meters P 2.00
Waiting time P 2.00/minute
From North Avenue – Taft P 9.00 plus P 0.50 for every
MRT 3 (EDSA) Avenue station, children below 3 ft are
free of charge
From Monumento – Baclaran P 12.00 for 8 stations or less
P 15.00 for more than 8
stations
LRT 1 (Taft-Rizal Line)
Except: Senior citizens and
the disabled. Children below 3
ft are free of charge
From Santolan - Legarda P 12.00 for 1 – 3 stations
P 13.00 for 4 – 6 stations
LRT 2 (Aurora Line)
P 14.00 for 7 – 9 stations
P 15.00 for 10 stations
Source: LTFRB Data, LRTA Data and MRT Data

4. Inter-Urban Passenger Transport

24. Inter-urban passenger bus transport is often referred to as “provincial buses.”

However, in many cases, jeepneys also ply routes between cities. The availability of either
kind of transport depends on the economic conditions of the region where it is found. Inter-
urban public transport is served by jeepneys and buses, rather than the other public
transport modes, because of their higher speeds and carrying capacities. Jeepney fares tend
to be cheaper due to the lower level of comfort and speed.

10
See Bayan, J.M. (1995), Cost Characteristics of Bus and Jeepney Transport Systems in Metro Manila,
Master’s Degree Thesis, University of the Philippines School of Urban and Regional Planning.

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 5. Non-Motorized Transport

25. The development of bikeways is another transport initiative being considered by

some cities. With the assistance of the World Bank (WB) and Global Environment Facility
(GEF), Marikina City was able to construct its system of bikeways. Other cities in Metro
Manila, such as Quezon City and Makati, have already prepared their plans for establishing
their bikeway routes. Quezon City had piloted this in one of their districts and Makati has
already identified an area for this purpose. Davao City in Mindanao is planning to develop its
own bikeway system.

6. Public Transport Terminals

26. Many small terminals exist as dispatch areas for either inter-urban or intra-urban
public transport modes. Reflecting the fact that most operators are small and have a few
vehicles under their management, the dispatch of the vehicles from terminals follows a first-
in, first-out (FIFO) arrangement. The terminal operation usually consists of staging ground,
usually an empty lot with minimal improvements, and staff that includes dispatchers and
collectors. These dispatchers serve various and independent operators by overseeing the
FIFO dispatch and thus reducing the chance of some operators cutting into the queue.
Jeepneys and tricycle operators often avail of this kind of set-up to facilitate their operations.

27. Many cities have built large public transport terminals to relieve CBD traffic
congestion and to integrate several public transport service types and allow for smoother
transfers, such as between inter-urban with intra-urban. When public transport terminals are
built outside the central areas of cities, the objective is often traffic decongestion.

28. Many Philippine cities have embraced the integrated bus terminal as a component of
urban development strategies and programs. Many cities, kargely aided by donor countries
and agencies, have availed of funding support for the construction and management of
integrated bus and jeepney terminals. Generally, the series of Municipal Development
Projects (MDP) in the Philippines showcase a number of "success and best practice
initiatives" in different fields, notably urban infrastructure, local finance, central-local
partnership, local autonomy, economic development, an integrated approach to project
development, and capacity building.

29. The World Bank-assisted Regional Cities Development Projec—the first major urban
intervention outside of Metro Manila covering the country’s largest regional centers, i.e.,
Bacolod, Cagayan de Oro, Davao, and Iloilo—started in 1983. RCDP consists of the
following interrelated components: sanitation and drainage, municipal enterprises, shelter,
livelihood pilot project, urban transport, and technical assistance and training. The US$27.6-
million transport component involves the upgrading and construction of city streets,
improvement of road maintenance capability, limited traffic engineering measures, and
construction of bus terminals. The Cagayan de Oro Agora Market and Bus Terminal and the
Davao City Overland Transport Terminal were constructed using RCDP funds.

30. Under phase one of the Municipal Development Project (MDP), World Bank provided
another US$ 36 million assistance for the development of basic infrastructure and services in
secondary cities and municipalities of the country areas and for the strengthening of local
technical and financial capacity for project implementation and service management. The
infrastructure component includes the improvements to sanitation, drainage, slum areas,
solid waste management, roads, traffic management, and bus terminals and the upgrading
of markets and slaughterhouses. Among the most successful MDP projects are:
• the public market projects in the municipalities of Bauan, Batangas, and Pulilan
(all in Bulacan) and in the cities of Marikina, Tagum, Davao, Bogo, Cebu, and
Palawan

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 • the integrated bus and jeepney terminal projects in the cities of Tacloban, Naga,
and Surigao and Butuan
• the school building projects in the municipalities of Bauan and Mabini, Batangas
and San Pablo City, Laguna
• the health center projects in San Jose City, Nueva Ecija and the municipality of
Balanga, Bataan

31. With Japanese funding, the Cebu South Bus Terminal was completed in 1992. The
number of bus services has increased from 250 departures per day in 1993 to 335
departures per day in 2001. The shop occupancy rate in the terminal building, which was 50
in 1993, has grown to 95 in 2001. About 15,000 people per day use the shops. The
development of the terminal has resulted in increased passenger comfort and safety and has
contributed to improved convenience by enhancing connections with buses, taxis, and
jeepneys.

32. Tables 7.5 to 7.7 present the status of city bus terminal projects in Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao, respectively.

Table 7.5 Integrated Bus Terminals in Luzon

Bus Terminal
City/Town Owner/Operator Terminal Details
Name
Laoag Laoag Central City-owned/operated • Land area of 3 ha.
Terminal • Cost of P33 million with DBP loan
• Operated since 2003
• Terminal fee of P35/bus
Cabanatuan Cabanatuan City-owned; private • Built using Land Bank loan of P27 million
Central Transport sector operation and operated in 1995
Terminal (GROGUN, Inc.) under a • Terminal fees of P120/bus and P60/mini-
25-year lease-operate bus
agreement in March 2003 • By July 2005, terminal fees will be raised
to P160/bus and P75/mini-bus
Lucena Lucena Grand City-owned; private • 6-ha land of the city
Central Terminal sector operation under a • 100-bus capacity terminal
25-year lease-operate
agreement
Puerto Puerto Princesa City-owned/operated • Completed in 2000 at the cost of P26.4
Princesa Bus and Jeepney million
Terminal • 8,000 sq m terminal for 14 buses, 25
jeepneys and 30 vehicle parking
Naga Naga Central Bus City-owned; private • Built on donated 2-ha. lot at the
Terminal sector operation under a privately-developed CBD II area and
3-year lease- currently serving 800 buses daily
management agreement, • Project cost of P48 million partly funded
renewable by another 3 from World Bank-assisted Municipal
years Development Project, Phase 1
• Facilities included 41 commercial
spaces; terminal fee set at a maximum
of P350/bus departure
Metro Manila Proposed Northern Unsolicited BOO project • Located 11.7 ha land owned by Phil-Ville
Intermodal (financing, construction, Devt & Housing Corp.
Transport Terminal operation and • 5-level structure with total floor area of
Complex maintenance under 25- 66,450 sqm at cost of P969 million
year concession period) • NEDA ICC first pass approval of project
with private consortium last October 2004, including terminal
fees of P100 for buses, vehicle parking
fees and office rental

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 Table 7.6 Integrated Bus Terminals in the Visayas

Bus Terminal
City/Town Owner/Operator Terminal Details
Name
Metro Cebu South Bus Province-owned/ • 40 bus loading bays and parking
Cebu Terminal Operated space for 50 vehicles on 1.2 ha
land
• Costing P442 million with OECF
loan
• Operational since 2003
• Terminal fee of P40/bus departure
• Net annual income of about P10
million
Tacloban Tacloban Integrated City-owned; • Built using WB-MDP loan and
Bus Terminal Private sector completed in 1993
operation (Far East • New P300 million bus terminal cum
Marketing) commercial complex proposed by
City officials through bond market
Bayawan New Bayawan City-owned/operated • Construction on-going on 3 ha land
Integrated Bus • Cost of P31 million through Land
Terminal and Bank and EDF-LGU loan
Farmer’s Market

Table 7.7 Integrated Bus Terminals in Mindanao

Bus Terminal
City/Town Owner/Operator Terminal Details
Name
Cagayan Cagayan de Oro City-owned/operated • Funded under RCDP loan from
de Oro Agora Integrated World Bank
Bus Terminal
Iligan Iligan Integrated Bus City-owned/operated • 5-ha land area located 2 km from
and Jeepney the city center
Terminal • Funded through ADB-assisted
Philippine Regional Municipal
Development Project
• Completed in 2002
Butuan Butuan Integrated City-owned/operated • Funded under MDP Phase 1 from
Bus and Jeepney World Bank, with jeepney terminal
Terminal later constructed with loan from
MDP Phase 3
Surigao Surigao Integrated City-owned/operated • Funded under MDP Phase 3 from
Bus and Jeepney the World Bank
Terminal
Ozamiz Ozamiz Integrated City-owned/operated • Funded by USAID
Bus and Jeepney
Terminal and Public
Market
Panabo New Panabo City-owned/operated • Project cost of P38 million, funded
Integrated Bus and by ADB-assisted Mindanao Basic
Jeepney Terminal Urban Services Sector Project
Tagum Tagum Integrated City-owned/operated • Funded by USAID
Bus and Jeepney
Terminal
General New General Santos Proposed for BOO • Proposed construction on 3-ha city
Santos Integrated Bus implementation with land
Terminal and private sector • Project cost of P150 million
Commercial • For BOO bidding
Complex

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D. Ports and Airports

1. Location in Major Urban Centers

33. The Philippines stretches over 1,850 km north to south and 1,100 km east to west
and consists of 7,107 islands. Given these geographical conditions, sea and air
transportation services play critical roles for the efficient movement of passengers and goods
in the country and for the connection of widely distributed areas needed to support the socio-
economic development of the entire archipelago.

34. Seaports and airports are indispensable transport infrastructure for an archipelagic
country like the Philippines. More than being simply intersections of different transportation
modes, they are primarily the bases for supporting socio-economic activities. Port-related
and other industries gravitate around ports. Ports in remote areas likewise play a vital role in
supporting the daily lives of the community. Lastly, ports can act as catalysts in promoting
the exchange of people and goods between wealthy urban areas and developing regional
areas.

35. Given the development of coastal towns into port cities in the country, the location
and efficient management of passenger, cargo, and vehicle flows to and from port areas
have much impact on the functioning of Philippine cities. Moreover, a number of major
airports are located within city centers and their presence impose restrictions on land use
development and serve as key generators of vehicle traffic.

2. Traffic and Environmental Impacts

36. Ninety percent of international container cargo flows in and out the ports in Manila.
Some of this cargo is transported to or from other areas as domestic container cargo. This
concentration of transport demand has created serious traffic congestion in Manila. The
JICA 2004 national port study 11 proposed to develop international gateway ports outside
Manila, which would allow shippers to import or export from or to foreign countries directly
from their areas. In addition, it proposed that the expansion of existing ports in Manila be
avoided and, instead, that ports in Subic and Batangas be developed to handle cargo,
especially international container cargo.

37. The ADB intermodal transport study12 for Mindanao and Palawan noted that heavy
localized traffic congestion occurs within the access road junctions of principal ports and
airports in Mindanao, requiring a geometric re-design of the intersections and road widening.
New airport access roads were recommended,s particularly for the Puerto Princesa and
Cotabato Airports, to improve vehicle movements. Moreover, traffic engineering and
management measures have been proposed to minimize the local congestion immediately
outside the port and airport sites.

38. Ports and airports also have potential environmental impact. The construction of
airports and seaports may disrupt the existing natural and social balance of the immediate
area, potentially causing changes in land use, changes to the social dynamics of the
population, and living conditions and health. Apart from these changes, potential
environmental impacts may occur temporarily during construction and also during the
operational period of the project.

11
Study on the Master Plan for the Strategic Development of the National Port System in the Philippines, Final
Report, JICA, January 2004.
12
Intermodal Transport Development Project for Southern Philippines, Final Report, ADB, September 2006.

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39. According to the JICA national airport study, 13 there are six airports with claims
received from surrounding communities concerning aircraft noise. The claims are against the
Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA), the Zamboanga International Airport. and four
secondary airports. Twenty five percent of both international airports have noise complaints
since the international airports are located in the urban area with much air traffic everyday.
However, due to the small number of aircraft noise complaints, only two airports—NAIA and
Puerto Princesa—have taken measures to lessen the noise. There are no airports that have
budgets to buy monitoring equipment for measuring aircraft noise.

E. Traffic Safety

40. Road safety has become a critical issue in the Philippines. Directly, road accidents
cause loss of life, personal injuries, and property damages. Indirectly, they affect the
efficiency and performance of the country’s road network and the quality of life of all
residents. With previously experienced high economic growth and the continued increase in
vehicle registration and their use on the road network, road fatality indices are growing in the
Philippines compared to other countries in the ASEAN region (Table 7.8).

Table 7.8 ASEAN Road Fatality Indices, 1993 and 2000

Population Motor Vehicles Fatal Fatality Indices

Country (‘000) (‘000) Accidents Risk a Rate b
1993 2000 1993 2000 1993 2000 1993 2000 1993 2000
Brunei 261 342 132 213 47 41 18.0 12.0 3.6 1.9
Cambodia 9,460 12,014 165 332 95 401 1.0 3.3 5.8 12.1
Indonesia 192,220 210,490 11,373 18,224 11,000 10,000 5.7 4.8 9.7 5.5
Lao PDR 4,470 5,250 105 193 166 358 3.7 6.8 15.8 18.5
Malaysia 19,050 23,200 6,712 10,599 4,666 6,029 24.5 26.0 7.0 5.7
Myanmar 43,120 48,124 247 423 613 1,021 1.4 2.1 24.8 24.1
Philippines 67,000 78,400 2,103 3,701 2,621 3,040 3.9 3.9 12.5 8.2
Singapore 2,873 4,020 559 684 258 214 9.0 5.3 4.6 3.1
Thailand 58,336 61,880 11,242 20,836 9,496 11,988 16.3 19.4 8.4 5.8
Vietnam 69,210 77,690 2,720 6,966 4,350 7,500 6.3 9.7 16.0 10.8
Total 466,000 521,410 35,358 62,171 33,312 40,592 7.1 7.8 9.4 6.5
Japan 124,764 126,926 78,682 79,661 10,942 9,066 8.8 7.1 1.4 1.1
United
Kingdom 57,700 58,655 24,826 29,521 3,814 3,580 6.6 6.1 1.5 1.2
United
States 258,119 275,372 192,497 225,821 36,254 37,526 14.0 13.6 1.9 1.7
a
Notes: Fatality risk - fatal accidents per 100,000 population
b
Fatality rate - fatal accidents per 10,000 motor vehicles

41. Traffic accident statistics in the Philippines are recorded by road location and
summarized on a regional basis. For LGUs, only Metro Manila has a comprehensive
database on traffic accidents under the Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis
System (MMARAS). The main source of information on road accidents is the Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH) Traffic Accident Reporting and Analysis System, which
is limited in scope to national roads.

42. In the Department of Health’s (DOH) 2000 report, DOH stated that traffic accidents
ranked sixth as the major cause of deaths (after heart disorders, tuberculosis, pneumonia,
celebro-vascular diseases, chronic lower respiratory diseases, and malignant neoplasm of

13
Master Study on the Strategy for the Improvement of National Airports in the Philippines, Final Report, JICA,
March 2006.

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the lung). DOH estimated that 5,680 deaths resulted from road accidents in 2000. In 2003,
the Philippine National Injury Survey cited vehicular accidents as the leading cause of
injuries from all forms of accidents (including falls, injury by sharp objects, being struck by an
object, animal/insect bites, burn, assault, machine/tool injury, electrocution, and self-harm).
More importantly, the survey reported that about 9,000 deaths were caused by traffic
accidents in 2003.

F. Vehicle Emissions

43. Vehicular emissions are among the major concerns of air pollution in Asian cities.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 12 of the 15 cities with the highest
levels of particulate matters and 6 of the 15 cities with the highest levels of sulfur dioxide are
located in Asia. Vehicular emissions are predominantly severe in the Philippines

44. The Philippine Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1999 provides that in-use, new, rebuilt, and
imported second-hand motor vehicles were required to comply with the emission standards
prior to registration starting January 2003. Motor vehicles introduced in the market beginning
January 2003 were required to comply with the emission standards equivalent to Euro 1.
The passage of the bill has resulted in the phase-out of leaded petroleum products
nationwide by the end of year 2000.

45. The air pollutants typically emitted by motor vehicles follow:

• Concentrations of total suspended particles (TSP) and particulate matters PM10 and
PM2.5 remain suspended in the air for hours or days and can travel significant distances
from the source. These particles enter the respiratory tract and reach deep into the lungs.

• Carbon monoxide (CO) is emitted when there is incomplete combustion. CO enters the
blood stream by combining with hemoglobin, the substance that carries oxygen to the
cells. CO adversely impacts health in many ways by causing people to feel tired and
drowsy and have shortness of breath and by causing chest pain in people with heart
disease.

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are formed during combustion as nitrogen in the air
reacts with oxygen at high temperature. Nitric Oxide and nitrogen dioxide are
the two most critical types. NOx is a precursor to acid rain, which may affect
both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

46. About 43% of total vehicular population in the Philippines is made up of two- and
three-wheelers, which are popular transport modes in both urban and rural areas. A study
commissioned by ADB to look into tricycles focused on two urban cities, Quezon City and
Puerto Princesa (refer to Box 7.3). Quezon City registered the highest population of tricycles
in the country with 20,316 units in 2003. In Puerto Princesa City, the 2,824 tricycle units
plying the city proper account for about 153 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions. These
tricycles are major causes of air and noise pollution, traffic congestion, and accidents.

47. In the ADB study, based on the tailpipe noise level measurement of April 2004, all
tricycles tested under running condition make noise that exceeds the maximum permissible
environment noise level for motorcycles of 77 dB set under ECE Regulation 41. Tricycles
with two-stroke engines produce noise levels ranging from 83-87 dB and 90-97 dB, while
that of four-stroke engines ranges from 78-86 dB and 82-91 dB in Quezon City and Puerto
Princesa City, respectively. In terms of engine age, tricycles aged above 15 years contribute
the most to noise pollution. For roadside conditions, noise levels are measured in areas
where tricycles predominate. In Quezon City, the average noise level was registered at 88

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dB. In Puerto Princesa City, it was at 74 dB. The measured levels in both cities are above
the local permissible standard of 70 dB for commercial areas.

48. Tricycles are also perceived to be more accident-prone than four-wheeled vehicles
due to the instability of the sidecar attached to the motorcycles, which serve as passengers'
seat, and the obstruction it brings as its height usually exceeds the driver's line of sight. The
ADB tricycle passenger survey in April 2004 showed that, in Quezon City, about 37% of the
respondents claimed that tricycles are not safe. Among the types of accidents encountered
are colliding with a fixed structure, a person, or another vehicle.

49. The League of Cities in the Philippines recently launched, through its Environmental
Unit, the Clean Air Management Program (CAMP) in Philippine cities with technical support
from the U.S. Agency for International Development. CAMP aims to replicate the successful
models of air quality management tried in San Fernando, La Union and Puerto Princesa City.
To date, CAMP preparation has been conducted in the cities of Mandaue and Calbayog. In
cooperation with Clean Air Initiative-Asia and the local affiliate, the Partnership for Clean Air,
further CAMP work in other cities is planned.

G. Urban Transport Governance

50. The Local Government Code of 1991 (RA 7160), which defines the governance of
local government units (LGUs), basically describes urban transport management at the local
level. Two new features of the code which are important in urban transport are the regulation
of tricycles as local means of public transport and the preparation of land use plans
formalized by zoning ordinances 14 . Pertinent laws and regulations in urban transport are
presented in Table 7.9. With respect to financing urban transport projects and programs, the
urban center or LGUs depend on their income, Internal Revenue Allotments (IRA) coming
from national taxes, loans from local and international financial institutions, or other financial
schemes such as bond flotation, public-private partnership, etc.

51. Based on the hierarchy of the road network, the local urban roads are managed and
maintained by the LGUs, while the national roads and highways are under the national
government through the Department of Public Works and Highways.

Table 7.9 Major Laws and Regulations in Urban Transport

Law Description
RA 7160 Local Government Code that defines the powers and responsibilities of 4
s1991 layers of sub-national government units
RA 7924 Revised charter of the Metro Manila Development Authority, which gave it
s1994 responsibilities for services (e.g., garbage and traffic) common to 17
LGUs in the national capital region, and delineated its relationships with
other national government agencies like DPWH and DOTC
CA 146 Public Service Act – CA 146 prescribes the framework which regulates
s1936 public services (including bus service, jeepney, toll roads, etc.), covers
fare regulation, quality of service, and the like, is the basis for requiring
franchises or Certificates of Public Convenience for public services
RA 8749 Clean Air Act, which provides the legal framework for addressing air
s1999 pollution throughout the country and, among others, stipulates annual
vehicle inspection and acceptable lead content in gasoline and sulphur
content in diesel
Source: Philippine Transport Sector Review: Urban Transport Study, World Bank, July 2005

14
Philippine Transport Sector Review: Urban Transport Study, World Bank, July 2005

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52. Likewise, at the national level, the Department of Transportation and
Communications (DOTC) coordinates the planning and execution of transport programs and
projects of regional or national importance. Table 7.10 summarizes the linkages of the LGUs
with the transport-related national line agencies in Metro Manila and other urban centers in
the country. At the regional level, coordination for regional impact transport programs and
projects are coursed through the Regional Development Councils (RDC) to which cities
belong.

Table 7.10 Transport Organizations and Their Responsibilities

Regulation Operation
Entity Policy / Other Remarks
Economic Technical
Functions
Road transport (infrastructure)
DPWH 9 9 9
TRB 9 9 9 Regulate toll roads
PNCC 9 Original franchisee of NLE
and SLE
LGUs 9 9 9 O&M of city roads
PEA 9 SOE that served as joint
venture partner in R-1
Expressway
MMDA 9 Reviews proposed
investments in its role
under a Regional Dev’t
Council
Coastal Road Corp. 9 Project company for the R-
1 Expressway
Private 9 Consulting & construction
firms
Transport service
DOTC 9 9
LTFRB 9
LTO 9 Also enforces transportation
& traffic laws
OTC 9 9 For transport cooperatives
only
Private 9 Common carriers
IMBOA, FEJODAP, 9 Transport industry
FTODAP, etc. associations
Traffic management
MMDA 9 9 9 9 Also serves as land use &
transportation coordinating
body
LGUs 9 9 9 9
Rail transport (infrastructure and service)
DOTC 9 9 9 9 Operates LRT 3
PNR 9 9 9 9 O&M for suburban rail
LRTA 9 9 9 9 O&M for LRT 1 and 2
MRTC Project company for LRT 3
Private 9 Consulting & construction
firms
Source: Philippine Transport Sector Review: Urban Transport Study, World Bank, July 2005

53. With respect to traffic management and other local urban transport functions,
depending on the size of the cities, levels of urbanization, and importance of traffic

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management, the cities have their own traffic management units or offices. Cities, like Davao
and Cebu, and most cities in Metro Manila have their distinct traffic management office or
board, though operating under the Office of the Mayor or adjunct to the latter with their own
plantilla of personnel and budgets. In Cebu, apart from CITOM and the local traffic
management unit, the city also has a Transport Management Commission. On the other
hand, Davao City has a Traffic Management Coordinating Board (TMCB), which includes
representatives from transport-related national line agencies and the private sector. In other
cities, traffic management is placed under the General Services Office or Public Order and
Safety Office (POSO). At the provincial level, there are already a number of provinces that
have established their own traffic management units. The Laguna Traffic Management Office
of the Province of Laguna is among those provinces that have their office or unit in charge of
traffic management. In fact, thus far, only the Province of Laguna has its own traffic impact
assessment (TIA) ordinance.

54. Still, even though LGUs in Metro Manila have their local traffic management units,
traffic enforcement and management is the primary responsibility of the Metro Manila
Development Authority (MMDA). The MMDA is a special administrative body under the
Office of the President, which is responsible for coordinating national and local programs
and projects, including transport, of metrowide concerns. The Metro Manila Development
Authority (MMDA) was reorganized under RA 7924 in 1994, succeeding the Metro Manila
Authority of 1990 (under EO 392) and the earlier Metro Manila Commission of 1976. The
governing and policy-making body of the MMDA is the Metro Manila Council, which is
composed of the 17 LGUs, the president of the Metro Manila Vice-Mayors League, and the
president of the Metro Manila Councilors League. Heads of related national agencies such
as DPWH and DOTC are non-voting members of the council. The MMC is headed by a
chairman who is appointed by the Office of the President.

55. From the above two tables and the discussions, it can be noted that governance in
urban transport management involves infrastructure planning and implementation, provision
and maintenance of roads, public transport services, traffic enforcement and management,
and land use planning and control. Summarizing the management of urban transport, it
could be suffice that there is supposedly coordination and clear delineation of functions and
responsibilities. However, in reality, this is not the case, notably in Metro Manila.

H. Financing Urban Transport Projects

56. As cited earlier, a number of foreign-assisted municipal development projects have

been carried out to assist LGUs in implementing their urban transport projects, including
road construction and improvement, traffic engineering and management projects, and
construction of integrated jeepney and bus terminals. Recently, the Local Government
Infrastructure Fund (LGIF), a USAID-funded program in the Philippines, provided support to
the implementation of basic municipal infrastructure by local governments in partnership with
the private sector. This includes improvements in roads and other transportation-related
facilities. The Department of Financed-managed Municipal Development Fund established a
revolving fund capitalized and funded from proceeds of foreign loans, assistance, or grants
made available to local governments for specific purposes, project components, and
activities set forth in international agreement with foreign governments and international
organizations. A Municipal Development Fund Office (MDFO) facilitates the financing of
lower-income local governments and social and environmental projects that find great
difficulty in getting financing from government and private banks. Projects may include road
improvements as well as the construction of integrated bus terminals.

57. For other cities with the capacity to pay, government financial institutions such as the
Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) and the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP)
have provided access to funds for capital expenditure in urban infrastructure improvements.

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One example is Davao City, which borrowed close to P1 billion directly from LBP to upgrade
its traffic signal system and other urban infrastructure projects. On the other hand, the DBP
allows for loans under the types of Public Utilities and Community Development. Under
Public Utilities, land, air and water transportation projects may be financed. Under
Community Development, general infrastructure projects may be financed.

III. Critical Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities

A. Traffic Congestion in City Centers

58. An array of urban transport issues has continuously plagued cities and metropolitan
regions in the country, particularly Metro Manila. Many of these transport issues have
become aggravating and result in increasing economic costs to road users. A study
commissioned by JICA in 2004 on regional growth centers identified the following problems
that beset urban growth centers15. These problems clearly illustrate the interrelationships of
urban transport problems:

• The concentration of people and socio-economic activities at the narrow downtown

area is worsening the urban environment and amenity.
• Serious traffic congestion in urbanized area is paralyzing sound socioeconomic
activities and causing traffic pollution.
• Due to lack of proper urban road network development, pressure is only absorbed
along the areas of existing inter-city arterial roads, thus sound urbanization is
affected.
• Due to the above, the transport efficiency and urban function of the inter-city arterial
roads are seriously affected.
• The increase in slow-moving vehicles, such as tricycles and jeepneys, in urban areas
is further worsening the transport efficiency of intra-city roads and inter-city arterial
roads.
• The inter-modal connection between road traffic and sea or air traffic has not been
planned harmoniously, resulting in traffic concentration and congestion at the port
and airport terminals.
• Bus and jeepney terminals located at the downtown area generate heavy traffic,
which is worsening traffic congestion in the CBD area.

59. As cited in the section on road transport, the present road network system in each of
the Philippine cities can no longer cope with the growing vehicle traffic, thereby causing
traffic congestion and other urban transport problems. However, the perceptions of people
on traffic congestion vary among the cities in the Philippines. For instance, what people in
Davao City or Iloilo considered as traffic congestion would be normal traffic for people in
Metro Manila.

60. The urban transport problems or issues can be classified into poor governance with
no performance accountability, lack of a coherent traffic management program, unsystematic
provision of transport infrastructure, and negative externalities of urban transport (e.g.,
accidents, air and noise pollution). In understanding their implications, it is best to
acknowledge that what most of the people perceive as transport or traffic problems are
merely manifestations of various inadequacies. Urban transport governance is narrow-
minded due to a lack of a shared metropolitan vision for metropolitan regions, particularly in
Metro Manila, the absence of a clear-cut transport development framework consistent with
the envisioned development of cities and regions, weak or ineffective land-use controls, an
archaic regulatory regime, and a weak capacity for traffic management. What further
15
The Study on Road Network Improvement Development of Regional Growth Centers in the Republic of the
Philippines, JICA, October 2004

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worsens the situation is the lack of political will to enforce traffic laws, rules, and regulations,
indicating that there is a weak institutional mechanism to effectively and efficiently address
urban transport issues and problems.

61. The uncontrolled urbanization of cities and/or urban growth at urban cores, as
illustrated by the proliferation of commercial centers and other urban developments,
contributed to the worsening traffic situation in those cities. Increasing in-migration to the
cities from the nearby towns and provinces and growing informal urban settlers are likewise
contributory to the rising urban transport problems. The proliferation of commercial
developments and other developments has indeed increased the number of traffic
generators and attractors. Figure 7.1 culled from the 2005 PTSR Urban Transport Study,
shows the main traffic generators and attractors in Metro Manila. Notably, most of the traffic
generators and attractors are located at central areas along major thoroughfares.

Source: Urban Development Planning in Metro Manila, 1996

Figure 7.1: Main Traffic Generators and Attractors in Metro Manila

62. Another factor that is now accepted as intensifying the magnitude of transport
problems in Philippine cities is the lack of mechanisms in assessing the impacts of urban
developments on the environment, particularly transport impacts. The lack of such
assessments resulted in the lack of measures to lessen transport impact. Related to this is
the absence of proper coordination and integration of land use and transport planning, which
results in the incompatibility between urban developments and transport systems. The
location of inter-regional or inter-provincial public transport terminals that are not properly

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planned is a clear example of this incompatibility. The effects of this incompatibility indicate
the imbalance in the transport demand and supply in cities.

63. Other factors which worsen the transport situation at urban centers are the increasing
vehicle ownership, lax traffic enforcement, improper travel behaviour of road users, the
limited capability of personnel in charge of transport and traffic, the proliferation of
unauthorized public transport systems, and the absence of proper traffic education for the
general public. Increases in household income, coupled with the introduction of attractive
financing schemes by the motor industry, have led to the affordability of vehicles and the rise
in household vehicle ownership in many cities in the country.

64. Many cities, even in metropolitan areas, have not yet institutionalized their traffic
enforcement and management. Many cities and municipalities have no traffic management
plans, schemes, or codes to guide the LGUs in handling their transport and traffic situations.
The rampant disregard of road users for traffic and transport rules, laws, and regulations and
their improper behaviour on the road further worsen the traffic situation. It is therefore
imperative that traffic education be institutionalized. Due to lack of proper knowledge on the
formulation and implementation of effective traffic management schemes and transport
policies, many urban centers tend to come up with measures that are not responsive in
addressing traffic and transport problems, particularly traffic congestion. The practice of
experimenting on traffic management schemes is expensive and, at times, inappropriate.

65. The presence of too many jeepneys and buses on routes that do not need that
number of units is a clear example of proliferation of public transport in most urban areas.
Similarly, in urban centers outside Metro Manila, notably in Mindanao, the growing number
of the so called “habal-habal” or motorcycle taxis is becoming a concern. Likewise, most
cities are still dependent on tricycles, which are not only contributing to the deterioration of
the environment but likewise add to the worsening traffic in those urban centers. There is a
need to develop an appropriate and efficient public transport system for local cities.

66. As already cited, the lack of responsive institutional mechanisms in addressing traffic
issues has resulted in the inefficient management of urban transport systems in Philippine
cities. Lax enforcement of land use and zoning schemes and measures is another indication
of the worsening traffic congestion. Hence, it is imperative that the formulation,
implementation, and enforcement of traffic and transport schemes and measures be
comprehensive and far-reaching.

67. There is a need to institutionalize transport impact assessment (TIA) to address

transport impacts. The development of traffic measures should be the product of proper
planning supported by transport studies. The location of public transport terminals should
consider the land-use configuration of urban centers and should be properly integrated with
the transport system of the urban centers. It is imperative that, in the development of urban
centers, either cities or regional center, proper integration of land use and transport systems
be done.

68. Some cities that are already conducting TIA—like Tacloban, Dagupan, Lucena, and
Tagum—have built their integrated public transport terminals outside their CBDs. A study on
the development of an integrated public transport terminal outside the city center was
recently completed. Similarly, the relocation of ports and airports outside city centers is
another initiative being considered. Iloilo City and Bacolod City are two cities where concrete
plans are already laid out for this purpose. There was also an attempt for a similar plan for
Legaspi City.

69. In Metro Manila, many studies have been conducted to address its transport and
traffic problems, especially traffic congestion. What should be done is for those concerned to

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review these studies and put in place the appropriate technical and institutional
recommendations.

70. In summary, to address traffic congestion and urban transport problems, a

comprehensive approach with due consideration on the root causes has to be done
appropriately. The identification of measures to lessen traffic congestion is not enough.
These measures should be supported by studies with strong institutional mechanisms,
capability building programs, traffic education, and the support of the population.

B. Paratransit Modes

71. Paratransit modes such as FX, motorcycle, tricycle, trisikad, and their variants are
faced with many concerns that are partly due to the informal nature of their establishment.
“Informal” refers to the lack of institutionalized mechanisms for looking into aspects such as
safety and impact on the environment.

1. Safety Concerns

72. While these concerns are by no means completely addressed among the other
modes, the paratransit modes are particularly problematic because they are not completely
covered by legal description. For example, many FXs are covered under other descriptions
(such as Mega-Taxi) but they do not operate as such. In case of accidents, the driver is likely
to flee the scene because the extra-legal nature of his operation only worsens the level of
liability attributed to him. This lack of genuine accountability means that passengers may be
at risk.

2. Environmental Issues (Air and Noise Pollution)

73. Modes like the tricycles are visible sources of air and noise pollution. Because of
differences in LGU administration, the kind and extent of regulation of these modes has had
various results. While some cities have successfully managed the growing number of
tricycles and their environmental effects, as in the color-coding ccheme in Puerto Princesa,
others have been prevented from doing so by organized tricycle operators’ organizations
wielding political pressure.

3. Countermeasures/Best Practices

74. The ADB-funded Study on Air and Noise Pollution Reduction from Tricycles, which
explored options for Quezon City and Puerto Princesa City 16 , suggested the following
strategies:
• An LGU-led maintenance program focusing on preventive maintenance (short-term
measure)
• The mandatory orientation of tricycle drivers on traffic and safety rules (short-term
measure)
• Tricycle volume reduction through the elimination of illegal tricycle units (short-term
measure), the restriction of new and renewal of tricycle franchise applications for
tricycles with engines aged above 15 years (short-term measure), and the promotion
of alternative transportation and a shift to less-pollutive types (medium to long-term
measure)

C. Mass Transit Options for Metropolitan Cities

16
According the same study, an experiment was conducted in Puerto Princesa City in April 2004, where the
number of tricycles operating in the city was reduced by 20% per day, with drivers reporting that their income
levels of between 30% and 50%, depending on their areas of operation.

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 1. Bus Rapid Transit

75. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) has been promoted as an affordable, adaptable, and cost-
effective mass transit option. It provides an exclusive right-of-way for bus transit, separating
it from the rest of the road traffic, thus allowing ease in operation and operations planning.
Users then benefit from a service that is reliable and relatively inexpensive.

76. BRT cost-effectiveness also allows financially sustainable service in areas where
high levels of patronage are unattainable. The following table shows a cost comparison
among BRT and other rail systems in various cities of the world.

Table 7.11 City Cost Comparisons of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and Rail17

Length of
Cost per Length
City Type of System Segregated
(US$ million / km)
Lines (km)
Taipei BRT 57 0.5
Quito BRT 10 1.2
Curitiba BRT 57 1.5
Sao Paulo BRT 114 3.0
Bogota BRT 40 5.3
Tunis Light Rail Transit (LRT) 30 13.3
Lyon LRT 18 18.9
Bordeaux LRT 23 20.5
Los Angeles (Gold) LRT 23 37.8
Zurich (2005 ext.) LRT 20 42.0
Bangkok (BTS) Elevated Rail 23 73.9
Madrid (1999 ext.) Metro Rail 38 42.8
Hong Kong Metro Rail 82 220.0
London (Jubilee Metro Rail 16 350.0

77. The most famous examples of this kind of system are in place in the cities of Curitiba,
Brazil and Bogota, Colombia.18

78. The most striking characteristics of the BRT systems are the following:
• Provision of busways separated from other road traffic
• Integrated operations (although ownership of individual buses may not be singular)
• Policy and institutional framework modifications
• Clear leadership to get these BRT projects done

2. Rail-Based Systems

79. These urban transit systems fall into the different right-of-way categories19 and may
be of the following types as quoted from Gray (1992):
• Tramways - Category C right-of-way consists of the operation of one, two, or three
coupled vehicles, mixed to the general traffic, though enjoying partly exclusive
running facilities in some sections. In general, tramways are characterized by good
dynamic specifications and interesting running comfort. However, their reliability and
operating speeds are highly dependent on the traffic conditions met on the line.

17
Training Course Materials, Moving Forward: Bus Rapid Transit Training Workshop in Metro Manila, 29-30
November 2005
18
From DVD documents compiled by the GTZ with the intention to support the Mass Transit Training Course
(being available as a PDF on www.sutp.org).
19
Category A: fully exclusive right-of way; Category B: partly exclusive; Category C: Shared right-of-way.

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 • Light-Rail Transit System - operating on a Category B right-of-way consists of one to
three particularly comfortable vehicles on rights-of-way protected along most of the
line. The system enjoys better speed and reliable qualities as the traffic right-of-way
is protected particularly in dense traffic areas and tunnels.
• Heavy-Rail Transit System - That system linked to Category A represents the optimal
public transport system for high-capacity lines. It is operated on a reserved right-of-
way without any possibility of outside interferences. It is highly reliable and reaches
maximum operating speeds, especially in the case of automatic control.

80. In general, rail-based systems allow a single driver to operate sets of trains
comprised as many as 10 vehicles. Thus, the ratio of staff productivity to passengers carried
is high. Unfortunately, these systems involve the highest investment costs; their use is thus
restricted to areas having high travel demand.

D. Safe Roads and Vehicles

81. To promote safe roads and vehicles, various measures are currently being
implemented by city governments as well as local government units. The most common of
these measures is the implementation of a traffic management plan that aims to reduce
negative externalities, such as traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and accidents. In
addition to traffic management, the various schemes are also being widely used.

82. Loading regulation has been strictly enforced now in the North Luzon Expressway to
avoid traffic accidents. Overloaded trucks are not permitted to enter the toll road.

83. The relocation of public transport terminals means moving them away from the
center or the concentration of economic activities. Public transport terminals are almost
always located inside the central business district (CBD). This condition creates traffic
congestion and concentration of vehicle emission in the area. Relocating the terminal away
from the CBD will reduce congestion and pollution.

84. Pedestrianization can be done by either closing a certain road segment used by
vehicles or by building walkways for exclusive pedestrian use to increase human mobility.
This is most effective in areas with high density of people and vehicles. Traffic circulation
can be improved by rerouting vehicles to the nearest possible streets. In some CBDs in
Metro Manila, the use of walkways to connect business establishments and/or malls has
become an effective method to reduce conflict between vehicles and people. Among the
most successful cases of pedestrian walkways are in Ayala Center, Makati City, and Araneta
Center in Quezon City.

85. The bicycle has gained popularity because it is a clean and sustainable means of
transport. To promote bicycle use, Marikina City built exclusive bikeways in 2003. The
bikeway master plan involves the construction of bicycle paths and routes on 66 km of roads
in the city. Significant increases in the use of bicycles for work trips have been achieved.

86. Efforts are being exerted to conduct an information and education campaign on road
safety. Teaching modules on this topic have been developed for elementary and high school
students. The modules have been pilot-tested and are being used in selected schools in
Quezon City, through the initiatives of the Society for Philippine Motoring Journalists (SPMJ)
and Safekids, a non-governmental organization. The program aims to incorporate the
teaching modules into the regular curriculum and concerted efforts are being made to seek
the Department of Education’s approval.

E. Vehicle Emission Control

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87. Below are some of the vehicle emission controls being implemented in Philippine
cities.

88. The Unified Vehicle Volume Reduction Program started implementation in Metro
Manila in the mid-1990s as a number coding scheme to reduce the vehicular flow in major
arteries. The Metro Manila experience shows that an 11% daily reduction of vehicles along
the thoroughfares was attained when the program was implemented (MMUTIS JICA, 1999).
Consequently, the amount of vehicle emissions was reduced.

89. With the Motor Vehicle Inspection System, most vehicles were expected to comply
with set emission standards. However, extra precautions should be imposed with respect to
the engagement of private emission test centers, as they are sometimes associated with
corruption.

90. There are efforts to switch to four-stroke tricycles or three-wheelers. These efforts
aim to gradually replace two-stroke tricycles, which comprise 95%-98% of tricycles in Metro
Manila, with four-stroke tricycles. The PM10 emission factor of four-stroke motorcycles is
approximately 1/5 of that of two-stroke tricycles.

91. The Department of Energy has been promoting the use of alternative fuels such as
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), and Coco-Methyl Ester
Blends (CMEB) for public utility vehicles. Executive Order No. 290 had been signed by
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on 24 February 2004 to promote the use of natural gas
on public transport vehicles.

92. A pilot project has been done in the Manila-Batangas route for 100 buses initially to
use CNG. The project aims to increase the number of buses in Metro Manila using CNG,
and refuelling stations have been provided along SLEX and in Batangas to support the
project. Another initiative is the promotion of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) use in taxis. Some
big taxi companies have now shifted to LNG and the number of refuelling stations has also
started to increase. These initiatives will have large impacts in the reduction of emission
factors.

F. Resource Mobilization and Coordination

93. In the pursuit of decentralization in the government bureaucracy and fiscal

management, the Local Government Code (LGC) of 1991 empowered LGUs to perform the
principal task of delivering basic public services to their communities. To date, the record of
performance of each LGU varies widely, with chartered cities leading the way with their vast
resources and highly motivated and trained pool of civil servants. For instance, the Philippine
Cities Competitive Ranking Project 2005, which assessed the competitiveness of 65 cities
nationwide as a place for living and doing business, conferred top honors to Davao City
(metropolitan city category), Bacolod City (mid-size city), and Dagupan City in the small city
category. All these cities were gauged on the basis of seven development drivers, namely,
cost of doing business, dynamism of local economy, linkages and accessibility, human
resources and training, infrastructure, responsiveness of local government to business
needs, and quality of life.

94. The World Bank and ADB report on decentralization in the Philippines20 follows a
series of development policy studies on local governance and financing. These studies
include the initiatives of the Bureau of Local Government Finance, the Department of
Finance, which deal with local economic development framework and local government

20
World Bank and Asian Development Bank, “Decentralization in the Philippines: Strengthening Local
Government Financing and Resource Management in the Short Term,” March 2005

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finance management, and donor country-sponsored programs such as the Philippines-
Canada Local Government Support Program. More specifically, the WB-ADB report
reviewed two aspects of the decentralization policy currently engaging policymakers, namely,
the sources of financing under decentralization and cross-cutting processes to strengthen
the accountability of resource use. Key recommendations focused on administrative actions
in the areas of enhancing LGUs’ ability and capacity to raise their own revenues and access
other resources and strengthening key resource management systems and procedures such
as planning, budgeting, procurement, and financial management.

95. One potential source for LGU finance is revenue from local public economic
enterprises operated by LGUs. While success stories of well-planned and managed
economic enterprises21 have been reported, these stories are few and far between. Most
public economic enterprises operated by LGUs, such as integrated transport terminals, are a
net drain on local operating revenue. A variety of issues exist in regard to economic
enterprises. Some LGUs are of the view that they are obliged to directly operate such
services as markets, slaughterhouses, bus terminals, etc. under the LGC. Other LGUs are
apparently satisfied that the requirements of the Code are fulfilled if services are present
regardless of whether they are operated publicly or privately. It has also been suggested that
LGUs have received confusing signals from the national level regarding the desirable role for
LGUs in public economic enterprises.

IV. Recommendations

A. Urban Transport Planning Process

96. Many high-performing LGUs have already shown that they are best placed to provide
urgently needed public services, including the development and management of the
transport network. However, as cited in the section on Urban Transport Governance, most
cities have set up various functional units responsible for road infrastructure (e.g., a city
engineer’s office) to overall city planning (e.g., a city planning and development office). Few
LGUs have created special units to address road traffic operations, either as independent
bodies or lodged in the General Services Office or the Public Order and Safety Office.

97. While the type and nature of the transport organization would depend to a greater
extent on the characteristics and components of the urban transport system within each of
the cities, two unifying mechanisms need to be established and strengthened within the LGU
organization. These are a transport database and the transport planning process.
Despite the present arrangements where national government agencies are directly involved
in planning and decision making on national transport infrastructure and operations (e.g.,
DPWH for roads, DOTC for rail systems, airports and ports, LTO for vehicle registration, and
LTFRB for public transport franchises), local transport databases should be developed. More
specifically, the set of urban transport indicators prepared for this review of Philippine cities
should form part of a comprehensive, city-wide, or sector-specific benchmarking work, which
involves the collection of up-to-date information.

98. The need for integrated land-use and transport planning becomes more pronounced
when LGUs are confronted with proposals for commercial building construction, on the one
hand, to Planned Development Unit projects of the private sector, on the other hand. The
TIA process that has been adopted selectively by LGUs should be fully institutionalized and
further work has to be undertaken to account for land use issues in the planning process.

21
Financed through the Municipal Development Fund Program of the World Bank

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B. Road Safety

99. Based on the review of road sector performance in selected Philippine cities, LGUs
lack extensive information in the areas of traffic accidents and road safety strategies.
Because road accidents is one of the leading causes of deaths and disabilities in the country,
local authorities must play a crucial role in implementing a rational road safety program. At
the national level, the government has adopted a medium-term road safety action plan,
which included specific actions to be undertaken by LGUs, particularly within their city
boundaries. However, to date, the national road safety plan has yet to be translated to
detailed activities for LGUs.

100. The availability of the road safety fund under the DPWH-led Road Board is a funding
mechanism ready to be tapped for LGU road safety-related projects. In the past, fund
disbursements were made mainly to traffic signs, pavement markings, road section
improvements, and installation of other safety devices for national roads. The LGUs,
possibly through the League of Cities in the Philippines (LCP), could benefit from a focus
study on road accidents in local areas. This study could recommend the means to align the
national program with local initiatives.

C. Urban Transport and the Environment

101. The rapid growth in motorcycles and tricycles poses serious threats to city dwellers,
in the form of safety concerns and air and noise pollution. The current initiatives of LCP in
partnership with donor countries and institutions in piloting the Clean Air Management
Program to additional cities are welcome developments. CAMP should be expanded to
cover other cities and municipalities in the country. Specific training and planning work
modules on bikeways, pedestrian zones and road greening or environmental zones should
be incorporated as new components of the existing CAMP design.

102. The results of the urban transport assessment indicate that cities with high population
of motorcycles and tricycles are priority LGUs to cover under the expanded CAMP.

D. Bus Rapid Transit

103. The conduct of a BRT pre-feasibility study for Metro Manila is a welcome
development. Further training and seminars on busway systems around the world should be
pursued. For future urban rail studies, including the study planned in Davao City, the busway
system should always be considered as an alternative in the planning activity.

E. Integrated Transport Terminals

104. The concept of integrated transport terminal as a component of urban development

strategies to relieve urban core congestion has been adopted by many LGUs. However, to
date, no serious review of the terminals’ efficacy and economic impact after operation has
been undertaken to identify lessons learned from successful and unsuccessful projects.

105. Such a study on integrated transport terminals should include the consideration of
possible relocation of airports outside the CBD or to new growth centers within the city
boundary. New studies and projects include the feasibility study of the Panglao Airport ,
involving the transfer of airport operations from Tagbilaran City, and the new airports for
Iloilo City (in Sta. Barbara/Cabatuan), Bacolod City (in Silay), and Cagayan de Oro (in
Laguindingan). One major work being considered by the government is the transfer of
international air traffic from NAIA to Clark International Airport.

F. Urban Transport Action Agenda

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106. Following the above recommendations, the proposed Transport Action Agenda is
presented as Table 7.12.

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 Table 7.12 Urban Transport Action Agenda

Strategy Activity Performance Targets/Indicators

Present 2010 2020 2030
1. Strengthen LGU urban 1.1 Urban transport Phase 1 covers 65 cities Phase 2 covers the Phase 3 covers capital
transport planning benchmarking study for remaining 52 cities, towns
capability Philippine cities including Metro Manila
towns
1.2 Full institutionalization Conduct of TIA training Adoption in all Philippine
of TIA process cities
1.3 Develop Integrated Preparation of framework Training and pilot-testing Adoption in all Philippine
Urban & Transport Impact and detailed process in 30 cities cities
Assessment
2. Enhance road safety in 2.1 Road safety review in Preparation of TOR and Completed study of 65 Completed study of Completed study of
cities pilot cities implementing cities Phase 2 cities Phase 3 cities
arrangements
2.2 Expansion of DPWH Integrate TARAS with Expansion of TARAS to
Traffic Accident Reporting MMDA’s Metro Manila cover local roads
and Analysis System Accident Reporting and
(TARAS) to include local Analysis System
roads
2.3 Local road safety Preparation of Program of Implementation of priority Implementation of priority Implementation of priority
program Work for priority LGU LGU road safety projects LGU road safety projects LGU road safety projects
road safety projects using using the Road Fund using the Road Fund using the Road Fund
the Road Fund
3. Strengthen LGU air 3.1 Expansion of Clean Preparation for training Preparation for training Preparation for training
quality management Air Management Program delivery and workshops/ delivery and workshops/ delivery and workshops/
capability (mobile to other cities and towns planning study in 65 cities planning study in 52 planning study in capital
sources) cities, including Metro towns
Manila towns
3.2 Motorcycle/tricycle Prepare program in M/MC conversion in 30 M/MC conversion in the
conversion to 4-stroke cooperation with pilot cities remaining cities
engines DENR/DTI/DOTC/LGU
4. Promote the 4.1 Development of Preparation of FS for Introduction of busways in Introduction of busways in
development of Bus busway projects Metro Manila Metro Manila Metro Cebu and other
Rapid Transit major cities
5. Selective introduction 5.1 Benchmarking study Preparation of TOR and Completed study for Completed study for the Completed study for
of integrated transport implementing regional/capital cities remaining cities major towns
terminals arrangements
5.2 Relocation of Preparation of FS for Implementation of capital Implementation of capital Implementation of capital
airports/public transport priority cities projects projects projects
terminals

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V. References

Office of the President (2004) Executive Order No. 290: Implementing the Natural Gas
Vehicle Program for Public Transport.

JICA (2004). “The Study on the Master Plan for the Strategic Development of the National
Port System in the Republic of the Philippines.”

JICA (2005a). “The Master Plan Study on the Strategic Policy of the Air Transport Sector.”

JICA (2005b). “The Study on Domestic Shipping Development Plan in the Republic of the
Philippines.”

JICA (2005c). “The Inter-Regional Passenger and Freight Flow Surveys in the Republic of
the Philippines.”

ADB (2005). “Air and Noise Pollution Reduction from Tricycles: A Strategic Plan for Quezon
City and Puerto Princesa City, Philippines.”

UP National Center for Transportation Studies Foundation, Inc. (2006). “Teaching Modules
on Road Safety.”

ADB (2006). “Intermodal Transport Development Project.”

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 Appendix 7.1 Urban Transport Indicators in Philippines Cities
Appendix 7.1 - Philippine Cities
A. Small Cities (Population less than 200,000 people)
Land Area, sq km Population Vehicle Registration, 2005 Road Network, km Road Transport Indices
City 2000 2005 Veh/1000 km/1000 km/sq km % Paved
Total % Urban Private Public M/MC Total Nat'l Local Total % M/MC
Census Estimate popn popn of area Road

1 Cavite 12.4 100.0 99,367 107,099 7,876 15,651 20,536 44,063 9.0 411.4 46.6 0.1 0.7 91.0
2 Dagupan 43.6 88.5 130,328 133,685 7,934 12,934 26,370 47,238 353.4 55.8 0.0 0.0
3 Legaspi 204.2 10.7 157,010 178,772 3,548 5,468 12,567 21,583 176.7 120.7 58.2 1.0 0.9 60.6
4 Lucena* 89.1 196,075 220,834 7,071 13,253 17,299 37,623 170.4 46.0 0.0 0.0
5 Naga 84.5 17.4 137,810 149,561 5,165 10,000 16,644 31,809 212.7 52.3 0.0 0.0
6 Olongapo 185.0 194,260 211,135 4,991 9,863 13,275 28,129 133.2 47.2 0.0 0.0
7 Puerto Princesa 2,539.8 5.8 161,912 213,343 1,960 4,931 18,461 25,352 155.9 375.6 531.5 118.8 72.8 2.5 0.2 40.0
8 San Fernando, LU 10.5 19.2 102,082 114,206 6,017 11,401 14,158 31,576 276.5 44.8 0.0 0.0
9 Sta Rosa 39.1 185,633 204,954 NA NA NA 0.0
10 Sorsogon* 312.9 134,678 148,987 1,195 2,801 9,574 13,570 91.1 70.6 0.0 0.0
11 Tagaytay 66.2 45,287 51,740 6,691 17,007 11,827 35,525 686.6 33.3 0.0 0.0
12 Tuguegarao* 113.9 2.2 120,645 138,235 3,971 7,545 19,134 30,650 221.7 62.4 0.0 0.0
13 Cadiz 524.6 141,954 157,962 2,607 2,083 5,785 10,475 66.3 55.2 0.0 0.0
14 Dumaguete 33.6 102,265 113,686 5,007 8,591 29,690 43,288 380.8 68.6 0.0 0.0
15 Ormoc 613.6 154,297 156,547 2,536 5,067 9,113 16,716 106.8 54.5 0.0 0.0
16 Roxas 95.1 126,352 135,058 3,445 6,664 21,614 31,723 234.9 68.1 0.0 0.0
17 San Carlos 451.5 12.0 118,259 136,364 2,206 2,625 10,169 15,000 110.0 67.8 0.0 0.0
18 Silay* 214.8 16.8 107,722 107,722 4,314 4,914 3,556 12,784 7.5 39.5 47.0 118.7 27.8 0.4 0.2 87.0
19 Tacloban 108.8 178,639 191,877 4,695 7,796 10,965 23,456 122.2 46.7 0.0 0.0
20 Tagbilaran* 32.7 11.4 77,700 91,042 5,999 12,664 23,311 41,974 136.4 461.0 55.5 1.5 4.2 61.6
21 Bago* 418.2 16.9 141,721 156,730 NA NA NA 65.8 34.9 100.7 0.6 0.2 81.8
22 Bislig* 442.6 97,860 107,716 604 935 1,912 3,451 32.0 55.4 0.0 0.0
23 Cotabato 176.0 38.7 163,849 184,388 964 3,678 2,946 7,588 8.4 201.4 209.8 41.2 38.8 1.1 1.2 41.6
24 Dapitan* 295.2 68,178 73,991 NA NA NA 0.0 0.0
25 Digos* 287.1 88.0 125,171 141,412 1,295 2,291 9,164 12,750 23.7 175.0 198.7 90.2 71.9 1.4 0.7 29.4
26 Dipolog 241.1 99,862 106,052 759 1,595 9,707 12,061 113.7 80.5 0.0 0.0
27 Gingoog* 568.4 102,379 121,066 1,317 2,269 4,802 8,388 69.3 57.2 0.0 0.0
28 Koronadal 277.0 7.9 133,786 152,700 1,472 2,356 12,286 16,114 24.2 541.6 565.8 105.5 76.2 3.7 2.0
29 Marawi 22.6 131,090 151,674 200 409 198 807 5.3 24.5 0.0 0.0
30 Oroquieta 263.9 59,843 64,246 936 2,556 7,012 10,504 163.5 66.8 0.0 0.0
31 Ozamiz 164.1 110,420 120,130 1,094 2,200 9,283 12,577 220.5 104.7 73.8 1.8 1.3 38.5
32 Pagadian 378.8 142,515 164,334 950 2,045 7,519 10,514 64.0 71.5 0.0 0.0
33 Panabo* 251.2 12.1 133,950 148,764 NA NA NA 32.9 743.1 776.0 5.2 3.1 10.1
34 Surigao 261.2 8.0 118,534 135,095 1,144 3,244 9,144 13,532 100.2 67.6 0.0 0.0
35 Tacurong* 153.4 0.6 76,354 84,012 2,201 3,692 9,117 15,010 29.0 223.8 252.8 178.7 60.7 3.0 1.6
36 Tagum 195.8 179,531 204,812 4,074 7,198 35,422 46,694 228.0 75.9 0.0 0.0
37 Valencia* 621.6 147,924 165,729 1,769 3,404 4,043 9,216 55.6 43.9 0.0 0.0

B. Mid-Sized, Non-Metro Cities (Population greater than 200,000 people)

38 Angeles 62.2 42.9 263,971 286,902 16,456 26,073 22,524 65,053 226.7 34.6 0.0 0.0
39 Baguio 57.5 100.0 252,386 280,756 10,548 20,188 1,792 32,528 93.2 250.8 344.0 115.9 5.5 1.2 6.0 95.0
40 Batangas 283.0 247,588 289,399 10,160 22,534 21,526 54,220 187.4 39.7 0.0 0.0
41 Cabanatuan* 282.8 222,859 243,173 11,090 19,961 28,357 59,408 244.3 47.7 0.0 0.0
42 Calamba* 144.8 68.0 281,146 367,446 NA NA NA 27.0 82.8 109.8 0.3 0.8 98.5
43 Lipa 209.4 218,447 272,225 12,360 29,549 31,429 73,338 269.4 42.9 0.0 0.0
44 San Fernando, P. 67.7 221,857 265,073 10,854 24,356 9,875 45,085 170.1 21.9 0.0 0.0
45 Tarlac 425.5 10.7 262,481 280,822 9,804 19,882 35,168 64,854 474.8 230.9 54.2 1.7 1.1 20.4
46 Bacolod 160.8 42.7 429,076 459,737 18,105 19,418 14,737 52,260 72.1 31.3 103.4 113.7 28.2 0.2 0.6 94.6
47 Iloilo 70.2 67.2 365,820 402,511 16,062 27,669 11,255 54,986 58.2 49.1 107.3 136.6 20.5 0.3 1.5 96.0
48 Butuan 668.9 267,279 290,783 1,151 3,012 3,585 7,748 26.6 46.3 0.0 0.0
49 Cagayan de Oro 488.9 64.1 461,877 500,767 8,749 13,024 9,043 30,816 80.3 118.6 198.9 61.5 29.3 0.4 0.4 76.9
50 General Santos 536.1 14.2 411,822 526,853 3,421 5,427 18,767 27,615 55.3 443.9 499.2 52.4 68.0 0.9 0.9 63.2
51 Iligan 813.4 7.2 285,061 298,565 2,525 5,847 2,851 11,223 37.6 25.4 0.0 0.0
52 Zamboanga 1,414.7 5.3 601,794 716,817 6,970 15,595 37,925 60,490 141.4 689.6 831.0 84.4 62.7 1.2 0.6 43.0

C. Metropolitan Cities
53 Las Pinas 33.0 100.0 472,780 546,222 31,488 27,189 18,757 77,434 11.9 59.7 71.6 141.8 24.2 0.1 2.2 100.0
54 Makati 27.4 100.0 471,379 511,735 45,370 25,508 11,229 82,107 65.6 369.4 435.0 160.4 13.7 0.9 15.9 100.0
55 Mandaluyong 11.2 100.0 278,474 294,859 28,501 10,430 15,075 54,006 25.6 94.2 119.8 183.2 27.9 0.4 10.7 100.0
56 Manila 38.3 100.0 1,581,082 1,581,082 95,770 97,029 56,583 249,382 236.0 537.6 773.6 157.7 22.7 0.5 20.2 96.6
57 Marikina 21.5 98.2 391,170 457,722 26,167 27,524 20,841 74,532 12.4 359.6 372.0 162.8 28.0 0.8 17.3 94.2
58 Muntinlupa 46.7 100.0 379,310 446,830 29,396 21,346 12,745 63,487 33.4 27.1 60.5 142.1 20.1 0.1 1.3 100.0
59 Pasay 18.0 100.0 354,908 354,908 24,551 17,493 20,857 62,901 47.8 99.8 147.6 177.2 33.2 0.4 8.2 100.0
60 Pasig 31.0 505,058 544,091 46,661 34,984 25,974 107,619 35.9 228.8 264.7 197.8 24.1 0.5 8.5 100.0
61 Quezon City 166.2 72.0 2,173,831 2,390,688 32,621 26,632 34,284 93,537 146.5 1,616.4 1,762.9 39.1 36.7 0.7 10.6 100.0
62 Cebu 291.2 19.2 718,821 784,729 26,735 32,004 20,898 79,637 98.5 220.8 319.3 101.5 26.2 0.4 1.1 87.8
63 Lapulapu 58.1 217,019 252,808 5,247 7,967 14,965 28,179 111.5 53.1 0.0 0.0
64 Mandaue 34.9 259,728 311,768 10,426 12,071 12,126 34,623 111.1 35.0 0.0 0.0
65 Davao 2,443.6 10.0 1,147,116 1,318,884 26,703 29,163 28,786 84,652 253.9 1,517.8 1,771.7 64.2 34.0 1.3 0.7 59.6

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