Elements of Geometry

‘Geometry’ is a branch of Mathematics dealing with shapes, sizes, orientations and

their measurements. Although the above topics offer only a limited view of the
vastness of the subject, it is more or less based or derived from a few key concepts.
For Euclid’s Geometry, some of them are as follows:

Plane

A plane is a 2-dimensional figure which we can extend infinitely and is flat.

Therefore, the Plane includes 2D figures like quadrilaterals, triangles and includes
areas and perimeters.

Point

A point is basically a location or a position in space or on a plane. As you can see

below, two locations on the given line to are specified by point ‘P0‘ and point ‘P1‘.
With reference from an origin, each of these points has a specific location.

Angles

An angle is defined as the inclination of one line with respect to the other at the point
of their intersection. You will learn about more definitions of the angle as you go on.

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Curve

A curve is a 1-dimensional entity which can be a straight line or a curved entity. In

other words, a curve is a one-dimensional mathematical entity that may be straight or
not! Hence, every line – straight or not can be a curve. Curves may be open – when
the endpoints of a curve don’t meet or closed – when the endpoints of the curve meet.

Surface

A surface is a 2D or a 3D construction in space or a plane with no thickness.

Therefore, we use it in the calculation of surface area.

These definitions are our doorway to understanding the relationship between various
geometric shapes.

Euclid’s Postulates
Any statement that is assumed to be true on the basis of reasoning or discussion is a
postulate or axiom. The postulates stated by Euclid are the foundation of Geometry
and are rather simple observations in nature. ‘Euclid’ was a Greek mathematician
regarded as the ‘Father of Modern Geometry‘.

He is credited with profound work in the fields of algebra, geometry, science, and
philosophy. Euclid introduced the fundamentals of geometry in his book called
“Elements”. There are 23 definitions or Postulates in Book 1 of Elements (Euclid
Geometry). We will see a brief overview of some of them here. Their order is not as
in Elements.

Postulate – I

A straight line segment can be formed by joining any two points in space.

In Geometry, a line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by 2

distinct points on either end. It consists of a series of points bounded by the two
endpoints. Thus a line segment is measurable as the distance between the two
endpoints. A line segment is named after the two endpoints with an overbar on them.

Postulate – II

Any straight line can be extended indefinitely on both sides. Unlike a line segment,
aline is not bounded by any endpoint and so can be extended indefinitely in either
direction. A line is uniquely defined as passing through two points which are used to
name it.
Postulate – III

A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius. For any line segment, a circle
can be drawn with its centre at one endpoint and the radius of the circle as the length
of the line segment. Consider a line segment bounded by two points. If one of these
points is taken as the centre of a circle and the radius of the circle is taken as equal to
the length of the segment, a circle can be drawn with its diameter twice than the
length of the line segment.

In the above example, the line segment AO serves as the radius of a circle with centre
at point O and a diameter equal to AB where l(AB) =2l(AO).

Postulate – IV

All right angles are congruent or equal to one another. A right angle is an angle
measuring 90 degrees. So, irrespective of the length of a right angle or its orientation
all right angles are identical in form and coincide exactly when placed one on top of
the other.

A right angle

Postulate – V

Two lines are parallel to each other if they intersect the third line and the interior
angle between them is 180 degrees.
‘Parallel lines’ are a set of 2 or more lines that never cross or intersect each other at
any point in space if they are extended indefinitely. As you can see in the above
image, line 1 and line 2 are parallel if and only if the sum of angles ‘a’ and ‘b’ they
make with the transversal is 180 degrees.

Axiom
The word ‘Axiom’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Axioma’ meaning ‘true without
needing a proof’. A mathematical statement which we assume to be true without a
proof is called an axiom. Therefore, they are statements that are standalone and
indisputable in their origins. In simpler words, these are truths that form the basis for
all other derivations and have been derived from the basis of everyday experiences. In
addition to this, there is no evidence opposing them.

Examples of Axioms

Examples of axioms can be 2+2=4, 3 x 3=4 etc. In geometry, we have a similar

statement that a line can extend to infinity. This is an Axiom because you do not need
a proof to state its truth as it is evident in itself.

Conjecture
A conjecture is such a mathematical statement whose truth or falsity we don’t know
yet. In other words, a statement that you believe to be true but have not proved to be
true is called a conjecture. For example: What is the next number in the series 3 6
9 12? The answer is ’15’. On careful observation, we see that each succeeding
number is greater than the previous one by a difference of ‘3’. So even though we
don’t see the next number we can correctly guess it by observing the pattern
generated.

So, one of the conjectures is that “the next number is 15”. Another conjecture could
be “the next number is (15 × 1) + 0”. None of the two has a proof but both follow
from simple mathematical rules or axioms.

Conjectures play a very important role in problem-solving in Mathematics and

Geometry, where the solution is not always apparent and we generate the solution by
following a series of steps. Generally, each of these steps is a ‘Conjecture’ over the
previous step.
Theorem
A mathematical statement that we know is true and which has a proof is a theorem.
We can further explain it as a series of Conjectures (proof) that combine together to
give a true result. So if a statement is always true and doesn’t need proof, it is an
axiom. If it needs a proof, it is a conjecture. A statement that has been proven by
logical arguments based on axioms, is a theorem. We generate a theorem by the way
of analysis and proof. Consider them your weapons, Superheroes as you start on this
journey through the mazes of mathematics and arrive at solutions and save the day.

Perpendicular bisector
A perpendicular bisector of a segment is a line, segment or ray that is perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint.

Therefore, a ⟂ bisector will bisect a segment into two congruent segments.

In the figure above, line EF is the ⟂ bisector of segment GH. Angle 1 and angle 2 are right angles. Segment GI is equal
to segment IH. Therefore, I is the midpoint of segment GH.

You could also call the ⟂ bisector the locus of points equidistant from two given points.

This makes sense because when you are looking at the red line, you can see that every point on that line is equidistant
to G and H.

Perpendicular bisector of a triangle

The perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a line that bisects and is perpendicular to a side of the triangle.
In the figure above, the red line is the ⟂ bisector of side CA.

Notice that the bisector does not necessarily bisects the triangle into two congruent figures.

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Angle bisector
An angle bisector is a ray that divides an angle into two congruent angles or two angles that have the same measure.

For example, in the figure above, ray OB shown in red is an angle bisector and it divides angle AOC into two congruent
angles.

These two congruent angles are angle AOB and angle COB.

In other words, m∠AOB = m∠COB

Notice that within the ray, segment OB has the same endpoint as ray OB. Therefore,

It is perfectly ok to say that the ray or the segment bisects angle AOC.

Learn how to find an angle bisector by reading this lesson.

Angle bisector of a triangle

An angle bisector of a triangle is a segment that bisects an angle of that triangle and extends to the opposite side.
In triangle ABC shown above, segment CE is an angle bisector for that triangle.

Segment CE bisects angle ACB and creates angle ACE and angle BCE that are congruent.

In other words, m∠ACE = m∠BCE

You could also say that m∠e = m∠fomplementary angles:

Two angles whose measures add to 90 degrees. It is easy to see when the angles are adjacent like the following:

Angles x and y are adjacent because they share a ray (line in black) and a vertex (point in black called D).

Now why are they complementary?

Notice also that the angle in blue measures 90 degrees

Since the measure of angle x plus the measure of angle y = 90 degrees, x and y are complementary

Angles do not have to be adjacent to be complementary. The following angles are also complementary as long as the
sum of the measures equal 90 degrees

Supplementary angles:

Two angles whose measures add to 180 degrees. It is easy too to see this when the angles are adjacent like the
following:

Again, angles a and b adjacent because they share a ray (line in black) and a vertex (point in black called D), so they
are adjacent angles.

Now why are they supplementary?

Notice also that the angle in blue measures 180 degrees because the angle is a straight line and a straight line
measures 180 degrees

Since the measure of angle a plus the measure of angle b = 180 degrees, a and b are supplementary

Again, angles do not have to be adjacent to be supplementary. The following angles are also supplementary as long as
the sum of the measures equal 180 degrees
Definition of abscissa
: the horizontal coordinate of a point in a plane Cartesian coordinate system obtained by
measuring parallel to the x-axis— compare ORDINATE

Conditional statement
A conditional statement or simply conditional is an if-then statement such as this one: If you are not completely satisfied
with your purchase, then you can return the product and get a full refund.

The symbol that we use to represent an if-then statement is p → q

We read p → q as "if p then q" or "p implies q"

A conditional statement has an hypothesis and a conclusion. The hypothesis is the part p following if and the
conclusion is the part q following then.

Identifying the hypothesis and the conclusion of a conditional

statement
Example #1 :

Identify p and q for this conditional: If you are not completely satisfied with your purchase, then you can return the
product and get a full refund.

Hypothesis or part p : You are not completely satisfied with your purchase.

Conclusion or part q : You can return the product and get a full refund.

Example #2 :

If a quadrilateral has four right angles, then it is a rectangle.

Hypothesis : a quadrilateral has four right angles.

Conclusion : it is a rectangle.

Using a Venn Diagram to identify parts of a conditional statement

The set of things that satisfy the hypothesis lies inside the set of things that satisfy the conclusion. In the Venn Diagram

below, notice how p or the hypothesis lies completely inside the conclusion or q.
The diagram below illustrates this conditional : If you live in Boston, then you live in Massachusetts. And of course,
other conditions can go inside the big circle

Here is another example illustrating how a hypothesis is contained within a conclusion. This is the Venn Diagram for
example #2 mentioned before.

Convex polygons
Convex polygons are polygons for which a line segment joining any two points in the interior lies completely within the
figure

The word interior is important. You cannot choose one point inside and one point outside the figure

The following figure is convex:

No matter how I choose two points inside this polygon, the line segment joining these two points will always be inside
the figure.

Notice that a triangle, isosceles, scalene, right, or obtuse is always convex

Rectangles, squares, and trapezoid too are always convex

Finally, all regular polygons, such as a pentagon, hexagon, septagon, octagon, and so forth are always convex

Concave polygons
Concave polygons are polygons for which a line segment joining any two points in the interior does not lies completely
within the figure

The word interior is important. You cannot choose one point inside and one point outside the figure

The following figure is concave:

Segment AB does not entirely lie within the polygon. That is why the polygon is concave

Notice that it is quite possible to find other segments that will lie inside the figure, such as segment FE.

However, if you can find at least one segment that does not lie within the figure, the figure is concave

The following figure is also concave

 It is easy to construct a concave figure if the figure has at least 4 sides

Just make sure that one interior angle is bigger than 180 degrees.

In other words, an interior angle should be a reflex angle

Why am I saying at least 4 sides? It is possible to make a concave triangle?

The answer is no!

Since the sum of the interior angles in any triangle must add up to 180 degrees, no interior angles can be more
than 180. It is impossible! Orthographic drawing
An orthographic drawing is a drawing that shows the top view, front view, and right-side view of a three-dimensional
figure. We can also simply call the right-side view side view.

Here is how to make an orthographic drawing of the three-dimensional figure below.

Before you do the drawing, you need to clearly label or identify the front view, top view, and the right-side view.

Here is what you will see when you are looking at the drawing from the front. The front view is perhaps the easiest one
to visualize in this case. Therefore, I will start with the view from front first.

Front view of an orthographic drawing

Right side view
Here is what you will see when you are looking at the drawing from the right side.

Notice the use of dashed lines to show a hidden edge.

Top view
Here is what you will see when you are looking at the drawing from top. The view from top is perhaps the most difficult
one to visualize in this case.

Notice the green and the red lines. These solid lines show visible edges. These are edges that you do not see on the
drawing. However, you see them when you look from the top.
 Concentric circles

Concentric circles are coplanar circles that share the same center. However, radii of concentric circles are not
congruent or equal.

Concentric circles

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The circles above are examples of concentric circles. Notice that the radius of the smaller circle is shown in black while
the radius of the big circle is shown in red.

The region outside the smaller circle but inside the big circle is called annulus.

To name a circle, we use the name of the center. Since concentric circles have the same center, you may wonder how
to name concentric circles.

You may use the radii to that end!

For example, to name the big circle, you could say circle with center A and radius Y.