TEST AND

MEASUREMENTS

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INSTRUMENTATION INSTRUMENT

• is the use of the • is a device or mechanism

measuring devices to used to determine the
determine the values of present value of a
varying quantities, often quantity under
for the purpose of observation.
controlling those
quantities within
prescribed limits.

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THREE GENERAL TYPES OF
INSTRUMENTS
1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Controlling

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MEASUREMENT

• Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown

quantity with an accepted standard quantity.

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MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
1. International Standards - maintained at the
International Bureau of Weight and Measures in Paris
and are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute
measurements in terms of the fundamental units of
physics.
2. Primary Standards - maintained at national standards
laboratories in different countries. These are not
available for use outside the national laboratories. The
function is the calibration and verification of secondary
standards.

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MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
3. Secondary Standards - the basic reference standards
used by measurement and calibration in the industry.
Each industrial laboratory is responsible for its own
secondary standards, which are calibrated and certified
at national standards.
4. Working Standards - the principal tools of a
measurement laboratory. They are used to check and
calibrate general laboratory instruments or to make
comparison measurements in industrial application.

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ERROR

• Error is the deviation of a reading or set of readings from

the expected value of the measured variable.

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CATEGORIES OF
MEASUREMENT ERRORS
1. Gross Errors - generally the fault of the person using
the instrument
2. Systematic Errors - caused by problems with the
instrument, environmental effects, or observational
errors (parallax and estimation)
3. Random Errors - the accumulation of a large number
of small effects which are neither classified as gross nor
systematic.

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WAYS OF EXPRESSING
ERRORS
ABSOLUTE ERROR (E) PERCENTAGE ERROR (%E)

• The difference between • The ratio of the absolute

the expected value of the error and the expected
variable and the value multiplied by 100.
measured value of the
variable.

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ACCURACY

• the degree of exactness of a measurement when

compared to the expected value. It is the extent to which
the indications of an instrument approach the true values
of the quantities measured.

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PRECISION (P)
(MEASUREMENT)
• Is a quantitative or numerical indication of the closeness
with which a repeated set of measurements of the same
variable agrees with the average of the set of
measurements.

Precision (instrument) is the consistency of the instrument output

for a given value of input. 11
BASIC PMMC
INSTRUMENTS

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PERMANENT MAGNET
MOVING COIL (PMMC)
• This movement operates upon the interaction of the magnetic fields
between a permanent magnet and an electromagnet. The amount of
movement is determined by the size of the current. By attaching a
needle to the coil, an indication of the size of the current is obtained.
A needle deflection is obtained corresponding to the amount of
current through the ammeter. To reduce friction, the coil mechanism
is set in a jewel and pivot suspension system. Taut-band system is
another method of suspension method that provides more sensitive
but more expensive meter movement. Typical full-scale current is
50µA while for taut-band is 2µA. The most popular deflecting
movement used in instrumentation is the D' 'Arsonval movement.

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PERMANENT MAGNET
MOVING COIL (PMMC)
• Construction

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PMMC FEATURES:
• COUNTERWEIGHT - attached to the pointer tail to
provide mechanical balance and eliminate gravitational effect on
the pointer.
• SPIRAL SPRING - to control the force exerted on the coil
when current passes through it.
• MOVING COIL - pivoted so as to move freely when current
is introduced to the system.
• POLE SHOES - used to fix the position of the permanent
magnet.
• ZERO ADJUSTABLE CONTROL - used to adjust the
pointer to its initial position or zero position when no current
is flowing POINTER - provide visual indication of the amount
of current flow on the system.
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FORCES ACTIVE IN THE
PMMC
1. Deflecting Force — provided by the moving coil
pivoted so as to move freely when current flows to the
system
2. Controlling Force — provided by the spiral spnng so
that the pointer will deflect back to its initial position
when no current flows through the system
3. Damping Force — provided by the coil pointer to
eliminate pointer oscillation

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DC AMMETER

• An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the

intensity of electric current flow
Symbol.

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PROPERTIES OF PROPERTIES OF
IDEAL AMMETER REAL AMMETER
1. The internal 1. It has some
resistance is zero resistance but made
2. The needle as low as possible
deflection is directly 2. The needle
proportional to
deflection is not
current
exactly proportional
to the amount of
current

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ERRORS INTRODUCED BY
REAL AMMETER:
• Calibration Error (Cep) - it arises from the fact that the meter
face may not be accurately marked.
– The specification for this error is in terms of full- scale current, the
greatest inaccuracy will occur for small deflection. For instance, for a 1-
mA movement the calibration error would typically be about -0.03 to
+0.03 mA
• Insertion Error (caused by its internal resistance) — the real
ammeter resistance will add the resistance to the branch that will
reduce the current in any actual circuit.

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• How much reduction takes place if considering the circuit below?

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Note: A reading which is 100
percent accurate means that
the insertion error is 0
percent. A 99 percent
accurate reading means that
the insertion error is 1
percent.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. An ammeter with a full- scale deflection of 1 mA has a
calibration error of ±3 percent of the full - scale current.
What is the possible range in the true current through the
ammeter if the ammeter reads 0.35 mA?
2. Determine the percentage error of reading of an ammeter
due to ammeter insertion. Ammeter parameters include
100ꭥ meter resistance and a load resistor of 1.5 k ꭥ.
3. In the given figure, assuming no calibration error, what does
the ammeter reads if the ammeter has a resistance of 150 ꭥ?
If the ammeter is ideal, what will it read?

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AMMETER SHUNT
• An ammeter with a full — scale current of IFS can be shunted by a
resistor in order to measure current greater than IFS.

Note: If the total current is greater than IFS by a given factor, the
resistance of the shunted ammeter will be decreased by that factor.
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PROBLEM

• An ammeter with a meter resistance of 50 ꭥ and a full-

scale deflection current of 1.5 mA is to be shunted so as
to allow a total current of 5 mA. Determine the value of
the shunt resistor and the value of the input resistance of
the shunted ammeter.

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MULTI RANGE AMMETER
1. SWITCHED SHUNT

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MULTI RANGE AMMETER

2. AYRTON SHUNT - uses an ordinary switch, but the

total current is interrupted between positions, thus
preventing any possible meter damage due to switching.
A special kind of ammeter shunt arrangement which
avoids having the ammeter in the circuit without a shunt.

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MULTI RANGE AMMETER
2. AYRTON SHUNT

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DC VOLTMETER

• A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the voltage

across two points in an electric circuit. A simple D-C
voltmeter can be constructed by placing a resistor in
series with ammeter and marking the meter face to read
the voltage across the resistor and ammeter.

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DC VOLTMETER

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DC VOLTMETER
• Sensitivity (Sdc) is the reciprocal of the full - scale of the
ammeter used in the voltmeter.

The voltmeter is more sensitive if

the full-scale current of the
ammeter used in voltmeter is small.

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PROBLEM

• An ammeter with IFS = 1mA and RM = 50 ohms is to be

converted to a voltmeter. Compute the size of the series
resistor required to measure a full scale voltage of 15
volts.

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DC VOLTMETER

• Loading Error (caused by its internal resistance) —

the real voltmeter resistance will reduce the resistance
across the branch that will reduce the voltage drop across
that branch.

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DC VOLTMETER

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PROBLEM

• What is the percentage error of reading of a voltmeter

due to voltmeter loading if it has 40 kꭥ internal resistance
and a load resistor of 1.3 kꭥ?

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MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER
1. Switched Multiplier Resistance

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MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER
2. Series Connected Multiplier Resistance

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OHMMETER
• An ohmmeter is an instrument used to measure the
resistance across two points in an electric circuit. A simple
ohmmeter can be made by using a battery, an ammeter
and a resistor.

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OHMMETER
• To measure the unknown resistance (Ru), connect it to
the terminals X and Y

• Note Ro is an adjustable resistor because a rheostat is

always included in an ohmmeter to correct for the aging
of the battery. Normally, an ohmmeter is first zeroed
before trying to measure the unknown resistor. Zeroing
means that we must short the terminals X and Y and
adjust Ro to produce full scale current through the
ammeter

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OHMMETER
• Deflection Factor (D) equation is used to mark the
ohmmeter face

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PROBLEM

• The ohmmeter has a meter movement of 150 µA and 3

kꭥ resistance. The open circuit voltage is 6 V. The
ohmmeter is zeroed, and then an unknown resistance is
measured, which produces quarter-scale deflection What
is the value of the unknown resistor?

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AC VOLTMETER
• It consists of a rectifier and DC voltmeter to measure AC
voltage
1. Using Half-Wave Rectifier

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PROBLEM

• The meter movement with IFS = 50 µA and Rm = 1 kꭥ is

to be converted to an AC voltmeter using half-wave
rectification. Compute the size of the series resistor
required to have full deflection for an input sine wave of
40 volts rms.

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AC VOLTMETER
2. Using Full-Wave Rectifier
A. Using Center-Tapped Transformer

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AC VOLTMETER
2. Using Full-Wave Rectifier
B. Using Bridged Type

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PEAK DETECTION
• Responds to the peak of the input signal.

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PEAK TO PEAK DETECTOR
• Consists of a clamping circuit followed by a peak detector.

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DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
• generally refers to a circuit in which a load is connected
between two levels of potential.

• The bridge is said to be balance if the load current (IL) is

equal to zero. The load current (IL) is zero if the condition
below is true.

Balance DC Bridges provide a method for making extremely

accurate measurements of DC voltage or resistance.
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DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• The Wheatstone Bridge is used to determine with great
accuracy the resistance of an unknown resistor using the
values of fixed resistors. This instrument is named after
the English physicist, Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802 —
1875)
• Note: The above formula is correct only if the bridge in a
balanced condition. It is balanced if the potential across
the galvanometer is zero.

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DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

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DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
SLIDE WIRE
• is one of the applications of the Wheatstone bridge.
Operation: The Bridge is
balanced by moving the key
along the wire until the
galvanometer reads zero. The
resistance of the unknown
resistor is determined from
the physical position of the
key on the scale.

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DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
KELVIN BRIDGE
• The Kelvin Bridge is a modified version of the Wheatstone
bridge eliminating the effects of contact and lead
resistance. When measuring unknown low resistances that
are from 1ꭥ to about 1µꭥ thus providing a high degree of
accuracy.
DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
THE VARLEY LOOP
• The Vartey Loop is an application of the Wheatstone
bridge used to find the distance of a ground fault in
transmission line cables.
DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
THE VARLEY LOOP
Operation
Step 1: The SPDT switch is moved to position 1 and the
calibrating rheostat is adjusted to obtain a balance. The
resistance (C1) is used to obtain the resistance of both
cables.

Step 2: The SPDT switch is then moved to position 2 and

the calibrating rheostat is readjusted to obtain a second
balance. The resistance (C2) is used to calculate the distance
of the fault from the instrument.
DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
THE MURRAY LOOP
A simplified version of the Varley loop used to locate faults
in very low-resistance loops.

Operation: The rheostat B is adjusted until the

galvanometer reads zero.
DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
THE SLIDE-WIRE MURRAY LOOP
A simplified version of the Varley loop used to locate faults
in very low-resistance loops.
DC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
THE BRIDGE CIRCUIT
Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 all four arms are considered as
impedance (frequency dependent components).
The bridge is said to be balance if the load current (IL) is
equal to zero. The load current (IL) is zero if the condition
below is true:
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
CAPACITANCE COMPARISON CIRCUIT
Measure an unknown capacitance by comparing with it with
a known capacitance.
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
CAPACITANCE COMPARISON CIRCUIT
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
INDUCTANCE COMPARISON CIRCUIT
Measure an unknown inductance by comparing with it with
a known inductance.
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
INDUCTANCE COMPARISON CIRCUIT
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
MAXWELL BRIDGE
Measure an unknown inductance by comparing with it with
a known capacitance.
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
MAXWELL BRIDGE
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
HAY BRIDGE
Similar to Maxwell Bridge but R1 and C1 are in series
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
HAY BRIDGE
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
SCHERING BRIDGE
Used extensively for the measurement of capacitance and
the quality of capacitor in term of dissipation factor (D).
Dissipation factor of a capacitor: the ratio of reactance to
resistance. (frequency dependent and circuit configuration)
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
SCHERING BRIDGE

Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close

the phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal' value of 90 .
For Schering Bridge:

For Schering Bridge, R, is a fixed value; the dial of Ci can be calibrated

directly in D at one particular frequency.
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
WEIN BRIDGE
Measure frequency of the voltage source using series RC in
one arm and parallel RC in the adjoining arm.
AC BRIDGE CIRCUIT INSTRUMENTS
WEIN BRIDGE
ATTENUATORS

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ATTENUATORS
• ATTENUATORS are used to reduce the signal level by
a given amount. The most basic form of attenuator is
voltage divider attenuator circuit.

• Voltage Divider Attenuator Circuit Voltage divider

attenuator is the most commonly used in the input stage
of measuring instruments in order to prevent large signals
from overdriving the instrument and a very simple
attenuator and very important instrument.

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ATTENUATORS
The problem of voltage divider attenuator circuit is the
presence of the stray capacitance (C2) across R2 that is
"frequency limiting effect".

• At higher frequencies, the reactance of the stray capacitor

may become small enough to reduce the output voltage
(Vout). At infinite frequency,Vout becomes zero.
• At lower frequencies, the reactance of the stray capacitor
is very high so that voltage divider performs like a simple
resistive attenuator circuit.
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ATTENUATORS
To overcome the frequency limiting effect of stray capacitor,
a capacitor (Cl) is employed across R1 to make the high
frequency gain equal to the low — frequency gain; the ratio
of the reactances equals the ratio of the resistances.

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IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF ATTENUATOR
1. Attenuation factor (af) — the ratio between input
signal and output signal of the attenuator or reciproca:
only of gain of the amplifier.

2. Characteristic Resistance (Ro) - it refers to that

value of load resistance on the output terminals which
produces the same value of resistance at the input
terminals or it can match impedances both input and
output terminals.

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PROBLEM

1. The value of R1 is 10 k and R2 is 4.7 k of voltage divider

attenuator circuit. Find the attenuation factor in decibels
2. What is the value of C1 that compensates for C2 if the
tube and stray capacitance equals 60 pF R1 equals 10.7
Mꭥ and R2 equals 1.5Mꭥ.

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SYMMETRICAL T ATTENUATOR
SYMMETRICAL Π ATTENUATOR
PROBLEM

• Compute the characteristic resistance and the attenuation

factor of a symmetrical T attenuators which has Ri = 470ꭥ
and R2 = 200ꭥ.

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BRIDGED T ATTENUATOR
• In reference to symmetrical T attenuator, there is an
additional resistor that bridges from the input to the
output.
VARIABLE ATTENUATOR
• It allows selection of different values of attenuation, while
maintaining the characteristic resistance at the value of
R1.
THANK YOU!
GOOD LUCK AND GOD BLESS!

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