Membranes

Chapter 5
 Membrane Structure
The fluid mosaic model of membrane
structure contends that membranes consist
of:
-phospholipids arranged in a bilayer
-globular proteins inserted in the lipid
bilayer

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 Membrane Structure
Cellular membranes have 4 components:
1. phospholipid bilayer
2. transmembrane proteins
3. interior protein network
4. cell surface markers

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 Membrane Structure
Membrane structure is visible using an
electron microscope.

Transmission electron microscopes (TEM)

can show the 2 layers of a membrane.

Freeze-fracturing techniques separate the

layers and reveal membrane proteins.
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 Phospholipids
Phospholipid structure consists of
-glycerol – a 3-carbon polyalcohol acting
as a backbone for the phospholipid
-2 fatty acids attached to the glycerol
-phosphate group attached to the glycerol

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 Phospholipids
The fatty acids are nonpolar chains of carbon
and hydrogen.
-Their nonpolar nature makes them
hydrophobic (“water-fearing”).

The phosphate group is polar and

hydrophilic (“water-loving”).

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 Phospholipids
The partially hydrophilic, partially
hydrophobic phospholipid
spontaneously forms a bilayer:
-fatty acids are on the inside
-phosphate groups are on both
surfaces of the bilayer

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 Phospholipids
Phospholipid bilayers are fluid.
-hydrogen bonding of water holds the 2
layers together
-individual phospholipids and unanchored
proteins can move through the membrane
-saturated fatty acids make the membrane
less fluid than unsaturated fatty acids
-warm temperatures make the membrane
more fluid than cold temperatures
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Phospholipids

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 Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins have various functions:
1. transporters
2. enzymes
3. cell surface receptors
4. cell surface identity markers
5. cell-to-cell adhesion proteins
6. attachments to the cytoskeleton

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 Membrane Proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins
-anchored to a phospholipid in one layer of
the membrane
-possess nonpolar regions that are
inserted in the lipid bilayer
-are free to move throughout one layer of
the bilayer

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 Membrane Proteins
Integral membrane proteins
-span the lipid bilayer (transmembrane
proteins)
-nonpolar regions of the protein are
embedded in the interior of the bilayer
-polar regions of the protein protrude from
both sides of the bilayer

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 Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins possess at least one
transmembrane domain
-region of the protein containing
hydrophobic amino acids
-spans the lipid bilayer

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 Membrane Proteins
Extensive nonpolar regions within a
transmembrane protein can create a pore
through the membrane.
-β sheets in the protein secondary
structure form a cylinder called a β-barrel
-β-barrel interior is polar and allows water
and small polar molecules to pass through
the membrane

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 Passive Transport
Passive transport is movement of
molecules through the membrane in which
-no energy is required
-molecules move in response to a
concentration gradient

Diffusion is movement of molecules from

high concentration to low concentration
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 Passive Transport
Selective permeability: integral membrane
proteins allow the cell to be selective about
what passes through the membrane.
Channel proteins have a polar interior
allowing polar molecules to pass through.
Carrier proteins bind to a specific molecule
to facilitate its passage.

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 Passive Transport
Channel proteins include:
-ion channels allow the passage of ions
(charged atoms or molecules) which are
associated with water
-gated channels are opened or closed in
response to a stimulus
-the stimulus may be chemical or electrical

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 Passive Transport
Carrier proteins bind to the molecule that they
transport across the membrane.

Facilitated diffusion is movement of a

molecule from high to low concentration
with the help of a carrier protein.
-is specific
-is passive
-saturates when all carriers are occupied
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 Passive Transport
In an aqueous solution
-water is the solvent
-dissolved substances are the solutes

Osmosis is the movement of water from an

area of high to low concentration of water
-movement of water toward an area of high
solute concentration

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 Passive Transport
When 2 solutions have different osmotic
concentrations
-the hypertonic solution has a higher
solute concentration
-the hypotonic solution has a lower
solute concentration
Osmosis moves water through aquaporins
toward the hypertonic solution.

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 Passive Transport
Organisms can maintain osmotic balance in
different ways.
1. Some cells use extrusion in which water
is ejected through contractile vacuoles.
2. Isosmotic regulation involves keeping
cells isotonic with their environment.
3. Plant cells use turgor pressure to push
the cell membrane against the cell wall and
keep the cell rigid.
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 Active Transport
Active transport
-requires energy – ATP is used directly or
indirectly to fuel active transport
-moves substances from low to high
concentration
-requires the use of carrier proteins

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 Active Transport
Carrier proteins used in active transport
include:
-uniporters – move one molecule at a time
-symporters – move two molecules in the
same direction
-antiporters – move two molecules in
opposite directions

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 Active Transport
Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump
-an active transport mechanism
-uses an antiporter to move 3 Na+ out of
the cell and 2 K+ into the cell
-ATP energy is used to change the
conformation of the carrier protein
-the affinity of the carrier protein for either
Na+ or K+ changes so the ions can be
carried across the membrane
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 Active Transport
Coupled transport
-uses the energy released when a molecule
moves by diffusion to supply energy to
active transport of a different molecule
-a symporter is used
-glucose-Na+ symporter captures the
energy from Na+ diffusion to move glucose
against a concentration gradient

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 Bulk Transport
Bulk transport of substances is accomplished
by
1. endocytosis – movement of
substances into the cell
2. exocytosis – movement of materials
out of the cell

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 Bulk Transport
Endocytosis occurs when the plasma
membrane envelops food particles and
liquids.
1. phagocytosis – the cell takes in
particulate matter
2. pinocytosis – the cell takes in only fluid
3. receptor-mediated endocytosis –
specific molecules are taken in after they
bind to a receptor
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 Bulk Transport
Exocytosis occurs when material is
discharged from the cell.
-vesicles in the cytoplasm fuse with the cell
membrane and release their contents to
the exterior of the cell
-used in plants to export cell wall material
-used in animals to secrete hormones,
neurotransmitters, digestive enzymes

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 Cell Communication
Communication between cells requires:

ligand: the signaling molecule

receptor protein: the molecule to which the

ligand (signal) binds
-may be on the plasma membrane or
within the cell
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 Cell Communication
There are four basic mechanisms for cellular
communication:
1. direct contact
2. paracrine signaling
3. endocrine signaling
4. synaptic signaling

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 Cell Communication
• Direct contact – molecules on the surface
of one cell are recognized by receptors on
the adjacent cell

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 Cell Communication
• Paracrine signaling – signal released
from a cell has an effect on neighboring
cells

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 Cell Communication
• Endocrine signaling – hormones
released from a cell affect other cells
throughout the body

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 Cell Communication
• Synaptic signaling – nerve cells release
the signal (neurotransmitter) which binds
to receptors on nearby cells

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 Cell Communication
When a ligand binds to a receptor protein,
the cell has a response.

signal transduction: the events within the

cell that occur in response to a signal

Different cell types can respond differently to

the same signal.
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 Cell Communication
A cell’s response to a signal often involves
activating or inactivating proteins.
Phosphorylation is a common way to change
the activity of a protein.
protein kinase – an enzyme that adds a
phosphate to a protein
phosphatase – an enzyme that removes a
phosphate from a protein

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 Cell-to-Cell Interactions
Cells can identify each other by cell surface
markers.
-glycolipids are commonly used as tissue-
specific markers
-major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
proteins are used by cells to distinguish
“self” from “non-self”

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 Cell-to-Cell Interactions
Cells within a tissue are connected to each
other by cell junctions
1. tight junctions – create sheets of cells
2. anchoring junctions – connect the
cytoskeletons of adjacent cells
3. communicating junctions – permit small
molecules to pass between cells
a. gap junctions – in animal cells
b. plasmodesmata – in plant cells
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