FUTOJNLS 2018 VOLUME- 4, ISSUE- 1.

PP- 454 - 474

Futo Journal Series (FUTOJNLS)

e-ISSN : 2476-8456 p-ISSN : 2467-8325
Volume-4, Issue-1, pp- 454 - 474
www.futojnls.org

Research Paper July 2018

English for Specific Purposes: A Study of Sentence Structures in

Computer Science Texts
Anigbogu, N. C.
Directorate of General Studies, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The study examined the sentence structures peculiar to the sub-registers of Computer
Science texts in order to facilitate learners‟ academic engagements with texts for learning
discipline-specific English: English for Specific Purposes. The data were collected through a
purposive sample of forty Computer Science texts covering eight sub-registers of Computer
Science. The research employed the Systematic Functional Linguistics as an analytical
model to examine the sentence structures. The Theme/Rhyme textual analysis in the
Systemic Functional theory was particularly used. The study revealed a variety of sentence
structures found in the Computer Science texts. The sentence structures were simple,
compound, complex and compound-complex. It was also discovered that each sub-register
had its unique sentence structures but the complex sentence structure was prevalent in the
texts. In addition, it was revealed that the sentence structures were crucial in representing
complicated relationships and in expressing analytical ideas in Computer Science texts.
Furthermore, the researcher highlighted the relevance of English for Specific Purposes by
providing a rich store for discipline specific English. Therefore, the researcher recommended
English for Computer Science for learners of English as a second language.

Keywords: Computer, English, language, specific, structures

1. Introduction
In the field of Computer Science, new words have been coined to express new
concepts and inventions. Sometimes, the vocabulary in Computer Science appears highly
technical and difficult to understand in the second language situation. Arya, Hiebret and
Pearson (2011) have noted that lexical complexity has a significant impact on
comprehension of science texts. In the case of Computer Science, many of the complex
conceptual words have specialised meanings. Thus, Abanihe (1992) asserts that the highly
technical formula-laden vocabulary, coupled with the introduction of many new concepts,
syntactic/text structures render the reading of science texts difficult. Syntactic structures,
sometimes, pose challenges to learners of the English language. Arya, Herbert and Pearson
(2011), state that the challenge may come when the reader needs to construct a coherent
meaning from a series of short sentences. They posit that just as complex sentences require
readers to decode propositions within the sentence, having to connect ideas across discrete
simple sentences may place other tasks and demands on the readers.

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Abanihe (1992) affirms that some learners come into the science class with different
levels of prior knowledge which also affects comprehension. Similarly, Armbruster (1993)
stresses that “some science texts are inaccessible because they introduce the reader to
many unfamiliar words yet fail to explain them in ways that connect with the students
experiences”. In the same vein, Arya, Herbert & Pearson (2011) explain that “science texts
containing unfamiliar terms pose a lot of problems to learners who are still developing
literacy skills as well as academic vocabulary”.
In specialised disciplines, some learners of English face difficulty as regards the English
language course. Particularly, Beaubouef (2003) laments that “many students enter the field
of Computer Science with misconceptions about the importance of communication skills.
They do not realise the significance of reading, writing and speaking in Computer Science”.
Furthermore, the author posits that the students think they will end up with jobs, working
without communicating with people. Thus, students need skills covered in English speech
and technical writing in order to achieve success as Computer Science professionals
(Beaubouef,2003). Therefore, the learners need to grasp and understand the technical
structures needed for competence in the field.
Although, Computer Science is replete with mathematics and formulae, the English
language is of utmost importance in decoding the verbal information in the texts. Beaubouef
(2001) affirms that the English language and technical report writing are typically required for
Computer Science students and stresses that English and technical writing offer skills that
are critical for success in any profession, especially Computer Science. Corroborating this
fact, Peralta (2014) observes that English is critical in helping Computer Science students to
develop their linguistic abilities because English is the language of science. Weijen (2013)
asserts that English is generally considered to be the lingua franca of the scientific
community. McGrum, Cran and Neil (1986) state that 80% of the information stored in the
computer worldwide is in English”. Furthermore, Wood (1997) observes that “the position of
English in some fields of sciences is stark because the vast majority of articles in Computer
Science, for instance, are published in the English language”. On this note, second
language learners of the English language should be proficient in the use of English which
is critical in all professions, including Computer Science. Thus, Rahman (2012) in a study
carried out to determine the English language needs of Computer Science undergraduates,
affirms that the English course is needed to develop the reading skills of Computer Science
undergraduates for their specialised discipline. Thus, the need for English for Computer
Science appears indispensable. Therefore, Hutchison and Water (1997) assert that “English
has become a subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language
teachers”. English for Specific Purposes is centred on the language (grammar, lexis,
register) skills, discourse and genres appropriate to specific discipline. It is related or
designed for specific disciplines .Therefore it is the intention of the researcher to examine
the sentence structures in Computer science texts and to explain the relevance of English
for Specific Purposes in the study of the English language. The study will be of great
assistance to scholars as it would acquaint them with peculiar language use in the field of
Computer Science. Pedagogically, the study will provide a framework for learning and
teaching English in the specialised field of Computer Science and would help learners to use
and manipulate language effectively in specific situations. The outcome of the study would
be of interest to linguists as it would describe the syntax of Computer Science.
The study, specifically, sought to answer the following questions:
What sentence structures are unique to sub-registers of Computer Science?
What is the relevance of ESP in the study of English language?

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1.1. English for Specific Purposes: The Underlying Philosophy

According to Wright (1992), English for special, specific, specifiable purposes refers to
“that type of language learning which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a
particular field of human activity”. Widdowson (1983) states that “ESP is a matter of
describing a particular area of language and then using the description as a course
specification to facilitate learning, which is necessary for competence in a specialised area”.
Hence, English for Specific Purposes focuses on learning specialised varieties of English
most often for non-native speakers of English in advanced academic and professional
settings. According to Okoh (2012), “ESP means the learning and teaching of English that is
discipline-specific”. ESP deals with language related to a specific field, that is, the learning of
English based on the specific needs of the learners.
According to Hutchison and Waters (1987), “there are three reasons for the
emergence of all ESP namely, the demand for a brave new world, a revolution in linguistics
and a focus on the learner”. Hutchison and Waters (1987) believe that the end of the Second
World War brought with it a period of growth in scientific, technical and economic activities.
The demand for an international language as the language of these activities fell on the
English language. English became the international language for scientific, technical and
economic activities (Hutchison & Waters, 1987).
On another note, revolutionary pioneers of linguistics placed emphasis on the ways in
which language is used in real communication. A vital discovery by these pioneers was in
the ways spoken and written languages vary. So a variant of English changes according to
the context where it is used. (Hutchison & Waters, 1987). Since language varies in different
contexts, making language instructions meet the needs of learners in specific situations
becomes very necessary. Furthermore, learners need to be motivated by different needs
and interests. The focus on the learners becomes pivotal as one of the methods used in
facilitating linguistic knowledge (Hutchison & Waters 1987). Thus, ESP often resorts to
specific areas. These may be subject-based, theme-based or skill-based (Dudley-s Evans &
St. John, 1998). Different scholars have classified English for Specific Purposes in different
ways. Carter (1983:20) identifies three types of ESP:
i. English as a restricted language.
ii. English for academic and occupational purpose.
iii. English with specific topics.
For the first category, Carter (1983) regards the language used by air-traffic controllers,
dining-room waiters or air-hosts as instances of English as a restricted language.
Furthermore, Mackay and Mountford (1978) stress that “the language of the air-traffic control
can be regard as special because the repertoire required by the controller is limited and
could be determined situationally as the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hosts.”
In English for Academic and Occupational Purposes, participants need English to perform
their occupational duties while some need the language for their studies.
The third type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. This
type of ESP concerns the anticipated future needs of students. For example, scientists who
may require English for postgraduate studies, attending conferences or working in foreign
institution.
For Hutchison and Waters (1987), ESP is classified into English for Science and
Technology (EST), English for Business and Economic (EBE), English for Social Studies
(ESS). The source, further, divides each of these subject areas into English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). Hutchison and Waters
(1987:16) state that “an example of English for Occupational Purposes for the EST branch is

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English for Technicians whereas an example of English for Academic Purposes for EST
branch is English for Medical Studies”. However, they posit that there is no clear- cut
distinction between EAP and EOP because it is possible that the language learnt for
immediate use in a study environment would be utilised when the learner starts working.
Furthermore, Munby (1978) classified ESP into two broad categories, namely English for
Occupational Purposes and English for Educational Purposes.
Strevens (1988) outlined three absolute and two variable characteristics of ESP:
“ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learner; it is related in content to
particular disciplines, occupations and activities; it is centred on the language appropriate to
those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and analysis of the discourse”. For
variable characteristics, Streven (1988) stresses that “ESP may be restricted to the language
skills to be learned and it is not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology”.
Dudley-Evans (1998) asserts that ESP meets specific needs of the learner and
makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. ESP is
centred on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse and genres
appropriate to these activities. For variable characteristics, Dudley-Evans (1998) states that:
i. ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines.
ii. It may be used in specific learning situations with a different methodology from
that of general English.
iii. It is likely to be designed for adult learners but could be for learners at the
secondary school level.
iv. It is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
v. Its courses are tailored according to some basic knowledge of the language
need system.
Mackay and Mountford (1978) posit that ESP refers to the learning of English for
utilitarian purposes. These utilitarian purposes are for occupational requirements, vocational
programme, academic or professional studies. Thus, Oluikpe (1998) states that “the goal of
ESP christened Communication Skills Project in Nigeria is to solve the linguistic problems
inherent in the country by ensuring that scholars are able to speak, read, and write in the
English language”. He affirms that ESP evolved as a means of solving the immediate
survival and communication needs of learners in a given vocation. He outlines the paradigm
in the practice of ESP as:
i. The learner being an adult with identified communication need in a vocation of
his choice.
ii. The learner‟s motivation being that of survival.
iii. The teaching focusing on the speaking skill with the following bias:
Native interactional contexts
Native register types
Native speech as model
Native pragmatic setting.
Okoh (1998) notes that there is no strong tradition of ESP approach to learning
English in several Nigerian universities and states that the universities are aware of the
concept of ESP but some have not implemented it and explored its varied uses.
Corroborating this fact, Oluikpe (1998) stresses that the ESP programme has not gained a
firm root in Nigeria and believes that the project requires funds to survive. Explaining the
concept of ESP in the Nigerian situation, Okoh (2012) posits that “the kind of English taught
and learnt in some Nigerian universities is grossly outmoded and anachronistic”. He laments
that some Nigerian tertiary institutions have not adopted the ESP approach to learning

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English and asserts that English has become a highly specialised and diversified discipline.
He believes that Nigerian universities should adopt a new and more productive ESP as
regards the Use of English. Okoh (2012) reiterates that the learner needs the language for a
specific purpose. So the ESP is most suitable for learners since it is discipline specific.
Furthermore, Umera-Okeke (2011) stresses that the problem that exists in Nigeria is
that “institutions and learners are yet to realise the importance of a definition and need
assessment often associated with ESP”. She attributes this as culture as the people in
Nigeria are not used to articulating what they want, if they ever know what they really want
.So, the tertiary institutions should furnish students with their English language needs in their
different fields of study. As a corollary, William, Swales and Kirkman (1988) state that
learners of ESP are predominantly either in tertiary education or undergoing professional
training and have much more limited and finely focused need. ESP is now concerned with
communicative as well as linguistic competence as seen in attention to text information,
structure in reading and writing and appropriateness of style in academic writing and study
skills (William, Swales & Kirkman, 1988).
Furthermore, Okoh (1998) contends that the concern of ESP practitioners in
universities is to focus on the kind of English learners need for effective communication in
their day-to-day professional interaction. The overall focus of ESP is to produce, not just
language learners, but language users and the ESP specialist is concerned with the specific
use to which the learner desires to put the language after learning it (Okoh, 2012).
Thus, particular attention should be given to contextual and appropriate usage since
ESP helps the learners to participate in relevant discourse community. Swales (1986)
stresses that one crucial method of realising this role is through an understanding of the
forms and functions of genres of written academic discourse. Hence, a much more
promising approach to a theory of ESP comes from the analysis of EST texts (Dudley-
Evans, 2014).
Furthermore, (Dudley-Evans, 2014) affirms that “in the same way as the teaching
procedures of ESP are linked to a view of language learning, all ESP activities have to be
linked to a view text”. It becomes imperative therefore to analyse the academic writing in
Computer Science in order to depict its forms, structure and the writer‟s purpose.

2. Theoretical Framework
This study employed the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as an analytical
model to examine lexico-syntactic elements in academic writing of Computer Science.
Language, according to Systemic Functional Linguistics, is a symbolic instrument used for
communicative purposes (Malmkjan & Anderson, 1991). Thus, SFL explains language from
the way it is actually used in discourse and not just on the formal relations between
linguistic units. The theory sees language as being centred on the notion of language
functions. SFL focuses on what people do with language. Hence, Chappell (1988) states
that Systemic Functional theory views language as a social semiotic, a resource people use
to accomplish their purpose by expressing meanings in context. Language is, therefore, a
systematic resource for expressing meanings in context. Furthermore, language exists and
must be studied in contexts such as professional settings, and settings in language texts
(Chappell, 1988). Norquist (2014) asserts that Systemic Functional Linguistics treats
grammar as a meaning making resource and insists on the interrelation of form and
meaning. Thus, Chappell, (1998) states that:
Systemic Functional theory is based on the view
that language is a system for making meaning.

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Systemic refers to the fact that when we use

language, we make choices from sets of
available options …Functional assumes that
every time we make a choice from the available
options, we are doing so in order to fulfil a
communicative purpose.
Furthermore, Chapelle (2013) remarks that “by using Systemic Functional
Linguistics, the teacher has a powerful tool with which to mediate explanations and thus
mediate the learner‟s understanding of how to use the language”. This tool, according to
Chappell (2013) is the bridge between context and text; between the socio-cultural setting in
which the speaker is conducting his/her activity and the language that is part of that activity.
The tool is called register and it helps the teacher to note the context of language use and
identify:
 The field : what is going on in the activity
 The tenor: who is taking part in the activity
 The mode: the part language plays in the activity(Chappell, 2013)
Bawarshi and Reiff (2015) assert that systemic functional approaches to genre have
contributed richly to how genre is understood and applied in textual analysis and language
teaching. They posit that SFL operates from the premise that the language structure is
integrally related to social function and context. They reiterate that the theory is functional
because it refers to the work that language does within particular contexts and systematic
because it refers to the structure or organisation of language so that it can be used to get
things done within those contexts.
Thus, according to Halliday (1995), “language performs meaningful actions within
“contexts of situations” and the contexts of situations reoccur as situation types. As these
situation types become conventionalised over time, they begin to specify the semantic
configurations that the speaker will typically produce”. Thus, this “clustering of semantic
features,” according to situation types, is referred to as register (Halliday, 1995).
Bwarshi and Reiff (2015:31) state that “when linguists identify a scientific register
they not only describe a style of language but also the practices, interactional patterns, and
means of communication associated with scientific contexts”. Therefore, they posit that
genre and register relate to each other. Register functions on the level of context of situation
while genre functions on the level of context of culture. Furthermore, genre connects culture
to situation and register connects situation to language (Bwarshi & Reiff, 2015). The authors
assert that this relationship shows how social purposes/motives are linked to text structures
and how these are realised as situated social and linguistic actions within register.
Therefore, Bwarshi and Reiff (2015) assert that “this relationship has been the most common
trajectory in Systemic Functional Linguistics genre analysis: moving from the identification of
social purpose as represented in generic structural elements or generic structure potential to
the analysis of text register to language meta -functions to lexico-grammatical and
graphological features” . Since Systemic Functional Linguistics lays emphasis on functions,
functions are therefore, taken to have left their mark on the structure and organisation of
language at all levels, which is said to be achieved via meta- functions.

The Meta-Functions
In SFL, language has three meta-functions which are ideational, interpersonal and
textual. The ideational function refers to the way language is used in expressing the realities

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of human experience. Ajayi (2009) states that the ideational meanings relate to what is going
on in the world, that is, how people use language to articulate experiences. They relate to
how words are used to express actions, objects, places, events, people, things and ideas.
Also, Matthiessen and Halliday (1997), remark that the ideational meta-function is concerned
with „ideation‟- the grammatical resources for construing our experience of the world around
us and inside us. One of its major grammatical systems is transitivity, the resource for
construing our experience, the flux of goings-on, as structural configurations, each consisting
of a process, the participants involved in the process, and circumstances attendants on it”.
The interpersonal meta-function gives individuals the opportunity to express their
attitudes and establish personal and social relationship. The function equally deals on how
people express their judgment and how they use language to influence others. Thus,
Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) state that interpersonal meta-function is concerned with
“the interaction between the speaker and addressee … the grammatical resource for
enacting social roles in general, and speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction, that is,
for establishing, changing and maintaining interpersonal relations”. One of its major
grammatical systems is mood, the grammaticalisation of speech function (Matthiessen &
Halliday (1997) .Furthermore, the scholars stress that ideational and interpersonal meta-
functions orient towards two „extra-linguistic‟ phenomenon, the social world and the natural
world. Thus, the source posits that we construe the natural world in the ideation mode and to
enact the social world in the interpersonal mode. The textual meta-function expresses the
structure of information or how language is organised to achieve goals and to produce a
cohesive text (Opara, 2009). Also the textual meta-function is concerned with the creation of
text with the presentation of ideational and interpersonal meaning as information that can be
shared by the speaker and listener in text unfolding in context (Matthiessen & Halliday,
1997). Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) assert that:
One of the major textual systems is Theme; a
resource for setting up a local context for a
clause by selecting a local point of departure in
the flow of information…The role of textual
meta-function is an enabling one. It serves the
presentation of ideational and interpersonal
meaning as information that can be shared: it
provides the speaker with strategies for guiding
the listener in his/her interpretation of the text.
The Theme is the element which serves as a point of departure of the message; it locates
and orients the clause within its context (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). The remaining part
of the message in which the Theme is developed is called the rheme. The scholars posit that
a clause consists of a theme accompanied by a Rheme; and the structure is expressed by
the order: whatever is chosen as the Theme is put first.
Halliday and Mathiessen‟s analysis of Theme and rheme shows that the Theme
always starts from the beginning of the clause. It is what sets the scene for the clause itself
and positions it in relation to the unfolding text. The authors use the term „unmarked Theme‟
to refer to the mapping of theme onto the subject. Therefore, „unmarked Theme‟ is the
logical subject of a verb while the „marked Theme‟ is any linguistic device other than the
subject in a declarative clause. Thus, a „marked Theme‟ can be „an adverbial group,
prepositional phrase, adjunct or a complement. Opara (2009) posits that a clause is marked
if it has an unusual form or unmarked if it has the usual form and anything other than the
subject in a declarative clause is marked.

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Furthermore, Forey (2015) further asserts that the Theme gives a special status to a
chosen part of the clause; it helps to organise the message and plays a vital role in the
success of a text. It helps to construe the intended interpretation of the clause and the text
as a whole .The author also posits that:
It is commonly understood that Theme is important since
it extends the analysis of a text beyond the grammatical
structure of individual clauses or sentences to the unit of
text. Theme incorporates, at a higher level, the author‟s
aims in participating in discourse.
Forey (2015) equally opines that thematic choice must take generic conventions into
consideration and concerns related to genre and the intended audience will influence the
choice of Theme. Furthermore, Theme is seen to contribute to construal of a text‟s
meanings, to the organisation of the ideas, and to reader‟s interpretation of the message.
Forey (2015) asserts that Theme enhances the understanding of language at various levels:
i. Clause: Theme helps in understanding the starting point of the message.
ii. Text: Theme helps us to understand the way in which the message is organised and
it is a major device that helps us to understand a text as coherent.
iii. Genre: Theme helps us to understand some of the generic conventions which exist
in a given genre.
Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) further state that:
In the theme-rheme structure, it is Theme that is the
prominent element… by analysing the thematic
structure of a text clause by clause, we can gain an
insight into its texture and understand how the writer
made clear to us the nature of his underlying concerns.
Therefore, Theme and rheme show how messages are organised to achieve goals,
to produce cohesive units and to achieve generic conventions. The study employed the
theme and rheme structure in the textual analysis of Computer Science texts to show the
sentence/clause structures in the texts. Also, the three meta-functions in SFL are directly
relevant to the present study because the research examined the use of language in
academic writing or professional settings in the field of Computer Science.

3. Methodology
3.1. Research Population
The population comprised textbooks and journals in the field of Computer Science.
Excerpts were culled from the textbooks and journals and analysed. The result of this study
can be generalised to all other textbooks. This is because other texts have regularities of
structure in Computer Science.
3.2. Sampling Technique
The purposive sampling technique was used to select forty texts from journals and
textbooks in the field of Computer Science. These textbooks and journals covered various
sub-branches of Computer Science namely: database management system, computer
security, computer architecture, artificial intelligence, information technology, programming
languages, networking, introduction to computers and appreciation which are different sub-
registers of Computer Science. Five texts were selected from each of the eight sub-
branches of Computer Science.;

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3.3. Research Design

The researcher employed the quantitative and qualitative descriptions of data for the
study. The quantitative description employed frequency count and percentages in the
presentation of data. The qualitative analysis described the peculiarities in language use.
3.4. Research Instrument
Forty texts were culled from forty standard journals and textbooks. The sentence
structures were analysed.
3.5. Method of Data Analysis
The corpus of the Computer Science was analysed. The sentence structures were
written out and categorised according to types. Simple percentages were used to categorise
them into types and in tables with the formula shown below:

 a  100
b 1
where,

a refers to a sub-category,

b refers to the total number of sentences in the text.

This can also be interpreted as:

Total numberof sentencesin each sub  category 100


Total numberof sentencesin the sentencesin the text 1

The researcher worked on the texts, writing out different examples of sentence structures
from the texts.

4. Results
4.1. Sentence Structures in Computer Science Texts
The researcher categorised the sentence structures found in the 40 texts employed
for the study. The texts were culled from 8 sub-registers in the field of Computer Science.
Thus, the study covered 5 texts from each of the sub-registers. A total number of 1000
sentences were analysed into different structural types. The sentence structures were also
analysed using the theme and rheme structure.

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Table 1: Sentence Structures in Eight Sub-registers of Computer Science

Sub Registers No of Types of Sentence Structures
Sentences in
the Sub-Text
Simple Compound Complex Compound- Total
complex
No % No % No % No % %
Database 125 41 32.80 18 14.40 55 44.00 11 8.80 100
Management
System
Computer Security 144 13 9.00 27 18.80 98 68.10 06 4.10 100
Computer 150 73 48.70 31 20.60 42 28.00 04 2.60 100
Architecture
Artificial 107 34 31.80 13 12.10 52 48.60 08 7.50 100
Intelligence
Introduction to 111 22 19.80 36 32.40 42 37.80 11 10.00 100
Computers and
Appreciation
Programming 131 50 38.20 07 5.30 66 50.40 08 6.10 100
Languages
Networking 131 72 55.00 23 17.50 30 23.00 06 4.60 100
Information 101 58 57.40 09 8.90 25 24.80 09 8.90 100
Technology

Table 2: Summary of Types of Sentence Structures in Eight Sub-registers

Types of Sentence Number Percentage
Structure
Simple 363 36.30
Compound 164 16.40
Complex 410 41.00
Compound complex 63 6.30
Total 1000 100

Table 1 showed that Computer Scientists employ a variety of sentence structures in

their texts in the forms of simple, compound, complex and compound-complex. The unique
sentence structure for database management system is the complex sentence structure. Out
of 125 sentence structures studied under database management system, 32.8% was simple;
14.4% was compound; 44% was complex and 8.8% was compound-complex .For computer
security sub-register, the complex sentence structure is peculiar. Out of 144 sentence
structures, 9.0% was simple, 18.8 was compound, 68.1% was complex and 4.1% was
compound complex.
The simple sentence is distinct in the computer architecture sub-register. From 150
sentences structures, 48.7% was simple, 20.6% was compound, 28% was complex and
2.6% was compound complex. The complex sentence is remarkable for the sub-register of
artificial intelligence. From the total number of 107 sentence structures, 31.8% was simple;
12.1% was compound; 48.6% was complex, and 7.5% was compound complex.

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For the sub-register of introduction to computers and appreciation, the computer

sentence structure is peculiar. From the total number of 111 sentence structures, 19.8% was
simple, 32.4% was compound, 37.8% was complex and 10% was compound complex. The
complex structure is also special to programming sub-register. Out of 131 sentence
structures, 38.2% was simple, 5.3% was compound 50.4% was complex and 6.1% was
compound complex.
For networking sub-register, the simple sentence structure is predominant. From the
131 sentence structures examined, 55% was simple, 17.5% was compound, 23% was
complex and 4.6% was compound complex. The simple sentence structure is equally distinct
for the sub-register of information technology. Out of 101 sentence structures, 37.4% was
simple; 8.9% was compound, 24.8% was complex and 8.9% was compound complex.
Table 2 shows that on the whole, the complex sentence structure is peculiar to
computer science texts. It was predominantly used in the texts analysed. The study
discovered that some of the simple sentence structures had compound subjects while some
had compound predicates. It was also discovered that the use of particular sentence
structures hinges on the writer‟s stylistic choices. Hence Crystal (1995) asserts that scientific
sentences are known for complex internal structures whose complexity is due to the frequent
use of noun phrases.

4.2. Excerpts of Some of the Simple Sentence Structures Found in the Texts
1. A collection of macro-blocks is called a slice.
2. All of these steps present opportunities to exploit data parallelism.
3. Our system takes advantage of the parallelism within a warp by evaluating multiple
sub-blocks simultaneously.
4. Collaboration is a central tenet of net-based and technology-enhanced learning.
5. Earlier approaches to collaborative writing on the web have been extended recently
through the ease of use and transparency of writing in wikis.
6. The use of telecommunications has revolutionized information dissemination
worldwide.
7. The integration or „marriage‟ between computer technology and communication
technology has reduced the whole world to a global village or kindred.
8. Concern for information privacy (CFIP) on social media platforms is increasingly
gaining the interest of researchers, policy makers, business leaders and consumers.
9. Here is a program for implementing this Euclidean algorithm with a , b ,the input
values.
10. GPU computing has many different abstractions, each with its own terminology.
11. Initially, the role of reverse engineering in the field of architecture and design
recovery was focused on recovering high level architectures from procedural code.
12. The growth of various software architectural frameworks and models provides a
standard governing structure for different types of organizations.
13. The preliminary investigation of the client‟s needs is called concept exploration.
14. There are two transmission modes namely synchronous and asynchronous modes.
15. Organizations may approach attacks proactively or reactively.

4.3. Compound Sentence Structures

1. Workers compute scores for all the prediction modes and choose the best one; they
also compute scores for all 4x4 sub-blocks.

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2. Two tier applications are also very expensive to scale in terms of hardware; generally
someone has to acquire a more powerful database and host server to support an
increased client load.
3. C-AMAT is formulated like AMAT, but takes into consideration concurrent hit and
concurrent miss accesses.
4. This machine was developed by J. Prosper Eckert and John Mauchly at
Pennsylvania University and was completed in 1946.
5. Dynamic analysis is necessary in many situations and is widely used despite being
expensive and incomplete.
6. The internet workforce and the industry have pulled resources together to provide
some mitigation or palliative strategies, but these efforts have been inadequate to
prevent continuing massive attacks by hackers.
7. In this arrangement, one computer sends a message and all other participants can
receive the message simultaneously.
8. The software code is parsed and semantic analysis is performed on the parsed code.
9. This gives the hardware scheduler freedom to effectively route work onto cores, but it
also eliminates a broad class of workloads from consideration.
10. Tiling and privatization are obviously familiar terms, but they have been around long
enough to become slightly ambiguous.
11. Indeed, this may well be the method you learnt at school, and for relatively small
numbers is quite acceptable.
12. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time and perform
predefined or custom calculations on your data.
13. It retrieves data from one or more tables and displays the results in a data shut.
14. The interface cards sends and receives data and information to and from LAN.
15. Data capture and data collection may be used interchangeably but data capture
emphasizes the capturing of data in a machine sensible form

4.4. Complex Sentence Structures

1. Unless otherwise noted, we collected the performance results on an Nvidia GeForce
480 GTX.
2. Since we are focusing on GPU scalability, we only compare kernel execution times.
3. The monitor is the TV-like device that enables the computer to display the data or
information it has in its memory.
4. When you depress a key on the keyboard, it is shown on the monitor screen.
5. When we look at few statistics on cyber warfare, one would ponder if the ascendance
of information technology application is a blessing or a curse.
6. Workflow of a distributed application is the order in which the application is
developed.
7. In contrast, a large software product is partitioned into smaller subsystems which are
implemented in parallel by coding teams.
8. Worms are programs that are capable of independently propagating throughout a
computer network.
9. Multi-Protocol label switching is useful in managing multimedia traffic when some
links are too congested.
10. Information privacy on social media platforms needs to be considered differently
since it requires self-disclosure of personal information.

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11. The use of electronic switching circuits in computers is largely due to the fact that
such circuits can be employed to perform logic and arithmetic.
12. The more widespread use of computers means the need for systems that are easy
for almost anyone to use.
13. This is a virus which is embedded inside word document templates or excels spread
sheets.
14. Tiling offers optimization that improves locality and on-chip memory usage.
15. While innovation might still surprise us, we expect these optimization patterns to be
relevant for good performances.

4.5. Compound-Complex Sentence Structures

1. Over the decade, a lot of research work had been carried out and many computer
programmes had been written in order to assist the police with information on
criminals and crimes.
2. We also describe a custom queuing system and a custom scheduler that ensures
that the model evenly distributes irregular work to all cores.
3. A user writes a kernel and specifies the amount of work that the kernel will process
on the GPU.
4. Educationally, wikis may be seen as communicative tools that have the potential to
support group interaction, but their uptake depends on the context of their use.
5. This is especially true where group writing is itself the educational goal and where
discussion and critical inquiry are the focus.
6. Binary codes should be used for the representation of data and instructions in a way
that would make no distinction between them, and allow them to be stored together
and share the same storage space within the computer.
7. They are known to have been used for a time in 1941 and to have used stored
programmes to perform calculations, but they were later destroyed by allied boming.
8. The computer can store the messages received in its memory and the recipient gets
access to the message whenever he/she logs on.
9. Cryptanalysis is absolutely essential to cryptography: it is the process of intercepting
an encryption and using brute force, decrypts it and thereafter, breaks the protocol
that exists between the two parties.
10. Programmes solve problems and the solution of any problem begins with identifying
and understanding the problem and how to tackle it.
11. This is the act of arranging or ordering and evaluating a set of data so as to bring
about a meaningful result or information.

The compound-complex sentence structure consists of two or more main clauses and one or
more subordinate clauses.It was discovered that this sentence structure was crucial in
representing complicated relationships and the computer scientists employed them to
express analytical ideas which were found in the academic writing.

4.6. Syntactic Analysis of Clauses Using the Theme and Rheme Structure
The researcher employed the Theme –Rheme structure by Halliday and Matthiessen
(2004:65-97).

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4.6.1. Unmarked Theme

In a declarative case, when Theme conflates with the subject, it is unmarked. So it is the
mapping of theme on to the subject.

Table 3: Analysis of Sentences with Unmarked Theme

S/N Theme Rheme
1 A collection of macro-blocks is called a slice.
2 Collaboration is a central tenet of net-based and
technology advanced learning.
3 Organizations may approach attacks proactively or
reactively.
4 Earlier approaches to collaborative have been extended recently through the
writing in the web ease of use and transparency of writing in
wiki.
5 The growth of various software provides a standard governing structure for
architectural frameworks and models different types of organization.
6 Tilling offers optimization that improves locality
and on-chip memory usage.
7 This is a virus that is embedded inside word
document templates or excel spreadsheet.
8 The monitor is the TV device which enables the
computer to display the data or information
it has on its memory.
9 These are a group of attackers who are
responsible for the creation of malicious
software.
10 Hackers are predominantly male folks who see
computing as a means of becoming
important and powerful in society.

4.6.2. Marked Themes

A Theme that is something other than the subject in a declarative clause is referred to as
marked theme.( Halliday & Maltheieseen ,2004).

Table 4: Analysis of Sentences with Marked Theme

S/NO Theme Rheme
1 Here is a programme for implementing this
Euclidean algorithm or with a,b, the input
values.
2 By 1980 Arpanet networks divided into networks
namely: Arpanet and milnet.
3 With e-mail, one can contribute quickly to an issue or
debate without being physically present.
4 In this chapter, we shall certainly spend some of our time on
computer programme.
5 Compared to other online information privacy on social media
technologies, platforms need to be considered differently.
6 Unless otherwise noted, we collected the performance results on an
NvidiaGeforce 480GTX.
7 While innovation might still we expect these optimization patterns to be

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surprise us, relevant for good performance

8 When you depress a key on the it is shown on the monitor screen.
keyboard,
9 When we look at few statistics on
one would ponder if the ascendance of
cyber warfare, information technology is a blessing or a
curse.
10 Since we are focusing on GPU we only compare kernel execution times.
scalability,

From the analysis, the theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of
the message. Halliday & Mathiessen (2004) posit that “it is that which locates and orients the
clause within its context and the remainder of the message, the part which the theme is
developed is called the Rheme. Thus, the message structure shows that a clause consists of
a Theme and a Rheme and whatever is selected as the Theme is put first. Through the
Theme and Rheme structure, one comprehends how the writer clarifies to readers the nature
of his underlying concerns (Halliday & Mathehiessen, 2004).
4.7. Excerpts from Some Sub-registers of Computer Science
4.7.1. The Sub-register of Database Management System
In simple terms, a data warehouse (DW) is a pool of data produced to support
decision making. It is also a repository of current and historical data of potential interest to
managers throughout the organization. Data are usually structured to be available in a form
ready for analytical processing activities. A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated,
time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management‟s decision making
process.The day-to-day-operations of an organization are done by using the OLTP system.

Table 5: Analysis of Sentences into Theme/Rheme Structure

S/NO Theme Rheme
1 In simple terms, a data warehouse (DW) is a pool of data
produced to support decision making.

2
It is also a repository of current and historical
data of potential interest to managers
throughout the organization.
3 Data are usually structured to be available in a
form ready for analytical activities.
4 A data warehouse is a subject oriented, integrated, time-
variant, non-volatile collection of data in
support of management‟s decision-making
process
5 The day-to-day operations of an are done by using the OLTP system.
organization

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The Sub-register of Programming Language

Final points on Machine-Language programming
a) All the machine codes have to be memorized.
b) All memory addressed have to be assigned and a track kept of them
c) Instructions have to be written in the sequence in which they are to be executed.
Thus, insertions or deletions entail the movement of all succeeding instructions.
d) The whole process is very time consuming and inefficient in terms of human effort.

Table 6: Analysis of Sentences into Theme/Rheme Structure

S/NO Theme Rheme
1 All the machines codes have to be memorized .
2 All memory codes have to be assigned.
3 Instructions have to be written in the sequence in
which they are to be executed.
4 Insertions or deletions entail the movement of all succeeding
instructions.
5 The whole process is very time consuming and inefficient in
terms of human efforts.
(Source: Computer Science by C. S. French)

The Sub-register of Introduction to Computers and ComputersEnter

This is the key with the down left-pointing arrow. Enter key is located at the character
keypad near the command keys. It has several uses depending on the active window.
Pressing Enter might cause the cursor to move to the beginning of the next line in word
processing packages. In that case, pressing Enter indicates the end of a line, or the key
has a cursor-movement function. Pressing Enter might indicate the end of a command
(or instruction). Enter signals the computer to accept the instructions provided by the
user. Until you press Enter, the computer does not recognize the command.

Table 7: Analysis of Sentences into Theme/Rheme Structure

S/NO Theme Rheme
1 This is the key with the down left-pointing arrow.
2 Enter key is located at the character keypad near the
command keys.
3 It has several uses depending on the active
window.
4 Pressing enter might cause the cursor to move to the
beginning of the next line-in word
processing packages.
5 In that case, pressing enter indicates the end of a line.
6 Pressing Enter might indicate the end of a command.
7 Enter signals the computer to accept the
instructions provided by the user.
8 Until you press Enter, the computer does not recognize the
command.
(Source: A practical Guide to MS-Excel, MS Access and Ms-Power Point by A.C. Akukwe and J.I. Njoku).

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From the analysis, the theme/rheme structures revealed the organisation of the
message in the three sub-registers of Computer Science. The structures also showed the
positioning of the elements within the clauses in the sub-registers. The computer scientists
organized their message and made their ideas coherent using the marked/unmarked theme
and rheme structures. Hence, Opara (2018) state that the Theme/Rheme structures give a
sense of continuity in discourse and they help to make texts coherent. Furthermore, she
asserts that the theme/rheme structure is important in the construction of a cohesive and
coherent text.
So the Theme/Rheme structures go beyond the clause since the structures are connected to
purposes and functions of texts.
The computer scientists employ a variety of sentence structures in their texts. The
sentence structures in the texts are simple, compound, complex and compound complex.
Each sub-register analysed has a unique sentence structure. The simple sentence
structures contain a significant number of compound subjects and predicates. The simple
sentence structures are unique to the sub-registers of computer architecture, networking and
information technology while the complex sentence structures are peculiar to the sub-
registers of database management system, computer security, artificial intelligence,
programming languages, and introduction to computers and appreciation. The sentence
structures also depend on individual writer‟s style of presentation, writing and choice.

4.8. Discussion of Findings

From the results, it is apparent that the complex sentences predominantly used in the
Computer Science texts are achieved through the use hypo-taxis or subordination, that is,
the embedding of one clause within another. These sentences are replete with complex
assertions. Therefore, Klimova (2013) suggests that the complex sentence structures are
mostly bound by relative clauses which make information presented in scientific texts more
dense and cumulative. Similarly, Koulaidis, Dimopoulous and Sklaveniti (2009) argue that
syntactic complexities are important markers in all scientific texts and assert that complex
meanings are expressed through the use of subordination while simple information in all
scientific texts are expressed through co-ordination in sentences. The co-ordination is shown
in the compound sentences presented in the results.
Another factor by Klimova (2013) is that a sentence consisting of four clauses is
connected with the development of ideas, arguments and explanation in scientific texts. This
is evident in the compound complex sentences and the complex sentences. In addition to
this, Persson, Geijerstam and Liberg (2011) stress that subordination is another linguistic
feature which is often viewed as a complex way of presenting formation since it often puts
one clause within another in a hierarchical relationship. The analysis of the sentence
structures in Computer Science texts also reveals that the sentences serve the major
function of providing accurate, factual and objective information. Thus, all the sentences are
declarative as they give information and statements on salient ideas in Computer Science
texts. In the same vein, the ideas presented in Computer Science texts are statements of
facts which are empirical. In this regard Klimova (2013) asserts that there is no space for
ambiguous, inexplicit, redundant, repetitive and unimportant information in all scientific texts.
What is also significant about the results too is that they give the structural patterns in
Computer Science genre. The genre or discourse patterns are crucial for the study of the
discipline – specific English called the ESP. Hyland (2004) states that ESP-based framework
offers learners an explicit understanding of how target texts are structured. So, the sentence

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structures provide a framework for the study of English for Computer Science. Also Cheng
(2008) asserts that genre analysis supports learners through facilitating their scholarly
engagement with texts and the author sees the exposition of texts as one unique effective
approach to the learning of discipline specific writing.
Furthermore, Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) reiterate the pivotal need of having
reading and writing instructions that are increasingly disciplinary. The authors stress the
need to make students understand how and why language is used in a specific way in a
subject. This will make students understand and use subject specific language in appropriate
ways. In this regard, all ESP activities are linked to a view text (Dudley-Evans, 2014).Hence,
the analysis of the sentence structures is significant in the study of discipline specific English
called English for Specific Purposes.

5. The relevance of ESP in the Study of English Language

English for Specific Purposes evolved in response to awareness that certain types of
learners had specialised needs that were not being sufficiently and efficiently met by wide-
spectrum English courses (Williams, Swales & Kirkam, 1984). Furthermore, the authors posit
that ESP is now concerned with communicative as well as linguistic competence as
evidenced in attention to text-information structure in reading and writing, appropriacy of
style in academic writing and study skills (Williams, Swales & Kirkman, 1984). Two points
are clear from these assertions: learners have specialised needs and they need specialised
English. Therefore, Computer Science students need English for Computer Science for
effective communication in their daily professional interaction, (Anigbogu, 2017).
Wright (1999) also points out the fact that ESP is that type of language learning
which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of human
activity. Also, Aborishade (1998) states that certain key theoretical insights underpin the
ESP approach; the emphasis on language as instances of communicative use, directing
language teaching approaches to actual (real-life) samples of instances of language use. So,
it is exigent that Computer Science students learn Computer Science English since ESP
courses focus more on specific and immediate needs of the learner. As a corollary, Fiorito
(2005) asserts that the ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated
from the students‟ real world (or wishes) instead it is integrated into a subject matter area
important to the learners. The author posits that ESP combines the subject matter and
English language teaching because being able to use the vocabulary and structures that
they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation
(Fiorito 2005). So, it is crucial to adopt ESP approach in the tertiary institutions as it would
contribute to utmost success in the contexts of vocabulary and language use, using real life
samples. For instance, in adopting English for Computer Science, students would have
ample opportunity to learn the lexis, word formation processes and syntactic structures in
real life texts which is necessary for their course (Anigbogu, 2017). This is crucial as Streven
(1988) states that ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learner and it is centred
on the language appropriate to particular disciplines in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics
and analysis of the discourse. These are the absolute characteristics of ESP. Furthermore,
Anigbogu (2017) asserts that the challenge that arises here and for ESP approach in general
is employing the services of content specialists in Computer Science who would assist the
students in the collaborative learning and teaching. This is of utmost importance.
Aborishade (1998) posits that another challenge that would make the approach relevant and
useful is a thorough analysis of the needs of the learner, the learning situation and the
course context being based on the processed results of the analysis.

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However, these challenges have been surmounted in some Nigerian universities

where ESP programmes have been adopted. So, in the words of Fioroto (2005):
The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the
students are learning and enables them to use the
English they know to learn even more English since
their interest in their field will motivate them to interact
with speakers and texts.
So, the ESP approach to language learning is crucial for learners of English as a second
language in advanced scientific setting.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the research findings, the following conclusions have been reached:
There are linguistic peculiarities in Computer Science writing. Students studying
Computer Science should be familiar with the distinctiveness. The knowledge of Computer
Science register and sentence structures helps a second language learner to streamline his
language in order to adapt to his academic skills and professional communication. This calls
for the adoption of English for Computer Science in tertiary institutions.
Second, language learners of Computer Science at the tertiary level need to
understand and decode the language of Computer Science for proficiency in their studies
and skills in professional communication. The use of ESP approach to learning English is of
utmost importance for all students.
Against the foregoing conclusion, it is ,therefore, recommended that further research
be carried out in ESP and genre analysis of texts especially in other fields of study. Also,
through the analysis of EST texts, scholars will understand the forms and functions of written
academic discourse. This will equally provide a rich store for discipline specific English.
Attention should be given to ESP and tertiary institutions should give ESP the rightful
place it deserves in various institutions. All authorities concerned should provide adequate
funds for establishing ESP programmes in universities. Universities and allied institutions
should place more emphasis on the need to map out programmes to accommodate ESP
programmes.
To achieve the crucial objective of communicative competence in the field of
language learning, university authorities should take practical steps to reposition the Use of
English programmes by adopting ESP approach to learning/teaching. This is crucial because
ESP approach is a new trend in language learning/teaching. The new trend considers not
just the structure of the language but also the way language is actually used in real
communication in different fields of study.
Again, since the ESP approach is a learner centred approach, it is more productive.
Research has proved that the learner‟s needs and interest have a tremendous bearing on
their motivation (Okoh, 2012; Fioroto, 2005; Umera-Okeke,2011). The researcher further
recommends workshops and seminars on ESP programmes for lecturers and instructors.
Computer Science writing is rooted in words, mathematics, engineering and natural science.
So, students require drills both in verbal and non-verbal materials found in Computer
Science texts. This study has, therefore, provided data for the English language instructors
and Computer Science scholars, especially in learning and teaching the English language
and in manipulating language. Thus, the findings have implications for the English language
pedagogy and have also provided a rich store for discipline specific English.

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