Modulation Techniques

Modulation: translates an information-bearing signal (message signal) to a

new spectral location (frequency domain)
fc: carrier frequency
a(t) ↔ A(f) A( f-fc )

-fw 0 +fw Frequency (f) 0 (fc –fw) fc (fc+fw) Frequency (f)

Baseband signal Bandpass signal

• Communication channels Æ bandpass transfer (frequency) response
⇒ translates the message signal to be within the channel transfer response
Selected frequency bands
H(f) Frequency Band Carrier frequency Bandwidth
Longwave Radio 100kHz 2kHz

BW Shortwave Radio 5MHz 100kHz

VHF 100MHz 2MHz

f0 f Microwave 5GHz 100MHz

Millimeterwave 100GHz 2GHz
• Facilitates antenna reception Optical 5x1014 Hz 1013Hz

ERG2310A-II p. II-1
 Modulation Techniques
If more than one message signal utilizes a channel
Æmodulation allows translation of different signals to different spectral
locations
Æmultiplexing allows two or more message signals to be transmitted by a
single transmitter (frequency division multiplexing)
A3c(f)
Ædesired modulated signal can be selected by a receiver
f
fc1 A1c(f)
A1(f) Low-pass filter
modulator
f fc1 fc3
f
fc2
A2(f) A2c(f) demodulator
modulator f
channel
f fc2 f demodulator
A3(f) fc3 fc2 f
A3c(f)
modulator Low-pass filter
f
fc1 fc2 fc3 f
fc3 f A2c(f)

ERG2310A-II f p. II-2
 Frequency Translation
j 2πf t
Recall: If a(t ) ↔ A( f ) , then a(t )e c ↔ A( f − f c ) (Fourier transform pairs)
Consider a message signal x(t) , which is bandlimited to the frequency range 0 to W
and has its Fourier transform is X(f) , is multiplied by cos (2π fc t) .
1
ℑ{x(t ) cos(2π f c t )} = [ X ( f + f c ) + X ( f − f c )]
2

Baseband signal Frequency translated signal

ERG2310A-II p. II-3
 Recovery of Baseband Signal

To recovery the baseband signal, we can simply multiply the translated signal with
cos (2π fc t).

[x(t ) cos(2πf c t )]cos(2πf c t ) = x(t ) cos 2 (2πf c t ) = x(t ) + x(t ) cos(4πf c t )

2 2

Frequency translated signal

1 1
X ( f ) + [ X ( f − 2 f c ) + X ( f + 2 f c )]
2 2

Baseband signal

We obtain the baseband signal x(t) and a signal whose spectral range extends from
(2fc-W) to (2fc+W). As fc >> W, the extra signal is removed by a low-pass filter.

ERG2310A-II p. II-4
 Analog (Continuous-Wave) Modulation

A parameter of a high-frequency sinusoidal carrier is varied proportionally

to the message signal x(t) .
General modulated signal: s (t ) = A(t ) cos[ω c t + φ (t )]
ωc : carrier frequency
A(t) : instantaneous amplitude
φ(t) : instantaneous phase deviation
When A(t) is linearly related to the modulating (message) signal
Æ Amplitude modulation (AM) s (t ) = A(t ) cos[ω c t + φ o ] where A(t) ∝ x(t )
When φ(t) is linearly related to the modulating signal
Æ Phase modulation (PM) s (t ) = Ac cos[ω c t + φ (t )] where φ (t) ∝ x(t )

When time derivative of φ(t) is linearly related to the modulating signal

dφ (t)
Æ Frequency modulation (FM) s (t ) = Ac cos[ω c t + φ (t )] where ∝ x(t )
dt
*FM & PM are commonly called Angle Modulation
ERG2310A-II p. II-5
 Analog (Continuous-Wave) Modulation

Unmodulated carrier
frequency

Message signal

Amplitude-modulated
signal

Angle-modulated
signal (frequency-
modulated)

ERG2310A-II p. II-6
 Analog (Continuous-Wave) Modulation

Message
signal

Unmodulated
carrier

Phase-modulated
signal

Frequency-modulated
signal

ERG2310A-II p. II-7
 Amplitude Modulation
The envelope of the modulated carrier has the same shape as the
message signal.
x(t) s(t) envelope

Ac

The amplitude of the carrier wave [ Ac cos(2π fct) ] varies linearly with
the baseband message signal x(t).
The standard form of an amplitude-modulated (AM) signal is given by:
s (t ) = Ac [1 + ma ~
x (t )]cos(2π f c t )
Where ~
x (t ) is the normalized message signal and ma is called the
modulation index.

ERG2310A-II p. II-8
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
AM signal: s (t ) = Ac [1 + ma x (t )]cos(2π f c t )
~
= Ac cos(2πf c t ) + Ac ma ~
x (t ) cos(2πf c t )
= A cos(ω t ) + A m ~
c c c x (t ) cos(ω t )
a c where ω c = 2πf c

Ac
S( f ) = [δ ( f + f c ) + δ ( f − f c )] + Ac ma [X ( f + f c ) + X ( f − f c )]
2 2
Double-sideband –
large carrier (DSB-LC)

ERG2310A-II p. II-9
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
s (t ) = Ac [1 + ma ~
x (t )]cos(2π f c t )

Ac

Distorted signal !

So, Ac has to be large enough or we have to control the modulation index ma.
ERG2310A-II p. II-10
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
s (t ) = Ac [1 + ma ~
x (t )]cos(2π f c t )

DSB-LC +
x(t)

Effect of modulation index ma :

ma < 1 ma = 1 ma > 1
Ac(1+ma)
Ac
Ac(1-ma)

A max − Ac
Define modulation depth =
Ac
For a sinusoidal message signal, Amax=Ac(1+ma), thus the modulation depth is ma .

ERG2310A-II p. II-11
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
Generation of DSB-LC signal: s(t ) = Ac [1 + ma ~
x (t )]cos(2π f c t )

Product modulator:

Nonlinear
Square-law modulator: device
x(t) + filter s(t)
v out = a 1 v in + a 2 v in2 vin vout
vin = x(t ) + cos ω c t cosωct
 2a  where Ac=a1 and ma=2a2/a1
vout = a1 x(t ) + a 2 x 2 (t ) + a 2 cos 2 ω c t + a1 1 + 2 x(t ) cos ω c t
a1
1444 424444 3
s (t )

Chopper/rectifier modulator:

ωc
+ +
x(t) Band x(t) Band
- pass - pass
vo(t) vo(t)
+ filter + filter
Accosωct at ωc Accosωct at ωc
- -

ERG2310A-II p. II-12
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
Chopper/rectifier modulator:
The chopper or rectifier can generate a periodic waveform whose fundamental
frequency is ωc rad/sec.

Let f(t) = Accosωct + x(t)

The periodic signal p (t) can be
represented as
∞
p (t ) = ∑ n
P e
n = −∞
jnω c t

Consider p(t)f(t):
∞
f (t ) p (t ) = ∑P
n = −∞
n f (t )e jnω ct .
Applying the frequency translation
property of the Fourier transform,
we get
∞
ℑ{ f (t ) p (t )} = ∑ P F (ω − nω
n = −∞
n c ).

ERG2310A-II p. II-13
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
Demodulation of DSB-LC signal:
By envelope detector: the diode cuts off the negative part of the DSB-LC
signal while RC acts as a lowpass filter to retrieve the
envelope.
1 / W >> RC >> 1 / f c where W is the message signal bandwidth

ERG2310A-II p. II-14
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
DSB-LC signal: s (t ) = Ac [1 + ma x (t )]cos(2π f c t )
~
Consider the average power of s(t) :
Ps = s 2 (t )
= Ac2 [1 + ma ~
x (t )] cos 2 (ω c t )
2


[
= Ac2  1 + ma2 ~
x 2 (t ) + 2ma ~
1
]
x (t ) (1 + cos(2ω c t )
2

 

=
Ac2
2
[
1 + ma2 ~
x 2 (t ) + 2ma ~ ] [
x (t ) + 1 + ma2 ~
x 2 (t ) + 2ma ~ ]
x (t ) cos(2ω c t )

=
Ac2
2
[
1 + ma2 ~
x 2 (t ) ] if ~ x (t) = 0 and as cos(2ω c t ) = 0

=
Ac2
2
[ ]
1 + ma2 Px where Px = ~ x 2 (t )

= Pc + 2 Psb where Psb : average power per sideband

Thus 1 2 1 1
Pc =
Ac ; Psb = Ac2 ma2 Px = ma2 Px Pc
2 4 2
1 1
For ma x(t ) ≤ 1 ⇒ ma Px ≤ 1 ⇒ Psb ≤ Pc ⇒ Pc = Ps − 2 Psb ≥ Ps
2

2 2
At least 50% of total transmitted power resides in the carrier term which
conveys no information Æ wasteful of power
ERG2310A-II p. II-15
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-LC
Fraction of total transmitted power contained in the sidebands is:
2 Psb ma2 Px Pc ma2 Px
µ= = =
Pc + 2 Psb Pc + ma2 Px Pc 1 + ma2 Px
1
If x(t) is a single sinusoid, i.e. cosωmt, then Px = x 2 (t ) =
2 2
Thus, µ = m a and is known as the transmission efficiency of DSB-LC AM system.
2 + ma2

Example:
A given AM (DSB-LC) broadcast station transmits an average carrier power output of 40kW and
uses a modulation index of 0.707 for sine-wave modulation.
Calculate (a) the total average power output; (b) the transmission efficiency; and
(c) the peak amplitude of the output if the antenna is represented by a 50-ohm resistive load.

Solution: (a) The total average power output is Ps = Pc + 2 Psb = Pc (1 + m a / 2).

2

For ma = 0.707,Ps = 40(1 + 1 / 4) = 50 kW .

(0.707) 2 0 .5
(b) The transmission efficiency is µ = = = 20%.
2 + (0.707) 2
2. 5
2
(c) Consider Pc = A
, ⇒ A2 = 2 RPc = 4 ×10 6.
2R
The peak amplitude of the output is (1 + m a ) A = 3414 V.
ERG2310A-II p. II-16
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
The “wasted” carrier power in DSB-LC can be eliminated by setting ma=1 and
suppressing the carrier.
Thus the modulated signals becomes s (t ) = Ac ~
x (t ) cos(2π f c t )
In this case, the carrier frequency component is suppressed, thus it is called
double-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation (DSB-SC) .
Ac
Its spectral density is: S ( f ) = [ X ( f + f c ) + X ( f − f c )]
2

Average Power of the

modulated signal:
Ps = s 2 (t )
= Ac2 ~x 2 (t ) cos 2 (ω c t )
1 2
= Ac Px where Px = ~
x 2 (t )
2
= 2Psb
1 2
∴ Psb = Ac Px
4

ERG2310A-II p. II-17
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC

A signal spectrum can be translated an amount ± ωc rad/sec in frequency by multiplying

the signal with any periodic waveform whose fundamental frequency is ωc rad/sec.

The periodic signal p (t) can be

represented as
∞
p (t ) = ∑ n
P e
n = −∞
jnω c t

Consider p(t)x(t):
∞
x(t ) p (t ) = ∑ n
P x
n = −∞
(t ) e jnω c t
.

Applying the frequency translation

property of the Fourier transform,
we get
∞
ℑ{x(t ) p (t )} = ∑ P X (ω − nω
n = −∞
n c ).

ERG2310A-II p. II-18
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
Example:
A periodic signal consists of the exponentially decreasing waveform e-at, 0 ≤ t < T,
repeated every T seconds. A given signal f(t) is multiplied by this periodic signal.
Determine an expression describing the spectrum and the time waveform of the
resulting amplitude-modulated signal if all components except those centered at
±ωc, ωc = 2π/T, are discarded.
Solution: The Fourier series for the given periodic signal can be written as
∞
where P = 1 1 1 − e − aT
∑P e jnω c t T
p (t ) =
∫
, − at − jnω c t
n e e dt = .
T a + jnω c
n
n = −∞ T 0

The spectrum of the product p(t)f(t) is

1  1 1 
(1 − e − aT )  F ( ω − ωc ) + F (ω + ωc ).
T  a + j ωc a − j ωc 
The corresponding terms in the Fourier series are
1  1 1 
(1 − e − aT )  f (t )e jωct + f (t )e − jωct .
T  a + jωc a − j ωc 
Combining yields the time waveform
2 1 − e − aT θ0 = tan −1 ( −ωc / a ), ωc = 2π / T .
f (t ) cos(ωc t + θ0 ), where
T a2 + ω 2
c
ERG2310A-II p. II-19
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC

Generation of DSB-SC signal by balanced modulator:

 1 
Ac 1 + x (t )  cos ω c t
 2 
1 AM
x(t )
2 Modulator
+
Ac cos ω c t
+ x (t ) Ac cos ω c t
-

1 AM
− x(t )
2 Modulator
 1 
Ac 1 − x (t )  cos ω c t
 2 

ERG2310A-II p. II-20
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
Demodulation of DSB-SC signal:
Assuming that the transmitted signal is
s (t ) = x(t ) cos ω c t

To demodulate the signal, we have

s (t ) cos ω c t = x(t ) cos 2 ω c t

= 12 x(t ) + 12 x(t ) cos 2ω c t

Taking the Fourier transform of both

sides, we get
ℑ{s (t ) cos ω c t} = 12 X (ω )
+ 14 X (ω + 2ω c )
+ 14 X (ω − 2ω c )

ERG2310A-II p. II-21
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
Consider a small frequency error, ∆ω, and a phase error, θ0, are introduced
in the locally generated carrier signal at the receiver. The signal at the
receiver becomes
s (t ) cos[(ω c + ∆ω )t + θ 0 ] = x(t ) cos ω c t cos[(ω c + ∆ω )t + θ 0 ]
= 12 x(t ) cos[(∆ω )t + θ 0 ]
+ 12 x(t ) cos[(2ω c + ∆ω )t + θ 0 ].
After passing via the low-pass filter, the output is
eo (t ) = 12 x(t ) cos[(∆ω )t + θ 0 ].

Phase error and frequency error results in undesirable distortion. In some

cases, they vary randomly, resulting in unacceptable performance.

Remedy:
Using a synchronized oscillator to recover the original signal f(t) from the
modulated signal φ(t). (Synchronous detection, or coherent detection)

ERG2310A-II p. II-22
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC

The original signal x(t) can be recovered from the modulated signal s(t) by multiplying
s(t) by cosωct (i.e. synchronous detection).
The same circuits as those used for modulation can be used for demodulation with
the following minor differences.

1. Since the desired output spectrum is centered about ω=0 and therefore a low-pass
filter is needed at the output.

2. The oscillator in the demodulator must be synchronized to the oscillator in the

demodulator to achieve proper demodulation.

This is usually accomplished by either a direct connection if the modulator and

demodulator are in close proximity
or
by supplying a sinusoid displaced in frequency but related to the modulator-
oscillator frequency. The sinusoid is called a “pilot carrier”.

ERG2310A-II p. II-23
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
Pilot Carrier Systems
It is a common method used in DSB-SC modulation to maintain synchronization
between modulator and demodulator.
In this case, a sinusoidal tone whose frequency and phase are related to the
carrier frequency is generated and is sent outside the pass-band of the modulated
signal so it will not alter the frequency response capability of the system.
A tuned circuit in the receiver detects the tone, translate it to the proper frequency,
and uses it to correctly demodulate the DSB-SC signal.
e.g. Stereo-multiplex system
+ L-R x
L ∑
- To
38kHz 19kHz +
÷ 2 frequency + transmitter
cosωct Atten. ∑
R divider
+
+ L+R
∑
+
Spectrum used for stereo multiplexing before transmission

Audio (mono)
DSB-SC
Pilot carrier

L+R L-R (lower L-R (upper

sideband) sideband)
ERG2310A-II f in kHz
0 15 19 23 38 53 p. II-24
 Amplitude Modulation: DSB-SC
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
In pilot tone system, phase-locked loop is used to synchronize one sinusoidal to
another.

A simplified phase-locked loop stereo demodulator.

ERG2310A-II p. II-25
 Amplitude Modulation: QAM
Quadrature Multiplexing
Using the orthogonality of sines and cosines , it is possible to transmit and
receive two different signals simultaneously on the same frequency.
s (t ) = f 1 (t ) cos ω c t + f 2 (t ) sin ω c t
cosωct cosωct
s (t ) cos ω c t = f 1 (t ) cos 2 ω c t + f 2 (t ) sin ω c cos ω c t
= 1
2 f 1 (t ) + 1
2 f 1 (t ) cos 2ω c t + 12 f 2 (t ) sin 2ω c t
f1(t) x x LPF ½ f1(t)

+ s (t ) sin ω c t = f 1 (t ) cos ω c t sin ω c t + f 2 (t ) sin 2 ω c t

∑ s(t) = 1
2 f 1 (t ) sin 2ω c t + 12 f 2 (t ) − 12 f 2 (t ) cos 2ω c t
+
f2(t) x x LPF ½ f2(t) In the low-pass filter, all terms at 2ωc
are attenuated, yielding
sinωct sinωct e1 (t ) = 1
2
f1 (t ),
e2 (t ) = 1
2 f 2 (t ).

Thus, each signal can be recovered by synchronous detection of the received

signal using carriers of the same frequency but in phase quadrature.

ERG2310A-II p. II-26
ERG2310A-II p. II-27
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency-division multiplexing is the positioning of signal spectra in
frequency such that each signal spectrum can be separated out from all
the others by filtering.

ERG2310A-II p. II-28
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Example: commercial radio and

television receiver

ERG2310A-II p. II-29
 Intermediate Frequency (IF)

Heterodyning means the translating or shifting in frequency.

In the heterodyne receiver the incoming modulated signal is translated in
frequency, thus occupying an equal bandwidth centered about a new
frequency, known as an intermediate frequency (IF), which is fixed and is
not dependent on the received signal center frequency.

The signal is amplified at the IF before demodulation.

If this intermediate frequency is lower than the received carrier frequency

but above the final output signal frequency, it is called a superheterodyne
receiver.

ERG2310A-II p. II-30
 Intermediate Frequency (IF)

Advantage:
The amplification and filtering is performed at a fixed frequency regardless of
station selection.
Disadvantage:
Image-frequency problem
Two ways to solve this problem
i. Choose the intermediate frequency as
high as possible and practical.
ii. Attenuate the image frequency before
heterodyning.

The intermediate frequency chosen must

be free from other strong transmissions
or otherwise the receivers will amplify
these spurious signals as they leak into
the high-gain IF stages.

ERG2310A-II p. II-31
 Intermediate Frequency (IF)
Example:
A given radar receiver operating at a frequency of 2.80 GHz and using the super-
heterodyne principle has a local oscillator frequency of 2.86 GHz . A second radar
receiver operates at the image frequency of the first and interference results.

(a) Determine the intermediate frequency of the first radar receiver.

(b) What is the carrier frequency of the second receiver?
(c) If you were to redesign the radar receiver, what is the minimum intermediate
frequency you would choose to prevent image-frequency problems in the
2.80-3.00 GHz radar band?

Solution:
(a) f IF = f LO − f c = 2.86GHz − 2.80GHz = 60MHz.

(b) f IMAGE = f c + 2 f IF = 2.80GHz + 0.12GHz = 2.92GHz.

(c) 2 f IF ≥ f MAX − f MIN = 3.00GHz − 2.80GHz = 0.20GHz; f IF ≥ 100MHz.

ERG2310A-II p. II-32