TATVA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGICAL STUDIES, MODASA

Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER: 1
Introduction
Relay acts as an electrical switch that is operated by a circuit of small power rating
to control circuit of larger power rating. Electromechanical Relay operates on
electromagnetic principle. It has a magnetic coil which is energized by electric
current to behave as a magnet. These relays which prevents faults are called as
Protective relays. Nowadays microcontroller based relays are gaining more
popularity than the traditional Electro mechanical relays and used extensively to
prevent faults due to its faster response, reliability, less cost, compact size etc.
Over current relay act on the principle that when the input current or voltage value
exceeds the predefined set value then the relay works and sends a trip signal to the
circuit breaker or some devices that make sure to perform efficiently.

FAULTS

It is an abnormal condition caused by many factors related to nature like

lightning, wind, natural disaster & human error. It means there is a flow of very
high value of current above the normal value. Due to this many electrical
apparatus like transformer, generator, and transmission lines get affected because
of overheating and insulation failure.

TYPES

(1) Shunt fault or short circuit fault which is classified into unbalanced (asymmetrical) and
balanced (symmetrical) faults like L-G, L-L, L-L-G and L-L-L, L-L-L-G respectively.

These occur due to insulation failures and falling of tree branches. These types of
faults involve ground.

(2) Series or open circuit fault which are due to melting of the conductor because
of overloading or breakage of conductor due to wind effect.

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS
Electromechanical protective relays are operated by magnetic induction. In
this an electromagnet is formed by a coil of wire wound around an iron core which
will move an armature that is connected to the switch of the controlled circuit. If a
relay is not energized its armature wont control the switch. When current exceeds
the set current in the coil the armature will move and control the switch as long as
it is energized.

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OVERCURRENT INDUCTION DISC TYPE RELAY

It works by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate which will

operate a contact. Induction relays require AC. If we are using two or more coils
they should be at same frequency otherwise net operating force is not produced.

STATIC

It uses electronic amplifiers like vacuum tube amplifiers. It has no moving

mechanical parts unlike in Electromechanical relay. It uses analogue electronic
devices instead of magnetic coils and mechanical parts to obtain the relay
characteristics.

NUMERICAL RELAYS

Numerical relays are microprocessor and microcontroller based relays

having its own memory Numeric relays take the input analog quantities and
convert them to numeric values. Electromechanical and Static relays are not
multifunctional unlike Numerical relay.

DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

(1) Electromechanical Relay uses mechanical parts that makes it bulky and
larger in size.

(2) It is not flexible as we can not modify its characteristics and functional
operations unlike in software supported Numerical relay. Flag system is
used to tell whether the relay is activated or not.

(3) It is not as reliable as the numerical relay.

(4) It does not provide multifunctional operations to control various features

related to fault.

(5) Auto-resetting is not possible in these relay.

(6) It does not have memory to record fault related data.

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ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

(1) Compact Size: Numerical relay is compact in size, and uses LCD to indicate
relay activation. It requires less wiring so it is not having complex
architecture.

(2) Flexibility: We can modify its functional operation by changing codes in

software.

(3) Reliability: It is more reliable because of less interwiring, use of less

components and reduced component failures.

(4) Multi Functional Capability: Displaying results and data in LCD, recording
fault related data etc. makes it a multi-functional in its operation.

(5) Different Types of Relay Characteristics: We can get Definite Time

Characteristics of different time values and Indefinite Time Characteristics
of various values from it as they are stored in the microcontroller memory.

(6) Digital Communication Capabilities: It is easily interfaced with different

digital equipments.

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Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER:2
FACTORS INFLUENSING LINE PROTECTION

The high level factors influencing line protection include the criticality of the
line (in terms of load transfer and system stability), fault clearing time
requirements for system stability, line length, the system feeding the line, the
configuration of the line (the number of terminals, the physical construction of
the line, the presence of parallel lines), the line loading, the types of
communications available, and failure modes of various protection equipment.

The more detailed factors for transmission line protection directly address
dependability and security for a specific application. The protection system
selected should provide redundancy to limit the impact of device failure, and
backup protection to ensure dependability. Reclosing may be applied to keep
the line in service for temporary faults, such as lightning strikes. The maximum
load current level will impact the sensitivity of protection functions, and may
require adjustment to protection functions settings during certain operating
circumstances. Single-pole tripping applications impact the performance
requirements of distance elements, differential elements, and communications
schemes.

The physical construction of the transmission line is also a factor in protection

system application. The type of conductor, the size of conductor, and spacing of
conductors determines the impedance of the line, and the physical response to
short circuit conditions, as well as line charging current. In addition, the number
of line terminals determines load and fault current flow, which must be
accounted for by the protection system. Parallel lines also impact relaying, as
mutual coupling influences the ground current measured by protective relays.
The presence of tapped transformers on a line, or reactive compensation devices
such as series capacitor banks or shunt reactors, also influences the choice of
protection system, and the actual protection device settings.

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CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE EQUIPMENTS
 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one
coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a
voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through
the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits.
Farady’s law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers
are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power
applications.

Fig 1: Transformer

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Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,

transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer
designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds.

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 EARTHING

Electrically conductive connection between the construction part and the

surrounding soil. Most earthing combines the two purposes as functional
earthing and protective earthing. For example a line with a continuous shield
wire the earthing is a single coherent system with these two properties.

Below are the basic needs of Earthing.

 To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and

appliances from leakage current.
 To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any
one phase).
 To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
 To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and
communication.
 To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing

 Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via conductor to
the buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.

 Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system connected to the

earth through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple “Earthed”.

 Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is

connected to the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or resistance/Impedance,
It is called “solidly earthed”.

 Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for
electrical earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are in
different shapes like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or any other
conductor with low resistance.

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Earthing Lead:
The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between Earth electrode and Electrical
installation system and devices in called Earthing lead.

Earth Continuity Conductor:

The conductor wire, which is connected among different electrical devices and appliances
like, distribution board, different plugs and appliances etc. in other words, the wire between
earthing lead and electrical device or appliance is called earth continuity conductor. It may be
in the shape of metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or flexible wire.

Sub Main Earthing Conductor:

A wire connected between switch board and distribution board i.e. that conductor is related to
sub main circuits.

Earth Resistance:
This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth in Ω (Ohms). Earth resistance is
the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth continuity conductor, earthing lead, earth
electrode and earth.

 Point to be earthed

 Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute

of Electrical Engineers) regulations, Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug
sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently and permanently
earthed.
 All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any
electric supply line or apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits
enclosing VIR or PVC cables, iron clad switches, iron clad distribution
fuse boards etc should be earthed (connected to earth).
 The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of
all transformers used for controlling energy should be earthed by two
separate and yet distinct connections with the earth.
 In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the
generating station.
 Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by
connecting at least one strand to the earth wires.

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 Components of Earthing System

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic

components.

Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire That part of the earthing system which
interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical installation e.g. conduit,
ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches, distribution boards, Switches, fuses,
Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of electrical machines such as,
motors, generators, transformers and the metallic framework where electrical
devices and components are installed is known as earth wire or earth continuity
conductor.

The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE
rules, resistance between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity
conductor (at the end) should not be increased than 1Ω. In simple words,
resistance of earth wire should be less than 1Ω.

 Size of Earth Continuity Conductor

The cross sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less
than the half of the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical
wiring installation.

1. Earth Continuity Conductor

2. Earthing Lead
3. Earth Electrode

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 Earthing system

Fig 2: Component of ground system

 Methods of earthing

1. Plate earthing

2. Pipe earthing

3. Rod earthing

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(1) Plate earthing

In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions

60cm x 60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of
dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the
earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.

For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth
Plate introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode
or earth plate.

Fig 3: Plate earthing

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(1) Pipe earthing

A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is
placed vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most
common system of earthing.

The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil.
The dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft)
in length for ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the
soil will determine the length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be
4.75m (15.5ft).

Fig 4: pipe earthing

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(2) Rod earthing

it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch)
diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm
(1inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth
manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded
electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

Fig 5: Copper rod electrode earthing system

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 Transmission tower
The main supporting unit of overhead transmission line is transmission tower.
Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission conductor at a
sufficient safe height from ground. In addition to that all towers have to sustain
all kinds of natural calamities. So transmission tower designing is an important
engineering job where all three basic engineering concepts, civil, mechanical
and electrical engineering concepts are equally applicable.

A power transmission tower consists of the following parts,

 Peak of transmission tower

 Cross arm of transmission tower

 Boom of transmission tower

 Cage of transmission tower

 Transmission Tower Body

 Leg of transmission tower

 Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower.

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Peak of Transmission Tower

The portion above the top cross arm is called peak of transmission tower.
Generally earth shield wire connected to the tip of this peak.

Cross Arm of Transmission Tower

Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The
dimension of cross arm depends on the level of transmission voltage,
configuration and minimum forming angle for stress distribution.

Cage of Transmission Tower

The portion between tower body and peak is known as cage of transmission
tower. This portion of the tower holds the cross arms.

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 Transmission Tower Body

The portion from bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called
transmission tower body. This portion of the tower plays a vital role for
maintaining required ground clearance of the bottom conductor of the
transmission line.

Fig 6: Transmission tower

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Cross arm or tower body

Fig 7: Tower

Types of Transmission Tower

According to different considerations, there are different types of transmission
towers.

The transmission line goes as per available corridors. Due to

unavailability of shortest distance straight corridor transmission line has to
deviate from its straight way when obstruction comes. In total length of a long
transmission line there may be several deviation points. According to the angle
of deviation there are four types of transmission tower.

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A. Type tower – angle of deviation 0o to 2o.

B. Type tower – angle of deviation 2o to 15o.

C. Type tower – angle of deviation 15o to 30o.

D. Type tower – angle of deviation 30o to 60o.

As per the force applied by the conductor on the cross arms, the
transmission towers can be categorized in another way-

1. Tangent suspension tower and it is generally A - type tower.

2. Angle tower or tension tower or sometime it is called section tower. All

B, C and D types of transmission towers come under this category.

Apart from the above customized type of tower, the tower is

designed to meet special usages listed below,
transmission tower

These are called special type tower

1. River crossing tower

2. Railway/ Highway crossing tower
3. Transposition tower

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Based on numbers of circuits carried by a transmission tower, it

can be classisfied as-

Single circuit tower

1. Double circuit tower

2. Multi circuit tower.

 Conducter
General Cable offers an extensive line of bare overhead products for both
transmission and distribution applications. General Cable‟s TransPowr® bare
overhead products are manufactured and tested in accordance with the latest
applicable ASTM specifications. General Cable‟s bare overhead conductors are
available as all-aluminum conductors (AAC), all-aluminum alloy conductors
(AAAC), aluminum conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR), aluminum conductor
steel-supported (ACSS), and T-2® twisted pair AAC and ACSR. AAC consists
of 1350- H19 aluminum, is lightweight and corrosion-resistant and is commonly
used in overhead line installations where higher strength or temperature ratings
are not required. AAAC consists of high-strength 6201 T81 aluminum alloy and
is commonly used for overhead line installations adjacent to ocean coastlines
where there can be a problem of corrosion in the steel of an ACSR construction.
ACSR combines the light weight and good conductivity of 1350-H19 aluminum
with the high tensile strength and ruggedness of steel. ACSR provides higher
tension, less sag and longer span lengths than AAC and AAAC overhead
conductors. Standard ACSR designs are manufactured with regular-strength
Class A galvanized steel (/GA2).

Conductor is a physical medium to carry electrical energy form one place to

other. It is an important component of overhead and underground electrical
transmission and distribution systems. The choice of conductor depends on the
cost and efficiency. An ideal conductor has following features.

1. It has maximum electrical conductivity.

2. It has high tensile strength so that it can withstand mechanical
stresses.

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3. It has least specific gravity i.e. weight/unit volume.

4. It has least cost without sacrificing other factors.

Types of Overhead Conductor

In early days copper „Cu‟ conductors was used for transmitting energy in
stranded hard drawn form to increase tensile strength. But now it has been
replaced by aluminum „Al‟ due to following reasons:

1. It has lesser cost than copper.

2. It offers larger diameter for same amount of current which reduces
corona.
Corona: is ionization of air due to higher voltage (usually voltage above
critical voltage) which causes violet light around the conductor and hissing
sound. It also produces ozone gas therefore it is undesirable condition.

Aluminium also has some disadvantages over copper .

1. It has lesser conductivity.
2. It has larger diameter which increase surface area to air pressure
thus it swings more in air than copper so larger cross arms required
which increases the cost.
3. It has lesser tensile strength ultimately larger sag.
4. It has lesser specific gravity (2.71gm/cc) than copper (8.9 gm/cc) cc =
cubic centimeter.

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 conductor

Fig 8: conductor

Applications:

Stranded bare all-aluminum 1350 conductors (AAC) are used in overhead line
installations
where design parameters do not require the higher strength or temperature
ratings provided by ACSR, ACSS or other type conductors.

 Insulator

• Glass cap-and-pin: hundreds mln.

• Porcelain cap-and-pin: hundreds mln.

• RTV-coated cap-andpin: thousands

• Porcelain longrod: 1,5- 2 mln.

• Semi-conducting glaze longrod

• Composite longrod: 20 mln.

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 Glass cap insulator

Fig. 9 : Pin type insulator

Fig. 10 : Porcelain cap and pin insulator

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Fig. 11 : Porcelain longrod insulator

Fig. 12 : Composite longrod insulator

Fig 13: insulators

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– Application of composite insulator in clean areas

 No dominant type as standard

insulator in clean areas

 Always perform Life Cycle Cost

Analysis

 Almost dominant solution in

China:
• 37,0% Composite
• 37,7% Porcelain
• 25% G lass

 Almost dominant solution in

USA
• Special compact designs:

• Reduced E/B fields

• Aesthetic view

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CHAPTER : 4
LAYOUT OF SYSTEM
 Generation substation to receiving substation
An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation,
transmission and distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to
low or the reverse using transformers. Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in
voltage in several steps. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases
the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer
decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial
distribution.

Substations generally have:

1.Switching equipment

2.Protection equipment

3.Control equipment

4. One or more transformers In a large substation: Circuit breakers are used to

interrupt any short-circuits or overload currents that may occur on the network.
In smaller distribution stations: Re closer circuit breakers or fuses may be used
for protection of distribution circuits. Other devices such as capacitors and
voltage regulators may also be located at a substation. Substations may be on
the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose
buildings.

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 Transmission substation

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. In case

where all transmission lines have the same voltage: the substation contains high-
voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance
or maintenance. A transmission station may have:

1. Transformers to convert between two transmission voltages,

2. Voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors,

reactors or static VAR compensators

3. Phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent

power systems. Transmission substations can range from simple to
complex. The large transmission substations can cover a large area
(several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit
breakers and a large amount of protection and control equipment.

Distribution substation

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the

distribution system of an area.

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or

sub transmission lines.

Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33kV
depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.

Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate
faults in either the transmission or distribution systems.

Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although

on long distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment
may also be installed along the line.

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Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of

large cities, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on
the low-voltage side.

Collector substation

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation

may be required, which is similar to a distribution substation although power
flows in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the
transmission grid.

For economy of construction the collector system operates around 35kV, and
the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid.

The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed,
metering and control of the wind farm.

Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power

plants of comparable output power are in proximity.

BUS PROTECTION

Differential protection is effective for bus faults because the current leaving the
bus on feeders and the current entering the bus from sources should be zero at
any instant. Additionally, differential protection can distinguish between
internal bus faults and external feeder faults. A feeder fault can result in the CTs
on the feeder saturating, and the dc offset of a fault worsens the situation. Thus
special care must be taken in bus differential relaying to prevent external faults
from causing a trip on the circuit breakers supplying the bus.

Three major systems are used:

Linear coupler (LC) system, which works by eliminating the iron core of the
CTs.
Multi-restraint, variable percentage relays (CA-16).

High impedance voltage operated differential relays (KAB).

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CHAPTER: 5

DESCRIPTION
 Single-Pole trip
Single pole tripping using distance protection is a challenging application. A
distance relay must correctly identify a single phase fault, and trip only the
circuit breaker pole for the faulted phase. The relay also must initiate the re-
closer and breaker failure elements correctly on the fault event. The distance
elements protecting the un faulted phases must maintain security during The
open-pole condition and any reclosing attempts.

The D90Plus Line Protection System and D60 Line Distance Relay use simple,
dedicated control logic for single pole tripping applications. This control logic
uses a Phase Selector, Trip Output and Open Pole Detector in conjunction with
other elements as shown in the simplified block diagram.

The Trip Output is the central logic of single pole tripping. The Trip Output
combines information from the Open Pole Detector, Phase Selector, and
protection elements to issue a single pole or three pole trip, and also to initiate
automatic reclosing and breaker failure. The Phase Selector is the key element
for maintaining the security of single pole tripping applications, quickly and
accurately identifying the faulted phase or phases based on measured currents
and voltages, by looking at the phase angles between the positive sequence,
negative-sequence, and zero-sequence components.

The Open Pole Detector ensures the relay operates correctly during a single pole
trip, placing the relay in an open pole condition when a single pole trip
command is issued, or one pole of the circuit breaker is open. The Open Pole
Detector asserts on a single pole Trip command, before the circuit breaker pole
Actually opens, to block protection elements that may misoperate under an open
pole condition, such as negative sequence elements, undervoltage protection,
and phase distance elements associated with the Faulted phase (for example, AB
and CA elements for an AG fault). The Open Pole Detector also resets and
blocks the Phase Selector so the other distance elements may operate for
evolving faults. The Open Pole Detector also accounts for line charging current
and for weak infeed conditions.

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Department of Electrical Engineering

Once the Open Pole Detector operates, a further trip will cause the Trip Output
to declare a three pole fault, indicating either an evolving fault condition or a
reclose onto a permanent phase to- Ground fault. This total logic simplifies the
setting of the D60 For single pole tripping, and ensures dependable and secure
operation when faced with single line-to-ground faults. The L90 Line
Differential Relay and the L60 Line Phase Comparison Relay are both phase-
segregated, current only relays. Single pole tripping on these relays does not
present any unusual challenges, as each phase of the protection element operates
independently of the other un faulted phases.

 Security for Dual-Breaker Terminals

Dual-breaker terminal line terminals, such as breaker-and-a-half and ring bus

terminals, are a common Design for transmission Lines. The standard practice is
to sum the currents from each circuit breaker externally by paralleling the CTs,
and using this External sum as the line current for protection relays. This
practice works well during actual line faults. However, for some external fault
events, poor CT performance may lead to improper operation of line protection
relays.

 Redundancy Considerations to Enhance Reliability

The reliability of transmission system protection is dependent on the reliability

of the protection scheme used and the individual components of the protection
scheme. Transmission protection systems typically use redundancy to increase
the dependability of the system. There are two general methods of
implementing redundancy. One method is to use multiple sets of protection
using the same protection scheme. The other method is to use multiple sets of
protection using different protection principles. Depending on the voltage class,
either method of redundancy may involve using 2 or 3 sets of protection. In
both cases, the goal is to increase dependability, by ensuring the protection
operates for a fault event. Security may be improved through the use of socalled
voting schemes (e.g. 2-out-of-3), potentially at the expense of dependability.

Multiple sets of protection using the same protection scheme involves using
multiple relays and communications channels. This is a method to overcome

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Department of Electrical Engineering

individual element failure. The simplest method is to use two protection relays
of the same type, using the same scheme and communications channel. This
only protects against the failure of one relay. In some instances, relays of
different manufacturers are used, to protect against common mode failures. It is
also common to use redundant communications channels, in case of failure on
one communications channel. Often, the communications channels use different
methods, such as power line carrier and fiber optic. This is especially true due to
the concerns of power line carrier operation during internal fault events.

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Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER:6
ADVANTAGES

 This system is more reliable.

 System gives protect to whole transmission system.

 Low maintenance of overhead line transmission system.

 Capital coast of protect equipment is low.

 If fault occurs in the protected system than easily resolution.

 Power transfer loss low.

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 TATVA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGICAL STUDIES, MODASA
Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER:6
DIS-ADVANTAGES

(1) It is very dangerous because totally works on high voltage

(2) More costly

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 TATVA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGICAL STUDIES, MODASA
Department of Electrical Engineering

REFERENCES

 A .G. Phadke, J. S. Thorp, Computer Relaying for Power Systems, NJ,

Hoboken:Wiley, 2009.

 M. Vitins, "A fundamental concept for high speed relaying", IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst, vol. PAS-100, no. 1, pp. 163-173, Jan. 1981

.
 W. P. Thomas, M. S. Jones, C. Christopoulos, "Phase selection based on
superimposed components", Proc. Inst. Eng. Technol. Gen. Transm. Distrib., vol. 143,
no. 3, pp. 1011-1018, 1996-May.

 X. Dong, Y. Ge, J. He, "Surge impedance relay", IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no.
2, pp. 1247-1256, Apr. 2005.

 A. Sharafi, M. Sanaye-Pasand, P. Jafarian, "Ultra-high-speed protection of parallel

transmission lines using current travelling waves", Inst. Eng. Technol. Gen. Transm.
Distrib., vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 656-666, 2011.

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