Centrifugal Compressors

CHAPTER 8: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

8.1 Introduction:
Question No 8.1: Distinguish between fans, blowers and compressors and mention one application
area for each. Or, Classify centrifugal compressors based on pressure developed. (VTU, Jul-07)
Answer: Centrifugal compressors work very much like centrifugal pumps except that they handle
gases instead of liquids. Compressors as well as blowers and fans are the devices used to increase the
pressure of a compressible fluid (gas).
A fan usually consists of a single rotor with or without a stator element and causes only a small
rise in stagnation pressure of the flowing fluid, perhaps as low as 20 to 30 mm of water and very rarely
in excess of 0.07 bar. Fans are used to provide strong circulating air currents or for air circulation and
ventilation of buildings.
A blower may consist of one or more stages of compression with the rotors mounted on a
common shaft. The air is compressed in a series of successive stages and is often led through a diffuser
located near the exit. Blowers may run at very high shaft speeds and cause overall pressure rise in the
range 1.5 to 2.5 bar. Blowers are used in ventilators, power stations, workshops, etc.
A compressor is a device used to produce large pressure changes ranging from 2.5 to 10 bar or
more. Centrifugal compressors are mainly used in turbo-chargers.
The advantages of centrifugal compressor over the axial flow compressor are smaller length
and wide range of mass flow rate of gas. The disadvantages are larger frontal area and lower maximum
efficiency.
8.2 Components of Centrifugal Compressor:
Question No 8.2: Explain the various components of typical centrifugal compressors with the help
of a schematic diagram. Discuss the actual pressure and velocity variations of flow across the
impeller and diffuser. (VTU, Jul-07)
Answer: The principal components are the impeller and the diffuser. When the impeller is rotating at
high speed, air is drawn in through the eye of the impeller. The absolute velocity of the inflow air is
axial. The air then flows radially through the impeller passages due to centrifugal force. The total
mechanical energy driving the compressor is transmitted to the fluid stream in the impeller where it is
converted into kinetic energy, pressure and heat due to friction. The function of the diffuser is to
convert the kinetic energy of air that leaving the impeller into pressure. The air leaving the diffuser is
collected in a spiral casing from which it is discharged from compressor. The pressure and velocity
variation across the centrifugal compressor is shown in figure 8.1.

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Fig. 8.1 Pressure and velocity diagram for centrifugal compressor

8.3 Types of Vane Shapes:
Question No 8.3: With a neat sketch and velocity triangles, explain different vane shapes of the
centrifugal compressor. Draw the inlet velocity triangle assuming Vu1 = 0. (VTU, May/Jun-10)
Answer: There are three types of vane shapes in centrifugal machines namely, (i) Backward curved
vane (ii) Radial vane (iii) Forward curved vane.
The vane is said to be backward curved if the angle between the rotor blade-tip and the tangent
to the rotor at the exit is acute (β2<90o). If it is a right angle (β2=90o) the blade said to be radial and if it
is greater than 90o, the blade is said to be forward curved. Here the blade angles measured with respect
to direction of rotor (clockwise direction). The velocity triangles at the outlet of centrifugal machines
are shown below.
For centrifugal machines usually the absolute velocity at the entry has no tangential component
(i.e., Vu1= 0), thus the inlet velocity triangle for all the 3 types of vanes is same.

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Centrifugal Compressors

Fig. 8.2 Different vane shapes in centrifugal compressors.

8.4 Influence of Impeller Vane Shape:
Question No 8.4: Discuss with velocity diagram why backward curved vanes are preferred for radial
flow (centrifugal) compressors.
Answer: Figure 8.2 gives the velocity diagram for different vane shapes. For compressor which absorb
a specific amount of energy and runs at a given speed, the diameter (D2) and whirl velocity (Vu2) can
be varied to maintain U2Vu2 at the required value. Hence if β2 is large (as in forward curved vane), Vu2
is also large and U2 has to be small that is diameter should be decreased. Similarly, if β2 is small (as in
backward curved vane), Vu2 is small. Hence U2 has to be large and the diameter should be increased
appropriately to provide the required performance. This implies that compressor with backward curved
vanes are larger in size than those with forward curved (or radial) vanes of the same capacity.
Now consider fluid flow through compressors running at the same tip speed (U2) and with the
same radial velocity (Vm2). Then, an increase in exit vane angle (β2) increases exit fluid velocity (V2)
consequently, a very efficient diffuser is needed to obtain a pressure rise using all to of the kinetic
energy at the exit. Because of irreversibilities due to adverse pressure gradients and thick boundary

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Centrifugal Compressors

layers, complete diffusion of the exit kinetic energy with a pressure rise corresponding to the
theoretical, is impossible. Therefore the compressors with large exit angles will be less efficient overall
than compressors with small exit angles. So when high compressor efficiency is desired, machines
with backward curved vanes must be used. This is one of the reasons that compressors with backward
curved vanes are preferred. In some cases, where a large pressure rise is needed with a compressor of
small size, radial blades are used though the efficiency may not be as high as that of a compressor with
backward curved vanes of similar capacity. Compressors with forward curved vanes are even less
common than those of radial type.
8.5 Slip and Slip Factor:
Question No 8.5: Briefly explain the slip and slip coefficient in centrifugal compressors.
(VTU, Jun-12)
Answer:

Fig. 8.3 Velocity and pressure distribution over impeller

In deriving the Euler’s equation, it was assumed that the velocity and pressure distributions are
uniform over the impeller cross-sectional area. But in actual practice this assumption is not correct,
because the velocity and pressure are not uniform over an impeller cross-sectional area as shown in
figure 8.3. Due to uneven pressure distribution and hence the velocity distribution the tangential
component of the velocity (whirl velocity) reduces, thus head developed by the machine is always less
than that developed at the ideal condition.
Thus slip may be defined as the phenomenon observed in centrifugal machines due to uneven
pressure distribution and the velocity distribution, which results in the reduction of tangential
component of the velocity (whirl velocity).
If Vu2’ is the tangential component of the velocity without slip and (Vu2) is the tangential component of
the velocity with slip, then slip (S) is 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑢2′ − 𝑉𝑢2

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The ratio of ideal head (Hi) with slip to the Euler’s head (He) without slip is called the slip co-
efficient (µ).
𝐻𝑖 𝑉𝑢2
𝜇= =
𝐻𝑒 𝑉𝑢2′
Then theoretical work done on gas by a centrifugal compressor with slip is given as:

𝑤𝑡ℎ𝑒 = ∆ℎ𝑜 = 𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′ = 𝜇𝑒

Although above equation modified by the slip coefficient, it is still the theoretical work done on the
gas, since slip will be present even if the fluid is frictionless (ideal fluid).
8.6 Power Input Factor and Pressure Coefficient:
The losses that occur in a compressor are due to:
(i) Friction between air and the sides of the passages of flow or between disks.
(ii) The effects of shock (due to improper incidence), separation in regions of high adverse
pressure gradients and turbulence.
(iii) Leakage between the tip of the rotor and casing.
(iv) Mechanical losses in bearings etc.
The frictional losses in the rotor and leakage losses between the tip of the rotor and casing
make the actual work absorbed by the rotor, lesser than the theoretical. This fact is expressed by a
quantity called the power input factor or the work factor, which is defined as the ratio of actual work
supplied to the compressor to the theoretical work supplied to the same machine.
𝑤 𝑤
Ω= =
𝑤𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
Then actual work supplied to the compressor is,
𝑤 = Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′ = Ω𝜇𝑒
The frictional losses in the diffuser and the loss due to exit kinetic energy make the total static
pressure rise, less than the theoretical maximum specified by the impeller speed. This fact is expressed
by a quantity called the pressure or loading coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of the isentropic
work needed to cause the observed rise to the isentropic work specified by the impeller tip-speed
(Euler’s work).
𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
ψ𝑝 =
𝑒
But,
𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ) = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 × 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑤 × 𝜂𝑐
𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝜂𝑐 Ω𝜇𝑒
Then pressure coefficient is,

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Centrifugal Compressors

𝑤 × 𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑐 Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
ψ𝑝 = =
𝑒 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
ψ𝑝 = 𝜂𝑐 Ω𝜇

8.7 Work Done and Pressure Ratio:

Question No 8.6: Derive an expression for total-to-total pressure ratio in terms of impeller tip speed
for a radial vanes centrifugal compressor. (VTU (Ph.D), Jan-12)
Answer: Figure 8.4 shows the enthalpy-entropy diagram for a centrifugal compressor stage. State
points with superscript are correspond to isentropic compression processes. Air enters the impeller
vanes with lower absolute velocity V1 and leaves with large absolute velocity V2. This absolute
velocity reduces to V3 when it passes through the diffuser vanes, which is slightly higher than V1. It can
V21
be observed that stagnation pressure Po1 will be higher than static pressure P1 by an amount .
2
V2
Similarly Po2 is much higher than static pressure P2 by an amount 22 .

Fig. 8.4 Enthalpy-entropy diagram of a centrifugal compressor

Euler’s work done on gas by a centrifugal compressor is given as:

𝑒 = 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
(Because, 𝑉𝑢1 = 0)
For backward curved vanes,
𝑉𝑢2′ = 𝑈2 − 𝑉𝑚2 cot 𝛽2

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Centrifugal Compressors

Then, 𝒆 = 𝑼𝟐 (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑽𝒎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜷𝟐 )

For forward curved vanes,
𝑉𝑢2′ = 𝑈2 + 𝑉𝑚2 cot(180𝑜 − 𝛽2 ) = 𝑈2 − 𝑉𝑚2 cot 𝛽2
Then, 𝒆 = 𝑼𝟐 (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑽𝒎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜷𝟐 )
For radial vanes,
𝑉𝑢2′ = 𝑈2
Then, 𝒆 = 𝑼𝟐𝟐
The stage efficiency of the compressor based on stagnation conditions at entry and exit is given by,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝜂𝑐 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠
ℎ𝑜3′ − ℎ𝑜1 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑜3′ − 𝑇𝑜1 )
𝜂𝑐 = =
ℎ𝑜3 − ℎ𝑜1 ℎ𝑜3 − ℎ𝑜1
Since, no work is done in the diffuser, ℎ𝑜2 = ℎ𝑜3 .
ℎ𝑜3 − ℎ𝑜1 = ℎ𝑜2 − ℎ𝑜1 = 𝑤 = Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
𝛾−1
𝑃 𝛾
𝑇 ′
𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜1 ( 𝑇𝑜3 − 1) 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜1 [(𝑃𝑜3 ) − 1]
𝑜1
𝑜1
𝜂𝑐 = =
Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′ Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′
Then pressure ratio of centrifugal compressor is,
𝛾
𝑃𝑜3 𝜂𝑐 Ω𝜇𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2′ 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑟𝑜 = = [1 + ]
𝑃𝑜1 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜1
For backward curved vanes,
𝜸
𝜼𝒄 𝛀𝝁𝑼𝟐 (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑽𝒎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜷𝟐 ) 𝜸−𝟏
𝑷𝒓𝒐 = [𝟏 + ]
𝒄𝒑 𝑻𝒐𝟏
For forward curved vanes,

𝜸
𝜼𝒄 𝛀𝝁𝑼𝟐 (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑽𝒎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜷𝟐 ) 𝜸−𝟏
𝑷𝒓𝒐 = [𝟏 + ]
𝒄𝒑 𝑻𝒐𝟏
For radial vanes,
𝜸
𝜼𝒄 𝛀𝝁𝑼𝟐𝟐 𝜸−𝟏
𝑷𝒓𝒐 = [𝟏 + ]
𝒄𝒑 𝑻𝒐𝟏

The interesting part of the above equation is that they permit direct evaluations of pressure ratio
and work output, once the initial conditions and the rotor tip-speed are given and slip-coefficient,
power input factor and efficiency are estimated.

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Centrifugal Compressors

8.8 Compressibility and Pre-whirl:

Question No 8.7: Discuss the compressibility for a centrifugal compressor. (VTU, Dec-12)
Answer: The Mach number is responsible for the compressibility of a flow. The higher the Mach
number the greater will be the compressibility effect and hence it reduces the compressor efficiency.
The Mach number at the inlet of the impeller eye is mainly depending on the relative velocity of the
impeller at the inlet. It is therefore necessary to keep the relative velocity value as low as possible.
For a given flow rate, impeller eye may be either large or small. For large eye, velocity V1 is
low and eye tip speed U1 is high. For small eye it is opposite. Both these conditions result in higher
value of Vr1, but it is minimum in between these two. Figure 8.5 shows the variation of relative Mach
number with the eye tip diameter.
Question No 8.8: What is the necessity of providing the pre-whirl at the inlet of the centrifugal
compressor? (VTU, Dec-11)
Answer: When the relative velocity is too high for efficient operation of a compressor and if flow rate
and speed cannot be altered, still the relative velocity can be reduced by giving the fluid some initial
positive pre-rotation. This is known as Prewhirl. This is usually done by providing inlet guide vanes
installed directly in front of the eye as shown in figure 8.6. Sufficient prewhirl at the eye tip can avoid
reaching the condition of critical Mach number leading to a prewhirl component. Positive prewhirl is
disadvantageous because a positive inlet whirl velocity reduces energy transfer by an amount equal to
U1Vu1.

Fig. 8.5 Variation of Mach number with the eye tip diameter

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Centrifugal Compressors

Fig. 8.6 Prewhirl at impeller eye

Note: Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to
a pressure change.
8.9 Diffuser:
Question No 8.9: What is the function of a diffuser? Name different types of diffusers used in
centrifugal compressor and explain them with simple sketches. (VTU, Jun/Jul-09)
Answer: Diffuser plays an important role in the overall compression process of a centrifugal
compressor. The impeller imparts energy to the air by increasing its velocity. The diffuser converts this
imported kinetic energy into pressure rise. For a radial vanned impeller, the diffuser does compress
and increase the pressure equal to 50 percent of the overall static pressure rise.

Fig. 8.7 Types of diffusers

8.9.1 Vaneless Diffuser: In this type, the diffusion process will take place in the vaneless space
around the impeller before the air leaves the compressor stage through volute casing. A vaneless
diffuser is shown in figure 8.7 (a). A vaneless diffuser has wide range of mass flow rate. But for a
large reduction in the outlet kinetic energy, diffuser with a large radius is required. Because of long
flow path with this type of diffuser, friction effects are important and the efficiency is low.
8.9.2 Vanned Diffuser: In the vanned diffuser as shown in figure 8.7 (b), the vanes are used to diffuse
the outlet kinetic energy at a much higher rate, in a shorter length and with a higher efficiency than the
vaneless diffuser. A ring of diffuser vanes surrounds the impeller at the outlet, and after leaving the
impeller, the air enters the diffuser vanes
The diffuser efficiency defined as the ratio of ideal enthalpy rise to the actual enthalpy rise in
the diffuser.
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Centrifugal Compressors

𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝜂𝑑 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
8.10 Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics:
An idealized centrifugal compressor characteristic curve is shown in figure 8.8. Consider a
centrifugal compressor delivering through a flow control valve situated after the diffuser. There is a
certain pressure head, even if the valve is fully closed and is indicated by state 1. This pressure head is
merely due to the churning action of the impeller vanes. The pressure head so developed is called “shut
off” head. As flow control valve is opened, the air starts flowing and diffuser increases the pressure
head. Thus, at state 2, the maximum pressure head is reached but the efficiency is just below the
maximum efficiency.

Fig. 8.8 Characteristic curve of centrifugal compressor

Further increase in mass flow reduces the pressure head to state 3. But at this state, the
efficiency is maximum compared with state 2. Thus the value corresponding to state 3 is said to be
design mass flow rate and pressure head.
Further increase in mass flow decreases the pressure head and reaches zero at state 4.
Corresponding to this state, all the power absorbed by the compressor is used to overcome the internal
friction and thus the compressor efficiency is zero.
8.10.1 Surging:
Question No 8.10: Explain the surging phenomena in centrifugal compressors with the help of
head-discharge curves. (VTU, Dec-08/Jan-09, Dec-11, Jun-12, Jun/Jul-13)
Answer: The phenomenon of a momentary increase in the delivery pressure resulting in unsteady,
periodic and reversal of flow through the compressor is called surging.
Consider compressor is operating at the state 3 as shown in figure 8.8, if the mass flow is
reduced by gradual closing of the flow valve, the operating point move on to the left. Further reduction
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in mass flow increases the pressure head until it reaches the maximum value. Any further decrease in
flow will not increase the pressure head and hence reduces the pressure head to state 6. At this
condition there is a large pressure in the exit pipe than at compressor delivery and the flow stops
momentarily, and may even flow in the reverse direction. This reduces the exit pipe pressure, then
compressor again starts to deliver the air and the operating point quickly shifts to 3 again. Once again
the pressure starts increasing and operating point moves from right to left. If the exit pipe conditions
are remain unchanged then once again the flow will breakdown after state 2 and cycle will be repeated
with high frequency. This phenomenon is called surging.
If the surging is severe enough then the compressor may be subjected to impact loads and high
frequency vibration leads to failure of the compressor parts.
8.10.2 Choking:
Question No 8.11: Explain the choking phenomena in centrifugal compressors. (VTU, Dec-11,)
Answer: When the mass flow is increased to the right of point 3 on the characteristic curve (as in
figure 8.8) a state 5 is reached, where no further increase in mass flow is possible no matter how wide
open the flow control valve is. This indicates that the flow velocity in the passage reaches the speed of
sound at some point within the compressor and the flow chokes. Choking means fixed mass flow rate
regardless of pressure ratio. Choking may take place at the inlet, within the impeller, or in the diffuser
section. It will occur in the inlet if stationary guide vanes are fitted.

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