This summary will provide an overview of the current

state of adapted computer technology, its practicality

in the educational and job environment, legal implica-
tions and future trends.
The term "adapted computer technology" refers
to any hardware or software system which, when used
in conjunction with a microcomputer, provides sys
tems access to disabled persons. The primary disability
groups most likely to benefit from access to adapted
computer technology are visually, orthopedically and
learning impaired individuals.
In the current system of communication between
people and computers, screen and keyboard are the
primary channels of information exchange. Persons
with disabilities, low vision or limited fine motor con-
trol, for example, find these channels of communi-
cation partially or totally obstructed. Traditional
responses to this problem have typically involved spe-
cialized mechanical devices, exotic software or custom- ES.1
ized computer systems. Few of these solutions have
proven effective in either the educational or work set-
ting. Lack of cost effectiveness, steep learning curves
and limited user productivity have rendered the imple-
mentation of such devices more a gesture of good will
than a serious attempt to provide meaningful com-
puter access in a process leading to productive, profes-
sional employment for disabled persons. Given the
degree of technological sophistication previously avail-
able in the area of adapted computer access, this was
probably all that could be reasonably expected under
the auspices of education's mandate to provide "reason-
able accommodation" and industry's affirmative action/
equal opportunity employment guidelines.
Over the last two years, advances in microcompu-
ter technology and the art/science of computer pro-
gramming have given rise to a new generation of
methods for providing computer access to disabled

Executive Summary
 persons. A revolution has taken place in the efficiency,
practicality and cost effectiveness of adapted computer
technology. Most adaptations now exist as specialized
computer programs rather than mechanical devices or
customized computer systems. The practical results of
these innovative new access technologies will have sig-
nificant impact on the future of disabled individuals
and on education and business.
Because this new generation of adapted computer
access technologies is primarily software based, it al-
lows full and unencumbered access to the complete
range of commercially available software. In practical
terms, this means that, for the most part, education
and business can accommodate the special access needs
of disabled computer users without modifying core
curriculum software or business applications pro-
grams. Because adaptations are based in software, costs
are dramatically reduced. Typical software adaptations
ES.2 cost one-half to two-thirds less than traditional
hardware adaptations while providing significantly im-
proved computer access and ease of use. The im-
plementation of these new access technologies is taking
place in many broad and diverse areas of both the
educational and business community. Such educa-
tional institutions as the California community college
system, University of California at Davis, Yale, Stan-
ford and many other colleges and universities across
the nation are actively involved in improving computer
access for their disabled students through the use of
adapted computer technology.
A number of major computer manufacturers have
made a strong commitment to the future of adapted
computer technology. Digital Equipment Corpora
tion, IBM and Apple Computer Corporation all have
divisions dedicated to providing computer access for
disabled individuals. IBM, through its Office of Prod-
uct Initiatives for the Disabled, is actively sponsoring,
developing and encouraging the manufacture of prod-

Executive Summary
ucts which provide enhanced computer access for per-
sons with disabilities. Apple Computer Corporation's
Office of Special Education is dedicated to providing
information about adapted computer technology to
both education and industry, and has set new industry
standards in access accomodation by including access
programs for individuals with low vision, the deaf or
hard-of-hearing, and the orthopedically disabled, as a
part of the operating system for Macintosh computers.
In California, the State Department of Rehabilita-
tion expressed its commitment to the future of adapted
computer technology through a series of grants to the
Community College Foundation totaling more than
$5.5 million dollars. In cooperation with the Califor-
nia Community Colleges Chancellor's Office and parti-
cipating colleges, these grants have established adapted
computer technology centers at 51 of California's 106
community colleges, three California State University
campuses, the University of California at Davis and ES.3
other educational institutions across the state.
Although there are probably many effective ways
to introduce adapted computer technology into a post-
secondary educational setting, the California model
has been in place for four years and provides an empir-
ical, tested framework from which to begin.
The basic assumption of this model is that dis-
abled students are presently, or will become, fully f inc-
tional members of the community of students on cam
pus. They will enroll in the same classes, be held fully
accountable for academic standards and will progress
towards graduation and employment. The purpose of
this model is to provide functional computer access so
that disabled students can: (1) fully participate in
courses or career paths in which computers play an
integral part and (2) avail themselves of the special
benefits provided by computer access to students in
general (i.e., word processing, research, computer as-
sisted instruction, etc.).

Executive Summary
 In order to provided disabled students with train-
ing and experience in the use of computer adaptations,
the California model establishes on campus a facility
called The High-Tech Center for the Disabled. This
facility is staffed by an Adapted Computer
Technologies specialist and instructional aides. The
Center offers specialized courses in the use of adapted
access technologies appropriate to a particular stu-
dent's disability. Generally, the use of appropriate
adaptations is taught within the context of word pro-
cessing. Upon achieving competency with his/her ap-
propriate adaptation, the student may confidently en-
roll in courses which require computer access or use
existing campus computer facilities. The underlying
assumption of the California model is that a full range
of adaptations identical to those learned in the High-
Tech Center will be available at each major computer
facility on campus. Where this is not possible, the
ES.4 High-Tech Center may also function as a resource
center providing computer access for daily student
needs.
Adapted computer technology functions most ef-
fectively with MS DOS based PC computers (i.e., IBM
PS/2s, IBM PCs, AT&T PCs, Compaqs, HP Vectras,
PC clones, etc.), Macintosh series computers, and to
a lesser extent with Apple II series computers. This
li mitation in Apple II series computers is due in large
measure to slow processing speed, the operating sys-
tem architecture and constraints imposed by the
characteristics of the processor chip used. The Macin-
tosh computer is potentially capable of supporting an
elegant array of adapted computer technologies. Al-
though few adaptations currently exist for the Macin-
tosh, those that do are quite good, and more will un-
doubtedly become available.
When used as a terminal in a mainframe or mini-
computer network, PCs will generally support adapta-
tions while running in terminal emulation mode under

Executive Summary
 MS DOS. This is an important consideration since
software based adapted computer technology is virtu-
ally nonexistent for mini and mainframe computer sys-
tems using dumb terminals (DEC VT-240s or IBM
3270s, for example).
Adaptations for blind computer users work excep-
tionally well on PC computers, moderately well on
Apple He's, and will soon be available for the Apple
Macintosh. Systems for blind computer users are com-
posed of two parts: (1) specialized software capable of
"reading" text displayed on the computer screen and
(2) speech synthesizers capable of "speaking" what is
being "read." There are a variety of screen reading
programs and speech synthesizers available. DECtalk,
manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation, is
generally considered to be the best speech synthesizer
currently manufactured. Blind computer users can be
quite successful with tasks which involve text and/or
numbers. ES.S
Successful applications might include but are in
no way limited to accounting, spreadsheets, database
management, word processing, computer program
ming and data entry. Computer applications which de-
pend heavily on graphic presentations (i.e., computer
assisted design, statistical information displayed as
charts and graphs, etc.) remain a problem as the pre-
sent generation of screen reading programs provide no
methods for interpreting graphic displays.
Adaptations for individuals with low vision work
very well on the PC and Macintosh computers. Good
low vision adaptations also exist for the Apple II series
and many "dumb" computer terminals although they
are hardware based and rather expensive. Low vision
adaptations are available for both the PC and Macin-
tosh computers which provide magnification of both
text and graphics on the computer screen. Low vision
adaptations for the Apple II series or other computer
terminals accomplish much the same thing but do so

Executive Summary
 by presenting the enlarged image on a separate display
monitor. When provided with appropriate adapted
computer technology, individuals with low vision can
enjoy full access to campus-wide computer resources.
Adaptations for individuals with mild to severe
orthopedic disabilities exist and work well on PC,
Apple II series and Macintosh computers, although
the most sophisticated adaptions are still only available
for the PC. These adaptations are primarily concerned
with reducing the difficulty experienced by individuals
with missing limbs or limited fine motor control in
accessing the keyboard. Simply overcoming keyboard-
ing difficulties, however, is not enough to provide ef-
fective computer access for moderately to severely or-
thopedically disabled persons. Another very signifi-
cant area of adaptive intervention concerns typing
speed. In order to be competitive in either the educa-
tional or job environment, the orthopedically disabled
ES.8 individual must be able to produce written material
quickly. "Smart" word processing systems available for
PC computers use artificial intelligence technologies
to anticipate and predict word choices based on
minimum text input. Using these systems, individuals
with significant orthopedic disabilities can increase
their typing rate by as much as 75%.
Adaptations for individuals with learning dis-
abilities, primarily visual and auditory processing de-
ficits, can be very successfully introduced in both the
PC and Macintosh environments, and used with mod-
erate success on Apple systems. A visual processing
deficit frequently manifests itself as a chronic, intermit-
ent inability to receive and/or express written informa-
tion in an organized and sequential manner. For a stu-
dent in post-secondary education or an employee in a
text-oriented job setting, the effects of this disability
can be devastating. Using a combination of adapta-
tions including smart word processors, real-time spell

Executive Summary
checkers, screen reading systems and advanced speech
synthesizers, an adapted writing environment can be
created which is auditorially rather than visually
oriented. In this environment, the user can hear what
he/she has written and so transfer the error identifica-
tion/correction process to an auditory mode where it
can proceed unobstructed by the effects of the visual
processing disability.
Just as a mechanical prosthesis becomes a natural
extension of its wearer, compensating for a limb lost to
accident or injury and restoring the ability to carry out
the normal activities of daily living, so a computer ad-
aptation quickly becomes an extension of its user, an
electronic prosthesis effortlessly compensating for and
restoring his/her ability to use a computer.

Avoiding Obsolescence ES.9

A serious and quite legitimate concern of many admin-

istrators faced with the task of choosing and purchas-
ing sophisticated computer hardware and software is
the rapidity with which such equipment regularly be-
comes obsolete. The all-too-frequent response to con-
cerns about obsolescence or seductive rumors about
what's "just around the corner" often results in an end-
less series of postponements to the establishment of
adapted computer technology on campus.
There are two distinct types of obsolescence: tech-
nological and functional. Technological obsolescence is
a research driven phenomenon which generally pro
vides a better way to do an existing task. One solution
to the issue is simply to accept the periodic technolog-
ical obsolescence of existing adaptations as a part of the
cost of doing business. Advances in adapted computer
technologies sufficient to warrant replacement occur

Executive Summary
 approximately every three years or so if previous cycles
of improvement are reliable indicators. Functional ob-
solescence is task related. A wrench is the ideal tool for
the task of loosening or tightening a nut. If, however,
the nut is replaced by a rivet, the wrench becomes func-
tionally obsolete.
Although technological obsolescence seems un-
avoidable, careful initial planning can forestall an
adapted computer device's functional obsolescence for
many years. By providing effective, generalized access
to campus computer facilities, the basic tasks which
must be accomplished to complete a post-secondary
educational program will be within the grasp of dis-
abled students. Basic educational tasks, unlike tech-
nology, change very little from year to year. The
effectiveness with which disabled students are able to
use these adaptations to complete academic tasks will
have a direct bearing on the functional life expectancy
ES.10 of such equipment. The more effectively an adaptation
meets a need, the longer it can be used.

Computer Access, Disability and the Law

As new technologies are introduced into the market-

place and become commonplace in post-secondary ed-
ucation, the challenge to accommodate disabled
students is presented to colleges and universities on a
daily basis. Many new adapted computer technologies
clearly do not place an undue financial burden or hard-
ship on an institution. The issue is how to quickly and
easily make it possible for students with disabilities to
take advantage of these new technologies.
Not only do colleges and universities have a his-
torical commitment to providing a comprehensive
education to all matriculating students, but legal re-

Executive Summary
quirements exist which mandate that institutions pro-
vide equal access to educational opportunities for
students under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and, more
specifically, under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973 as amended [29 U.S.C. sec. 794]. This Act
describes "reasonable accommodation" as the method
for ensuring the nondiscrimination of disabled per-
sons. Across the country, institutions have taken broad
steps to make education more accessible to students
with disabilities. The decade of the 1970's saw great
emphasis on the removal of architectural barriers on
campuses so that students in wheelchairs could get into
classrooms. Elevators were built so that physically
handicapped students could access classrooms on the
second or third floors of campus buildings and attend
class. States now have Architectural Review Boards and
extensive requirements for the construction of build-
ings and pathways which accommodate the disabled as
a general rule. Reflecting on what was built in the past, ES.I1
how could our planning have been so shortsighted as
to have constructed engineering centers or humanities
laboratories from which students with physical disabil-
ities were barred by oversights in design?
Now that adapted computer technology, based
primarily in software, permits full access to commer-
cially available and professor-authored software pro
grams, individual microcomputers and networks, it is
reasonable to expect institutions to take proactive steps
to accommodate students with disabilities. There can
and most certainly will be legal consequences in not
doing so, as equal access and equal opportunity con-
tinue as guiding principles in college admissions and
academic participation.
As a case in point, in the 1979 Supreme Court
case Southeastern Community College v. Davis, our high-
est court recognized emerging needs of the disabled in
terms of advances in technology:

Executive Summary
 We do not suggest that the line between a lawful refusal
to extend affirmative action and illegal discrimination
against handicapped persons will always be clear. It is
possible to envision situations where an insistence on
continuing past requirements and practices might ar-
bitrarily deprive genuinely qualified handicapped per-
sons of the opportunity to participate in a covered
program. Technological advances can be expected to
enhance opportunities to rehabilitate the handicapped
or otherwise to qualify them for some useful employ-
ment. Such advances also may enable attainment of
these goals without imposing undue financial and ad-
ministrative burdens upon a state. Thus, situations may
arise where a refusal to modify an existing program
might become unreasonable and discriminatory. Iden-
tification of those instances where a refusal to accom-
modate the needs of a disabled person amounts to
discrimination against the handicapped continues to
be an important responsibility of HEW [442 U.S. at
ES.12 412-413].

Further, in Alexander v. Choate [105 S.Ct. 712

(1985)], the Supreme Court states:

Discrimination against the handicapped was perceived

by Congress to be most often the product not of invid-
ious animus, but rather of thoughtlessness and indiffer-
ence-of benign neglect ... For example, elimination
of architectural barriers was one of the central aims of
the Act, yet such barriers were clearly not erected with
the aim or intent of excluding the handicapped [ 105 S.
Ct. at 718-19].

Looking ahead to the year 2000, it is essential that

we consider reasonable accommodation as a regular
part of institutional planning. Returning now to
adapted computer technology, responding to the mi-
crocomputer onslaught in the college classroom and
campus environment, simple steps can be taken to en-

Executive Summary
sure that students with disabilities can use microcom-
puters as an ongoing part of their college education. In
many cases, accommodation is simple. What can insti-
tutions do? First, in planning microcomputer and
mainframe use at an institution, consider that an on-
going portion of students will need to be reasonably
accommodated due to visual, physical, hearing or
learning disabilities. Design an accessible system. Next,
keep abreast of software packages that permit reason-
able accommodation for the disabled and allow non-
disabled persons access as well. Third, it is critical that
institutions pay particular attention to how public in-
formation is made available to the campus and at-large
community and, wherever public information is avail-
able, ensure that persons with disabilities have access
to this information as equal members of the college
community. For example, if students are required as
part of the college curriculum to access LEXIS, DOW
JONES or ERIC databases, questions such as "how ES.13
will a blind student use this terminal" or "is the librar-
y's computer which contains ERIC accessible to a stu-
dent in a wheelchair" must be answered. If all students
at an institution are given a microcomputer or are re-
quired to use ones available in the campus center, stu-
dent lounge or dormitory, how will disabled students
be accommodated? Adapted computer technologies
provide answers to these questions and enable institu-
tions to provide the very best through hardware and
software accommodations that are becoming increas-
ingly commonplace.
Finally, in relating these emerging new technol-
ogies to the goals and objectives of affirmative action,
Section 504, and the U.S. Department of Education's
regulations on Section 504 in regard to program acces-
sibility and the provision of auxiliary aids to students
with disabilities (34 C.F.R. Part 104), standards have
now been developed which apply to adapted computer

Executive Summary
 technologies. Quoting from a recently released report
produced jointly by the Department of Education and
the General Services Administration:

On October 21, 1986, the Department of Education

(ED) and the General Services Administration (GSA)
were directed by Congress (Public Law 99-506) to
develop agency procurement guidelines to ensure ac-
cess to electronic office equipment by individuals with
disabilities.

The report continues:

In 1986, Congress re-authorized the Rehabilitation

Act of 1973, as amended, (Public Law 99-506) adding
Section 508 on electronic equipment accessibility
"... to insure that handicapped individuals may use
electronic office equipment with or without special
peripherals." Congress has mandated that guidelines
ES.14 for electronic equipment accessibility be established
and adopted and that agencies shall comply with these
guidelines with respect to electronic equipment,
whether purchased or leased.

These clearly defined access criteria, usage require-

ments, guidelines and related access issues comprise
standards which will, in short order, become law or
administrative rulings. Applying the likelihood of this
kind of legislation to the needs of disabled persons, it
is probable that institutions which receive federal funds
and which require computer access for all students will
need to prepare for such standards very soon.

Future Trends and Issues

New trends in academic computing hold both promise

and peril for disabled students in post-secondary edu-

Executive Summary
cation. In order to better manage existing computer
resources, many colleges are developing networked
systems which link a wide range of micro, mini and
mainframe computers into a single cohesive system.
The benefits of such systems can be enormous: com-
mon access to electronic mail, research databases,
centralized word processing, computer assisted in-
struction, course registration and library resources,
to name a few. An alarming factor in this rush for
control and management of burgeoning computer re-
sources is the limited amount of consideration given to
the impact of such networks on computer access for
disabled students. A number of considerations must be
taken into account when such systems are under
consideration:

How will networking software affect existing

computer adaptations?
ES.15
If centralized word processing is to be intro-
duced, will the system employ screen formats
which can be accessed by systems for blind
computer users?
If terminals rather than PC type microcom-
puters are the primary workstations, how will
access for low vision, blind and orthopedically
disabled students be provided?

These are but a few of the questions which must

be carefully considered when planning the installation
of such systems.
With the advent of high resolution color displays
and laser disk technologies, all indications point to a
growing emphasis on graphically oriented computer
displays. This could have significant adverse impact on
visually impaired individuals. The Apple Macintosh
computer is a classic example of a state-of-the-art
graphically oriented computer system, which, until

Executive Summary
 recently, was totally inaccessible to blind computer
users. The bit-mapped screen displays could not be
read by any existing systems for blind computer users;
the mouse interface was entirely dependent on visual
orientation. The icon based system commands were
graphically rather than textually configured and could
not be interpreted by previous screen reading systems.
It is now well within the range of technological possi-
bility to design such systems with the means to support
adaptations for blind users. However, such design con-
siderations must be incorporated into the basic ar-
chitecture of the system, not added on at a later date.
As more and more sophisticated computer systems are
developed, awareness of access requirements for dis-
abled computer users during the early design phases
of such machines will become progressively more crit-
ical.
Computerized versions of most major placement
ES.16 tests are now available or being actively developed by
large testing companies. If, and we have no reason to
believe otherwise, computer based testing becomes the
national norm, how will computer access be provided
to disabled individuals wishing to take such tests?
Much vital, public information now only exists
electronically in massive, federally funded computer
databases. With such databases rapidly becoming the
exclusive domain of vast quantities of public informa-
tion, are they not, in fact, a new kind of public library?
If they are, in fact, public libraries dependent upon
federal funds, then they must be readily accessible to all
citizens, including disabled citizens, under Section 504
of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. How will such ac-
cess be provided?
Obviously, questions of enormous magnitude re-
main to be answered in the decade ahead. The oppor-
tunities for disabled individuals to succeed in our
technologically advanced society have never been
greater.

Executive Summary