CHAPTER 26 WIND LOADS: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Wind Directionality Factor, Kd

Table 26.6-1

Structure Type Directionality Factor Kd*

Buildings
Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85

Arched Roofs 0.85

Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures

Square 0.90
Hexagonal 0.95
Round 0.95

Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid

Freestanding and Attached Signs 0.85

Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85

Trussed Towers
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
All other cross sections 0.95

*Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads

specified in Chapter 2. This factor shall only be applied when used in
conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4.

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CHAPTER 26 WIND LOADS: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Topographic Factor, Kzt

Figure 26.8-1

Topographic Multipliers for Exposure C

K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3 Multiplier
H/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D x/Lh 2-D All z/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D
Ridge Escarp. Axisym. Escarp. Other Ridge Escarp. Axisym.
Hill Cases Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Notes:
1. For values of H/Lh, x/Lh and z/Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
2. For H/Lh > 0.5, assume H/Lh = 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and K3.
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the
direction of maximum slope.
4. Notation:
H: Height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, in feet (meters).
Lh: Distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or
escarpment, in feet (meters).
K1: Factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect.
K2: Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest.
K3: Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain.
x: Distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, in feet (meters).
z: Height above ground surface at building site, in feet (meters).
μ: Horizontal attenuation factor.
γ: Height attenuation factor.

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 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Topographic Factor, Kzt

Figure 26.8-1 (cont’d)

Equations:

K zt = (1 + K1 K 2 K 3 ) 2

K1 determined from table below

x
K 2 = (1 - )
μL h

K 3 = e - γz/Lh

Parameters for Speed-Up Over Hills and Escarpments

K1/(H/Lh) m
Hill Shape Exposure g Upwind Downwind
B C D of Crest of Crest
2-dimensional ridges
(or valleys with negative 1.30 1.45 1.55 3 1.5 1.5
H in K1/(H/Lh)

2-dimensional escarpments 0.75 0.85 0.95 2.5 1.5 4

3-dimensional axisym. hill 0.95 1.05 1.15 4 1.5 1.5

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MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

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 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Main Wind Force Resisting System – Part 1 All Heights

Figure 27.4-1 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings
Walls & Roofs

θ θ

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CHAPTER 27 WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS—MWFRS (DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE)

Main Wind Force Resisting System – Part 1 All Heights

Figure 27.4-1 (cont.) External Pressure Coefficients, Cp
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings Walls & Roofs
Wall Pressure Coefficients, Cp
Surface L/B Cp Use With
Windward Wall All values 0.8 qz
0-1 -0.5
Leeward Wall 2 -0.3 qh
≥4 -0.2
Side Wall All values -0.7 qh

Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp, for use with qh

Windward Leeward
Wind Angle, θ (degrees)
Direction Angle, θ (degrees)
h/L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 ≥60# 10 15 ≥20
-0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
Normal ≤0.25 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01 θ -0.3 -0.5 -0.6
to -0.9 -0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 0.0*
ridge for 0.5 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01 θ -0.5 -0.5 -0.6
0 ≥ 10° -1.3** -1.0 -0.7 -0.5 -0.3 -0.2 0.0* -0.7 -0.6 -0.6
≥1.0 -0.18 -0.18 -0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.01 θ
Horiz distance from *Value is provided for interpolation
windward edge Cp
Normal purposes.
to 0 to h/2 -0.9, -0.18
ridge for ≤ 0.5 h/2 to h -0.9, -0.18 **Value can be reduced linearly with area
θ < 10 h to 2 h -0.5, -0.18 over which it is applicable as follows
and > 2h -0.3, -0.18
Parallel Area (sq ft) Reduction Factor
0 to h/2 -1.3**, -0.18
to ridge ≥ 1.0 ≤ 100 (9.3 sq m) 1.0
for all θ > h/2 -0.7, -0.18 250 (23.2 sq m) 0.9
≥ 1000 (92.9 sq m) 0.8
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L/B, h/L and θ other than shown. Interpolation shall only be
carried out between values of the same sign. Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for
interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of Cp are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive
or negative pressures and the roof structure shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for
intermediate ratios of h/L in this case shall only be carried out between Cp values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. For flexible buildings use appropriate Gf as determined by Section 26.9.4.
6. Refer to Figure 27.4-2 for domes and Figure 27.4-3 for arched roofs.
7. Notation:
B: Horizontal dimension of building, in feet (meter), measured normal to wind direction.
L: Horizontal dimension of building, in feet (meter), measured parallel to wind direction.
h: Mean roof height in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 degrees.
z: Height above ground, in feet (meters).
G: Gust effect factor.
qz,qh: Velocity pressure, in pounds per square foot (N/m2), evaluated at respective height.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
8. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward
surfaces from the table.
9. Except for MWFRS’s at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not
be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
#For roof slopes greater than 80°, use Cp = 0.8

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