Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement

Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning : The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI10104 J.L. Sprague on 874-6414
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Content Page

FLOW MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLOGY,

INSTRUMENT CATEGORIES, UNITS OF MEASURE, AND HYDRODYNAMIC
PRINCIPLES ....................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose of Flow Measurement .................................................................................. 1
Importance of Flow Measurement.................................................................. 1
Typical Saudi Aramco Flow Control Loop..................................................... 2
Terminology and Symbology ..................................................................................... 2
Flowmeter Definition ..................................................................................... 3
Typical Examples........................................................................................... 3
Drawing Symbols........................................................................................... 5
General Categories of Flow Instruments .................................................................... 6
Classifications Approach................................................................................ 7
Energy Approach........................................................................................... 8
Units of Measure....................................................................................................... 9
Meter Run ....................................................................................................10
Pipe Diameter ...............................................................................................10
Flow Straighteners........................................................................................10
Flow Rate .....................................................................................................11
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow.....................................................11
Viscosity.......................................................................................................12
Accuracy Reference ......................................................................................13
System Accuracy ..........................................................................................14
Totalization ..................................................................................................14
Custody Transfer ..........................................................................................14
Hydrodynamic Principles ..........................................................................................15
Bernoulli and Basic Hydraulic Equations.......................................................15
Reynolds Number .........................................................................................17
Example Calculation .....................................................................................18
Incompressible Flow .....................................................................................19
Compressible Flow .......................................................................................19

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Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
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Relationship Governing Newtonian versus non-Newtonian Fluids .................20

Viscosity.......................................................................................................22
FLOW MEASURING DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA..................................................26
Application Fundamentals.........................................................................................26
Flowchart .....................................................................................................27
Checklist of Selection Criteria.......................................................................28
Specifications ...........................................................................................................29
Safety Considerations ...............................................................................................30
Providing Protection to the Flowmeter..........................................................30
Hazardous Area Requirements ......................................................................31
Personnel Protection .....................................................................................31
Metallurgy................................................................................................................32
Provide Chemical Resistance.........................................................................32
Avoid Reaction with Process Media..............................................................33
Provide Corrosion/Erosion Resistance ..........................................................33
Special Requirements for Hydrogen Sulfides .................................................34
Installation Considerations........................................................................................34
Upstream and Downstream Piping Requirements ..........................................34
Meter Orientation .........................................................................................35
Pipe Supports ...............................................................................................35
Piping and Flow Conditioners .......................................................................35
Maintenance and Calibration.....................................................................................37
Typical Maintenance Concerns by Flowmeter Type.......................................37
Meter Failure Concerns.................................................................................38
Compatibility with Existing Process Instrumentation.................................................38
Relationship to Metering System...................................................................38
General Transmission Practices .....................................................................39
Signal Levels to Receiving Devices ...............................................................39
Custody Transfer Concerns ......................................................................................40
Reasons for Metering Hydrocarbons .............................................................40
Classification of Custody Transfer Measurements..........................................40

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Metering Approaches....................................................................................41
Meter Provers Required................................................................................42
Economic Considerations .........................................................................................42
Cost of Ownership ........................................................................................43
Pumping Costs..............................................................................................43
Technical Direction ..................................................................................................44
Improvements in Overall Designs..................................................................44
Increasing Integration of Microprocessor Technology...................................44
Improvements in Vortex and Mass Based Meter Designs ..............................45
Introduction of Multivariable Transmitters ....................................................45
Evolution of Fieldbus Standard .....................................................................46
DETERMINING WHETHER AN ORIFICE PLATE FLOW MEASURING DEVICE
MEETS APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS ......................................................................47
Basic Flow Metering Equation..................................................................................47
Ideal Flow Rate ........................................................................................................48
Working Equation for Flow Meters ..........................................................................48
Discharge Coefficient C............................................................................................49
Orifice Plate .............................................................................................................53
General Description ......................................................................................53
Four Basic Orifice Plate Types......................................................................58
Four Common Types of Pressure Taps .....................................................................65
Flange Taps ..................................................................................................66
Pipe Taps......................................................................................................66
Corner Taps..................................................................................................66
Vena Contracta Taps ....................................................................................67
Pressure Profile ........................................................................................................68
Temperature Measurement .......................................................................................69
Integral Orifice Meter...............................................................................................69
Secondary Instrumentation for Orifice Metering .......................................................70
Differential Pressure Transmitters.............................................................................70
Flow Switches..........................................................................................................71

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Flow Indicators.............................................................................................71
Sight Flow Indicators....................................................................................72
Totalization ..............................................................................................................72
Piping Influences ......................................................................................................73
Installation Criteria...................................................................................................73
Liquid Service...............................................................................................73
Gas Services .................................................................................................74
Steam Services..............................................................................................74
Software versus Manual Calculations for Orifice Plate Sizing....................................74
Standard Flow..........................................................................................................75
Compensated Flow...................................................................................................75
Software versus Manual Calculations for Flow Rate .................................................75
ORICALC 2—Orifice Sizing Calculation..................................................................77
Software versus Manual Calculations for Pressure Drop ...........................................77
Instrument Specification Sheets (ISS).......................................................................78
Computer Programs for Sizing Orifice Plates............................................................78
Expected Accuracy...................................................................................................79
Total Probable Error (TPE) Calculation....................................................................79
To Illustrate the TPE Principle .................................................................................79
Common Troubleshooting Scenarios ........................................................................80
EVALUATING OTHER DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW MEASURING
DEVICES FOR SUITABILITY IN A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION .........................82
Restriction Orifice Plates ..........................................................................................83
Principles ......................................................................................................83
Design ..........................................................................................................83
Performance .................................................................................................84
Installation....................................................................................................84
Applications..................................................................................................84
Calculation for Sizing....................................................................................84
RO Calculation (ORICALC2) .......................................................................85
Flow Nozzles ...........................................................................................................87

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Principles ......................................................................................................87
Design ..........................................................................................................87
Performance and Applications.......................................................................88
Installation....................................................................................................88
Sizing of Flow Nozzles .................................................................................89
Venturi Meters .........................................................................................................90
Principles ......................................................................................................90
Design ..........................................................................................................90
Performance .................................................................................................92
Installations ..................................................................................................93
Applications..................................................................................................93
Calculations ..................................................................................................93
Pitot Tubes...............................................................................................................94
Principles ......................................................................................................94
Performance .................................................................................................96
Installation....................................................................................................97
Applications..................................................................................................98
Annubars..................................................................................................................99
Principles ......................................................................................................99
Design ..........................................................................................................99
Performance ...............................................................................................100
Installation..................................................................................................101
Applications................................................................................................101
Sizing of Annubar .......................................................................................101
EVALUATING THE SUITABILITY OF OTHER RATE AND QUANTITY-TYPE
FLOW MEASURING DEVICES FOR SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION .....................103
Positive Displacement Meters.................................................................................103
Principles ....................................................................................................104
Design ........................................................................................................105
Performance ...............................................................................................106
Installation..................................................................................................107
Applications................................................................................................108

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Sizing and Equations...................................................................................108

Turbine Meters.......................................................................................................110
Principles ....................................................................................................110
Design ........................................................................................................110
Performance ...........................................................................................................111
Accuracy ....................................................................................................111
Rangeability................................................................................................112
Repeatability...............................................................................................112
Application Effects .....................................................................................112
Performance Advantages.............................................................................112
Performance Disadvantages ........................................................................113
Sizing and Selection....................................................................................113
Equation for Gas Applications ....................................................................113
Equation for Liquid Applications ................................................................113
Installation..................................................................................................114
Applications................................................................................................116
Magnetic Flowmeters .............................................................................................118
Principles ....................................................................................................118
Design ........................................................................................................119
Performance ...............................................................................................120
Installation..................................................................................................121
Applications................................................................................................123
Mass Flowmeters (Coriolis Flowmeters).................................................................124
Principles ....................................................................................................124
Design ........................................................................................................126
Performance ...............................................................................................127
Installation..................................................................................................128
Applications................................................................................................129
Ultrasonic Flowmeters............................................................................................130
Principles ....................................................................................................130
Design ........................................................................................................132
Transmit Time Frequency Domain Meters...................................................133

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Frequency Domain Meters ..........................................................................134

Doppler Flowmeters ...................................................................................135
Performance ...............................................................................................135
Installation..................................................................................................136
Applications................................................................................................137
Vortex Meters ........................................................................................................138
Principles ....................................................................................................139
Reynolds Number Equation ........................................................................140
Design ........................................................................................................140
Performance ...............................................................................................142
Installation..................................................................................................142
Vortex Meter Selection...............................................................................142
Equation for Gas Applications ....................................................................143
Equation for Liquid Applications ................................................................143
Applications................................................................................................144
Variable Area Flow Meters (Rotameters)................................................................145
Principles ....................................................................................................145
Design ........................................................................................................146
Performance ...............................................................................................147
Installation..................................................................................................148
Sizing of Rotameters...................................................................................148
Applications................................................................................................149
FLOW METER CALIBRATION: IMPORTANCE AND TECHNIQUES.........................150
Method of Calibrations...........................................................................................150
Wet Calibration...........................................................................................151
Dry Calibration ...........................................................................................151
Provers...................................................................................................................151
Reasons for Meter Proving .........................................................................151
Methods of Meter Proving ..........................................................................152
Weight and Volume Methods .................................................................................154
Static Calibration ........................................................................................155

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
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Dynamic Calibration ...................................................................................155

Hybrid Dynamic Start-Stop, Static Reading System ....................................155
Volumetric Tank Proving Example .........................................................................155
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER AN ORIFICE
PLATE FLOW MEASURING DEVICE MEETS APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS.....157
Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets.........................................................................157
Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets ................................158
FLOW Instrument Specifications Sheets .....................................................159
Work Aid 1C: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.) .............................................160
Work Aid 1D: Procedures for Calculation ..............................................................161
Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-100, Section 6 (See Course Handout 1.) ............................162
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE OTHER DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE FLOW MEASURING DEVICES FOR SUITABILITY IN A SAUDI
ARAMCO APPLICATION ...............................................................................................163
Work Aid 2A: Vendor Data Sheets.........................................................................163
Work Aid 2B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets ................................164
Work Aid 2C: SADP-J-100 (See Course Handout 1.).............................................165
Work Aid 2D: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.).............................................166
Work Aid 2E: Procedures for Manual Calculation of Restriction Orifice Plate Size
(from SADP-J-100, Attachment 3) .........................................................................167
WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE THE SUITABILITY OF OTHER
RATE AND QUANTITY FLOW MEASURING DEVICES FOR SUITABILITY IN A
SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION...................................................................................168
Work Aid 3A: Vendor Data Sheets.........................................................................168
Work Aid 3B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets ................................169
Work Aid 3C: SADP-J-100 (See Course Handout 1.).............................................170
Work Aid 3D: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.).............................................171
GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................172

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Table of Figures Page

Figure 1: Typical Flow Control Loop ....................................................................... 2

Figure 2: Flowmeter Definition................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: Drawing Symbols ...................................................................................... 5
Figure 4: Drawing Symbols ...................................................................................... 6
Figure 5: Quantity versus Rate.................................................................................. 8
Figure 6: Units of Measure ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 7: Flow Conditioners ....................................................................................10
Figure 8: Compressibility Curves .............................................................................12
Figure 9: Bernoulli and Basic Hydraulic Equations ..................................................16
Figure 10: Flow Profile............................................................................................20
Figure 11: Hagen Poisuille Law ...............................................................................21
Figure 12: Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian..........................................................22
Figure 13: Rotational and Falling Sphere Viscometers .............................................23
Figure 14: Ostwald Capillary Viscometer.................................................................24
Figure 15: Flowchart Approach to Meter Selection..................................................27
Figure 16: Flowmeter Applications ..........................................................................29
Figure 17: Flowmeter Applications (Continued).......................................................30
Figure 18: Example Chemical Resistance Chart .......................................................33
Figure 19: Installation References............................................................................36
Figure 20: Maintenance Concerns............................................................................37
Figure 21: Multivariable Transmitter Example .........................................................46
Figure 22: Differential Pressure Flowmeter Principle................................................50
Figure 23: Differential Pressure to Flowrate Relationship.........................................52
Figure 24: Orifice Plate Pressure Tap Configurations...............................................54
Figure 25: Paddle Versus Universal Orifice..............................................................55
Figure 26: Concentric Orifice Plate..........................................................................56
Figure 27: Orifice Plate Dimensions.........................................................................57
Figure 28: Types of Orifice Plates............................................................................60
Figure 29: Meter Tube Assembly Example...............................................................63

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

Figure 30: Straight Run Piping Requirements (Elbows) ...........................................64

Figure 31: Pressure Taps .........................................................................................67
Figure 32: Vena Contracta Taps ..............................................................................68
Figure 33: Pressure and Flow Profile .......................................................................69
Figure 34: ISS Forms Applicable to Orifice Plate Implementation ............................78
Figure 35: Total Probable Error...............................................................................80
Figure 36: Other Differential Pressure Flowmeters...................................................82
Figure 37: Universal Orifice plate ............................................................................83
Figure38: Example ISS............................................................................................86
Figure 39: ASME Long-Radius Flow Nozzles .........................................................87
Figure 40: Typical Nozzle Installations ....................................................................89
Figure 41: Venturi Principles ...................................................................................90
Figure 42: Venturi Designs......................................................................................92
Figure 43: Venturi Meter References .......................................................................94
Figure 44: Pitot Tube Principles...............................................................................95
Figure 45: Pitot Tube Design...................................................................................96
Figure 46: Pitot Tube References.............................................................................98
Figure 47: Annubar Design....................................................................................100
Figure 48: Averaging Pitot Tube Equation References...........................................101
Figure 49: Annubar References..............................................................................102
Figure 50: Frequency of Usage at Saudi Aramco ...................................................103
Figure 51: Positive Displacement Meters ...............................................................104
Figure 52: PD Meter Design..................................................................................105
Figure 53: Typical PD Meter Installation ...............................................................107
Figure 54: Positive Displacement Meter References...............................................109
Figure 55: Example Turbine Meter ........................................................................111
Figure 56: Insertion Type Turbine Meter ...............................................................116
Figure 57: Turbine Meter References.....................................................................117
Figure 58: Magnetic Flowmeter Principles .............................................................118
Figure 59: Typical Magnetic Flowmeter.................................................................119

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
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Figure 60: Magnetic Flowmeter Installation Practices ............................................122

Figure 61: Coriolis Meter Principles ......................................................................125
Figure 62: Sensing Element Geometries.................................................................126
Figure 63: Coriolis Meter Overview ......................................................................126
Figure 64: Design Detects Phase Shift ...................................................................127
Figure 65: Coriolis Meter References.....................................................................130
Figure 66: Doppler Meter......................................................................................131
Figure 67: Transit Time Meter...............................................................................132
Figure 68: Transit Time Design .............................................................................133
Figure 69: Ultrasonic Meter References.................................................................138
Figure 70: Vortex Meter Overview........................................................................139
Figure 71: Vortex Meter K Factor .........................................................................140
Figure 72: Vortex Meter Principles........................................................................141
Figure 73: Vortex Flowmeter Design.....................................................................141
Figure 74: Vortex Meter References......................................................................144
Figure 75: Rotameter Principles.............................................................................146
Figure 76: Rotameter Design.................................................................................147
Figure 77: Typical Unidirectional Prover ...............................................................153
Figure 78: Typical Bidirectional Prover .................................................................154
Figure 79: Volumetric Tank Prover .......................................................................156

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

FLOW MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLOGY,

INSTRUMENT CATEGORIES, UNITS OF MEASURE, AND HYDRODYNAMIC
PRINCIPLES

Flow measurement begins with sound engineering practices that range from the selection of flow
measurement devices through the installation, application, and interpretation of the results. This
section of the course module introduces the Participant to the following flow measurement topics:

• Purpose of flow measurement

• Terminology and symbology

• General categories of flow instruments

• Units of measure

• Hydrodynamic principles

Purpose of Flow Measurement

Accurate measurement of flow is essential in many process control applications. The

measurements are used to monitor and control the flow rates at various Saudi Aramco process
facilities. The flow measurement, along with measurements of temperature, pressure, and
composition, are used to develop material and energy balances on processes. Also, in some
applications, controlling the feed rate in a particular upstream process helps to sustain the
efficiency and to minimize waste in downstream processing operations.

The purpose of flow measurement is is described under the following topics:

• The importance of flow measurement

• Typical Saudi Aramco flow control loop

Importance of Flow Measurement

Given that oil processing plants require material flows through successive operations, flow
measurement is central to oil processing equipment design and operations. Accurate flow
measurements are fundamental to:

• Conversion and yield determinations

• Material balances in separation processes
• Pumps and compressor operations
• Custody transfer operations

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Flow Measurement
Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications

One can observe from the previous list that flow measurement device selection becomes a major
part of process plant design and operations.

Typical Saudi Aramco Flow Control Loop

A typical flow control loop is shown in Figure 1. The flow element (FE) is an orifice plate, which
is the most common flow measuring device.

Electronic Loop:
FI Locate Near FCV
I/P AC/AFO
FIT FIC FY FCV

POS IAS
10"-FG-401-1DIA

Orifice 10" 8" 10"

FE Plate 10"x 8" 10"x 8"

Pneumatic Control Loop:

AC/AFO
FIT FC FCV

POS IAS
6"-FG-315-1BIA

Orifice 4"
FE Plate 6"x 4" 6"x 4"

Figure 1: Typical Flow Control Loop

Terminology and Symbology

The terminology and symbology used in flow measurement are described in the following
discussion regarding

• Flowmeter definition

• Typical examples

• Drawing symbols

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
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Flowmeter Definition

A flowmeter is defined as “A device that measures the rate of flow or quantity of a moving fluid in
an open or closed conduit. It usually consists of a primary device and a secondary device.”
(Source: “Process Measurement and Analysis,” Page 16, Bela Liptak)

Primary Device Definition – A primary device is defined as “The device mounted internally or
externally to the fluid conduit that produces a signal with a defined relationship to the fluid flow in
accordance with known physical laws relating the interaction of the fluid to the presence of the
primary device.” (Source: “Process Measurement and Analysis,” Page 16, Bela Liptak)

Secondary Device Definition – A secondary device is defined as “The device that responds to
the signal from the primary device and converts it to a display or to an output signal that can be
translated relative to flow rate or quantity. ”

Note: The secondary device may consist of one or more elements as needed to translate the
primary device signal into standardized or nonstandardized display or transmitted units. (Source:
“Process Measurement and Analysis,” Page 16, Bela Liptak)

Typical Examples

An orifice meter is one of the most common of flowmeter installations. In the orifice meter
installation (Figure 2), the primary device consists of the meter tubing (also called a meter run)
and a constricting element. The constrictive element in this flowmeter is the orifice plate. The
secondary device measures the pressure drop caused by the primary element. The secondary
device in this example is a pressure-sensing device such as a differential pressure transmitter (flow
transmitter).

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
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Transmitter

Orifice Plate
w/ Flange LP

HP
w
Flo
Secondary Device
(D/P Transmitter)

Primary
Device
(Orifice Plate)

Similarly in place of the Orifice Plate w/ Flange, a Venturi or

Flow Nozzle may be used.

Figure 2: Flowmeter Definition

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Drawing Symbols

Typical flow measurement symbols are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The symbols conform to Saudi
Aramco requirements specified in SAES-J-004 (Instrument Symbols and Identification).

FE RO FE

Orifice Plate Restriction Orifice Venturi

FE
FE

FT
Pitot Tube Flow Element IO
Annubar Nozzle Type Integrated Orifice
FE

FI
Variable Area Flowmeter (Rotameter) Flow Element Calibrated Elbow

FM
X FT
Flow Meter
X = Miscellaneous Designation Differential Pressure
T = Turbine Meter Transmitter (Flow Transmitter)
PD = Positive Displacement (Blind)

Figure 3: Drawing Symbols

Note that the line symbols for electrical and pneumatic signals that have been used at Saudi
Aramco are the reverse of Instrument Society and industry symbol usage.

The line symbology, as defined in ISA S5.1-1984, shall be used for all “grass root” projects. For
an existing plant or an expansion to an existing plant, the line symbology being used for that plant
shall be used. An existing plant may use ISA S5.1-1984 line symbology, with concurrence of the
Proponent and Chief Draftsman, Dhahran.

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FE

FG Straightening Orifice Plate in

Sightflow Indicator FX Vane Quick Change Fittings

FE FIC
FCV
DCS Distributed
Control Operator
Accessible in Diaphragm Operated
Meter Run (Upstream Control Room Control Valve
& Downstream Pipe) (Flow Controller)
With Orifice Plate

Instrument Line Symbols FCV

All Lines To Be Fine In Relation To Process Piping Lines

Instrument Supply* Or Connection To Process Piston Operated

Undefined Signal Control Valve
Pneumatic Signal **

or
Electric Signal
Hydraulic Signal
Capillary Tube
Electromagnetic Or Sonic Signal *** (Guided)
Electromagnetic Or Sonic Signal *** (Not Guided)
Internal System Link (Software Or Data Link)
Mechanical Link
For more Legends and Symbols, see ARAMCO Engineering Standard SAES-J-004

Figure 4: Drawing Symbols

General Categories of Flow Instruments

Flow instrument categorization often varies. It is not unusual to see users describe up to nine
flowmeter categories. Two approaches to meter categorization are to describe flowmeters in
terms of:

• Rate or quantity type.

• Energy usage type.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
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Classifications Approach

One of the earliest ways of classifying flowmeters is to place a meter into a category that
measures flow in terms of flow rate or one that measures flow quantity.

Rate Meter versus Quantity Meter – Rate meters are the most common classification of
flowmeters. Rate meters measure the process fluid’s velocity. Velocity is expressed in terms of
distance per time, such as meters/second or feet/second. Because a pipe’s cross sectional area is
known, the velocity is then used to calculate the flow rate. A flow rate, such as meter3/second or
ft3/second, represents the amount of fluid volume at a particular location and at a particular time
during which the measurement is taken.

A rate meter can either infer the flow rate or measure the velocity of the flowing fluid to
determine the flow rate. For example, a differential pressure flowmeter infers the flow rate from
the differential pressure across a restriction in a line. The flow rate in this case is inferred from the
measured differential pressure and accepted correlations to rate. A velocity measurement, as in
the case of a turbine meter, uses the velocity of the fluid times the area through which the fluid is
flowing to determine the flow rate.

Quantity meters continuously divide the flowing material into predetermined volume segments.
Quantity meters count and keep track of the number of these volume segments. An example of a
quantity meter is a positive displacement meter. Whenever you refill your car with gasoline, the
gas flows through a positive displacement meter that counts the number of liters of gasoline that
you have purchased.

Meters that directly measure mass can also be considered either as a quantity meter or as a mass
flow rate meter.

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A brief summary of the meter classification by quantity versus rate is shown in Figure 5.

Type of device Quantity

Direct mass Direct volume Flow rate
measurement measurement
Positive displacement x
• rotating paddle
• oscillating piston
• fluted rotor
• oval-shaped gear
Turbine meters x

Differential pressure x
• orifice
• venturi
• flow nozzle
• pitot
Magnetic flowmeters x

Mass flowmeters (Coriolis x x

and thermal)
Ultrasonic flow x

Vortex x

Variable area flow meters x

(rotameters)

Figure 5: Quantity versus Rate

Energy Approach

Another way of categorizing flowmeters is to use a method called the energy approach.
Flowmeters either take from or introduce energy to the process media, which leads to the
following two subclassifications:

• Extractive energy approach

• Additive energy approach

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
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Extractive Energy Approach – In this category, flowmeters take energy from the fluid flow.
These flowmeters, because they are intrusive, often introduce pressure losses into the fluid flow.
An orifice plate is an example of an extractive-type device.

Additive Energy Approach – In this category, flowmeters introduce some form of energy into
the fluid flow. These flowmeters, because they are nonintrusive, do not produce pressure losses in
the fluid flow. The energy—electromagnetic, acoustic, or mechanical—is required for the
flowmeter to operate. A magnetic flowmeter is an example of an additive type device.

Units of Measure

According to Saudi Aramco Design Practice SADP-J-100, Section 2.1, “The normal units of
measure for process flow, temperature, and pressure (or differential pressure) are the International
System of Units (SI) as referenced in SAES-J-103. Corresponding conventional units may be
shown in parentheses.” Flow measurement units based on SAES-J-003, Section 10, are listed in
Figure 6.

Standard conditions of temperature and pressure are standard as an agreement between the buyer
and seller. SAES-J-100 26 Sep 89, Section 4.1, calls for 14.73 PSIA and 60°F as the standard.
These numbers are consistent with AGA-3, also called API 14.3.

Fluid SI-Metric Units English units

Water • m3/h (cubic meters • GPM (gallons per minute)
per hour) • BPD (barrels per day)
• m3/d (cubic meters
per day)
Oil, in plant • BPH (barrels per hour), BPD (barrels per
• m3/h (cubic meters
per hour) day)
process liquids,
steam • m3/d (cubic meters • LB/HR (pounds per hour)
condensate, gas per day) • SCFH (standard cubic feet per Hour )
(except GOSP • SCFD (standard cubic feet per day)
• kg/h (kilograms per
gas) hour) • MMSCFD (millions of standard cubic feet
per day) Note: prefix MM = Million
GOSP gas, • m3/d (cubic meters • SCFD (standard cubic feet per day)
crude oil product per day) • MMSCFD (millions of standard cubic feet
per day)
• BPD (barrels per day)

Figure 6: Units of Measure

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Meter Run

According to SADP-J-100, Section 3, a meter run or meter tube is defined as “The upstream and
downstream length of pipe containing the orifice flanges and orifice plate or orifice plate with or
without quick change fittings. No other pipe connections should be made within the normal meter
tube dimensions except for pressure taps and thermowells.” A meter tube is an important part of a
flowmeter installation. The meter tube must create an acceptable flow pattern (velocity profile)
for the fluid when it reaches the orifice plate. Distortions occurring in the flow pattern result in
pressure drop errors.

Pipe Diameter

Pipe diameter represents the inside diameter of a pipe. To calculate the inside diameter of a pipe,
use the outside diameter of a pipe minus 2 x the wall thickness of the pipe. Pipe data tables give
the inside diameter (I.D.) as a function of nominal pipe size, pipe material, and schedule.

Flow Straighteners

Flow straighteners are also called flow conditioners (Figure 7). Flow straighteners help to provide
accurate measurement when a distorted flow pattern is expected. The flow pattern, called a flow
profile, is distorted by sources such as pipe area changes, partially open valves, or valve and
elbow combinations. When flow straighteners are installed in the pipe, a predictable flow pattern
(flow profile) occurs at the outlet of the flow straightener. Flow straighteners are installed in the
upstream section of meter tube. Flow straightening vanes reduce the upstream meter tube length
requirement.

Tube Type Plate Type

Figure 7: Flow Conditioners

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Flow Rate

Flow rate is an indication of how fast a substance moves through a conduit from one place to
another. Flow rate can also be used to determine the distance a substance moves over a period of
time. Flow rate is usually expressed as

• Volume flow rate

• Mass flow rate

Volume Flow Rate represents the volume of fluid that passes a measurement point over a period
of time. An example measurement unit is barrels per day. The volume flow rate can be calculated
if the average flow velocity and inside pipe diameter are known. The calculation is based on the
formula

Q=Axv
where
Q = volumetric flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
v = average flow velocity (flow rate)

Mass Flow Rate represents the amount of mass that passes a specific point over a period of time.
Mass flow rates are used to measure the weight or mass of a substance flowing through a process
operation. If the volumetric flow rate and density are known, the calculation is based on the
formula

W=Qxρ
where
W = mass flow rate
Q = volumetric flow rate
ρ = density (ρ = density “rho” )

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

Temperature and pressure changes cause the volume of a fluid to change. The change in volume is
much more extreme in gases than in liquids. Compressibility represents the change per unit
volume of a fluid caused by a unit change in pressure at constant temperature. When accurate gas
flow measurements are needed, a factor for compressibility is often included in the measurement.
(The compressibility factor represents the ratio of the actual volume of gas at a given temperature
and pressure to the volume of a gas calculated by the Ideal Gas Law.)
PV
z =
nRT

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The shapes of the compressibility factor curves for methane, propane, and isobutane gases at
constant temperature are shown in Figure 8. Methane has a lower boiling point than propane.
Propane has a lower boiling point then isobutane. Methane shows the least deviation of the three
for an ideal gas effect.

1.1

1.0 Methane 250ÞF

0.9

0.8

0.7
Ζ = pV/nRT

0.6

0.5
IsoButane
0.4 250ÞF Propane 250ÞF

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Pressure in PSIA
Compressibility Factors for Methane,
Propane and Isobutane at 250ÞF

Figure 8: Compressibility Curves

Viscosity

Viscosity is frequently described as a fluid’s resistance to flow. Viscosity can have a dramatic
effect on the accuracy of flow measurement. Viscosity has a role in flow measurement when a
fluid is in motion, but not when a fluid is at rest. Resistance to flow occurs because fluids have
combined actions of cohesion and adhesion that create internal friction between layers in the fluid.
Water, for example, having low viscosity has less resistance to flow. While viscosity is often
described as a fluid’s stickiness or thick appearance (or lack of either stickiness or thickness),
those descriptions do not fully describe viscosity.

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Viscosity is a subject of a scientific discipline called fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics deals with
fluids in motion, which includes the property of viscosity. When a fluid is in motion, layers of fluid
are subject to tangential shearing forces, causing the fluid to deform. Viscosity, then, is more
accurately defined as the property of a fluid that resists the rate at which deformation occurs when
tangential shearing forces act upon the fluid. Liptak, page 1256 Table 8.59b, shows viscosity of
various oils.

Using the example of water’s low viscosity, one can observe that when a fluid has low viscosity
(i.e., low ability to resist deformation), it would not be worthwhile to consider its low viscosity in
a flow measurement. That is, a fluid’s low viscosity does not become an influential property of the
fluid upon flow measurement. However, when measuring the flow rate of a fluid with high
viscosity, the viscosity does become an influential property in flow measurement.

Accuracy Reference

Accuracy is measured in terms of maximum positive and negative deviation observed in the
testing a device under a specified condition and specified procedure. The accuracy rating includes
the total effect of conformity, repeatability, dead-band, and hysteresis errors.

The accuracy of a flowmeter is expressed in several ways. Flowmeter accuracy is expressed as

one of the following:

• Percent of rate accuracy

• Percent of full scale flow
• Percent of maximum differential pressure

Percent of Rate Accuracy refers to an accuracy that is based upon the actual flow rate. The
accuracy applies to meters such as turbine meters, DC magnetic meters, vortex meters, and
Coriolis meters. The accuracy can be expressed as
flow uncertainty
% of rate accuracy = ± x 100
instantaneous flow rate
Percent of Full Scale Flow refers to the accuracy of primary meters such as rotameters and AC
magnetic meters. The accuracy can be expressed as
flow uncertainty
% of full scale accuracy = ± x 100
full scale flow rate
Percent of Maximum Differential Pressure applies to differential pressure flow transmitters.
The accuracy can be expressed as
∆P uncertainty
% maximum ∆P accuracy = ± x 100
maximum ∆P
As one may observe from the accuracy reference, it is important to know in what terms the
accuracy reference is made. An accuracy reference of simply “2%” is incomplete. One would have
to know if that accuracy reference is in terms of instantaneous flow rate, full scale flow rate, or
maximum ∆P.

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System Accuracy

In order to combine the component’s accuracy statements to arrive at a System Accuracy

Statement, it is first necessary to determine that all component statements are of the same type,
i.e. % of Max. Flow, % of Rate, etc. This usually means that at least some of the components will
have varying accuracy at different flow rates. Then the system accuracy must be calculated at
various flow rates to produce a useful statement.

A common method to combine accuracies of series connected components is to calculate the

square root of the sum of their squares.

Syst. Acc. = ± (Acc.1)2 + (Acc.2)2 + (Acc.3)2 - - - -

This method takes into account, in part, the fact that the various errors will probably not all be
either positive or negative at one time and that the resulting uncertainty should not reflect the
“worst case” of arithmetic addition of errors.

Totalization

Totalization represents the process of counting the amount of fluid that has passed through a
flowmeter. The purpose of totalization is to have periodic (daily or monthly) readings of the
material usage or production. The totalization data is used for billings for material usage or
production.

Custody Transfer

Flow measurement for custody transfer, where ownership of a product transfers, is on occasion
regarded as a separate flow measurement topic. There are two types of custody transfer in flow
measurement:

• Legal, which falls under weight and measure requirements.

• Contract, which is a mutual agreement between seller and buyer.

One reason for that distinction is that custody transfer flow measurement becomes essentially a
money measurement. Because the purpose is primarily for billing, the perspective on flow
measurement changes to one where accuracy becomes very important. In process control
applications, the accuracy requirement may be several percent, but for custody transfer operations
the accuracy requirement may be in tenths of a percent.

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Hydrodynamic Principles

In order to choose the proper measurement instrument, one must have an understanding of a
fluid’s properties, particularly when that fluid is in motion. The study of fluids in motion is called
hydrodynamics. It is important to consider a fluid’s properties as being unique prior to flow
measurement device selection. Hydrodynamic principles that bear on flow measurement device
selection are described as the following:

• Bernoulli and basic hydraulic equations

• Relationship governing Newtonian versus non-Newtonian fluids

• Viscosity

Bernoulli and Basic Hydraulic Equations

When a liquid flows from one place to another it may undergo a change in potential energy or in
kinetic energy, but if it moves without waste of energy caused by friction, the units total energy
remains unchanged, in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Consider a liquid flow
steadily through a tube of any section as illustrated in Figure 9, and imagine that the liquid is
incompressible and frictionless and that its velocity at any cross-section is uniform throughout that
section. During a short interval of time, particles of liquid at section 1 and at section 2 will move
as indicated by the arrows. Let the cross-sectional areas at these sections be respectively A1 and
A2, the corresponding velocities of the liquid be v1 and v2, the elevations of the sections above a
convenient datum plane be respectively Z1 and Z2, and the pressures of the liquid be respectively
p1 and p2.

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Total Head
v12 Velocity 2
2g Head v2
2g

P1 Static
Pressure P2
ρg Head ρg

Flow
V1 V2
A1 A2

Head Due Z2 = Z1
Z1 To Elevation
Datum

Figure 9: Bernoulli and Basic Hydraulic Equations

Then because the liquid is incompressible, the same mass “m” will pass any section of the tube in a
given time t; the volume of this mass will be V = m/ρ, where ρ is the density of the liquid. The
work that must have been done on this mass of liquid to bring it to the conditions existing at
section 1 consists of three parts: mgZ1 to elevate it to the height Z1 above the datum plane; 1/2
mv12 to give it the velocity v1; and p1V or p1 m/p to force it into a region of pressure p1. Because
the liquid is frictionless, the same amount of work would be required to bring this mass of liquid
to the conditions existing at section 2; consequently
1 m 1 m
mgZ1 + mv12 + p1 = mgZ2 + mv22 + p2
2 ρ 2 ρ
The corresponding expression for the total work per unit weight of liquid at any section is
obtained herefrom by dividing each term by the weight mg, thus
v12 p1 v22 p2
Z1 + + = Z2 + +
2g ρg 2g ρg
This summation is spoken of by engineers as total head, the respective terms being called Z =
elevation head, v2/2g = velocity head, and p/ρg = pressure head.

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Daniel Bernoulli’s total head equation, above, says “If there is a constant sum of energy the
components can be varied, with each contributing more or less depending upon their condition. A
change in velocity will result in an inverse change in pressure. If the flow area is reduced, the
velocity will increase. This velocity increase through a narrowed flow area is the basis for all
variable differential pressure types of flowmeters.

P = Static Pressure (pounds force per sq. ft)

ρ = Density (rho) (pounds mass per cubic ft)
v = Velocity (feet per second)
g = Acceleration of Gravity (feet per second2)
Z = Elevation Head Above a Reference Datum (feet)

Other basic hydraulic concepts that describe fluid flow characteristics are

• The Equation of Continuity

• Reynolds numbers

The Equation of Continuity is the basis for describing how all velocity-type flow instruments
operate. The Equation of Continuity states that the volumetric flow rate can be calculated by
multiplying the cross sectional area of the pipe at a given point by the average velocity at that
point. The equation is based on the formula

Q=Axv

where
Q = volume flow rate (cubic feet per minute)
A = pipe cross-sectional area (square feet)
v = average fluid velocity (feet per minute)

Reynolds Number

In 1882, Sir Osborne Reynolds wrote the seminal paper on flowing fluid characteristics. He
defined the major distinctive quality of fluid flow as the ratio of Inertial Forces to Viscous Forces.
when two samples of flowing fluid have the same nondimensional ratio value, they have similar
flow characteristics.

Laminar flow is defined by low Reynolds numbers with the largest flowing fluid moving
coherently without intermixing. Turbulent flow is defined by high Reynolds numbers with much
mixing. Both flow extremes are beneficial depending upon requirements. Turbulent flow is best
when high heat transfer is wanted, while laminar flow is best when flowing fluid is to be delivered
through a pipe with low friction losses.

Flow is considered laminar when the Reynolds number is below 2,000. Turbulent flow occurs
when the Reynolds number is above 4,000. Between these numbers, the flow characteristics have
not been defined.

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When choosing flowmeters, the flow’s Reynolds number must be within the range of the meter’s
design. If not, the measurement will be suspect.

Reynolds number is defined by the following equations:

For liquid flow
50.7 ρQ 6.32 W
Re = or Re =
Dµ Dµ
where
Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
lb
ρ = density ( 3 ) at flowing temperature
ft
gal
Q = flow rate ( )
min
D = internal tube diameter (in.)

µ = viscosity of flowing temperature (centipoise)

lb
W = flow rate ( )
hr
For gas flow
6.32 ρQ 6.32 W
Re = or Re =
Dµ Dµ
where lb
ρ = density at standard conditions( 3 )
ft
Q = flow rate (scfh)
and other units are defined the same as for liquid

Example Calculation

What is the Reynolds number for 68°F water flowing in a 6 inch schedule 40 pipe at 50 feet per
second?
6.32 W
Re =
Dµ
6.32 (50) ft/sec (6.065/12)2 x π/4 ft2 x 3600 sec/hr x 62.4 lb/ft3
=
6.065 in x 1 cp
6.32 x 50 x 6.065 x π x 3600 x 62.4
=
122 x 4
6.32 x 6.065 x π x 3.750 x 62.4
=
12

= 2,350,000

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Because the Reynolds number is greater than 10,000, the flow is turbulent.

Incompressible Flow

Fluids are materials that flow. Liquids are fluids that flow without changes in density. The
previous development of a Bernoulli theorem considered a flowing liquid with other simplifying
assumptions. That primitive analysis can be expanded by considering real life deviations from the
simplifying assumptions.

An example of an incompressible fluid is water. For the purist, water does change density in its
temperature excursion from ice (solid) to steam (vapor or gas), but ever so slightly. Water is most
dense at 4°C. Ice floats on water as ice is less dense than water at freezing temperatures and
below.

Water is a Newtonian fluid that shows certain fluid mechanics’ properties. Hydrocarbons,
generally, are non-Newtonian in their flowing characteristics. These variations will be discussed.

Liquids tend to hug the bottom of any container in which they are placed. Gases, compressible
fluids, tend to distribute uniformly throughout the enclosing container.

Compressible Flow

Gases are fluids that have variable densities because of the pressure and temperature conditions.
The Ideal Gas Law correlates these conditions, incorporating Boyle’s and Charles’ laws:

PV = nRT

where
P = Absolute Pressure
V = Volume
n = Mass (number of molecules)
R = Universal Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperature

The Ideal Gas Law is not always true. A deviation can be recognized by the Compressibility
Factor, Z, which has been introduced previously.

As another example, consider the flow of a gas through a meter. At low velocities the gas may
behave as an incompressible fluid and the Reynolds number may provide a suitable parameter for
correlating data. At high velocities, however, compressibility effects may be present and it may be
necessary to use the Mach number in order to correlate the data.

Laminar Flow refers to a smooth, streamlined flow pattern (Figure 10). The flow pattern appears
as if there are several plates or laminations of flowing particles that flow parallel to each other.
Consider the growth rings of a tree. Each layer or ring flows at a constant speed.

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The flow pattern nearest the pipe walls is slower than the flow pattern in the center of the fluid
because of friction that occurs between a fluid and the pipe’s walls.

Turbulent Flow refers to a flow pattern that is the opposite of laminar flow. The flow pattern is
distorted, rough, and irregular. A turbulent flow pattern has small whirpool-type eddy currents
that appear to go in all directions.

Laminar Flow
Flow
Profile

Turbulent Flow

Figure 10: Flow Profile

Relationship Governing Newtonian versus non-Newtonian Fluids

In Newtonian fluids, the resistance to deformation when subjected to shear (consistency of fluid)
is constant if temperature and pressure are fixed. Whereas in a non-Newtonian fluid, resistance to
deformation is dependent on shear stress even though the pressure and temperature are fixed. The
relationship is further described in the following terms:

• Hagen-Poiseuille Law
• Rheograms
• Newtonian fluids
• Non-Newtonian fluids

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Hagen-Poiseuille Law defines viscosity in more practical terms. Newton’s definition of viscosity
is the ratio of shear stress divided by shear rate. Hagen-Poiseuille defines it as the ratio of shear
stress divided by shear rate at the wall of a capillary tube:

µ = shear stress / shear rate = (PR/2L)/(4Q / π R3) = (π PR4)/(8QL)

where pounds
µ = absolute (dynamic) viscosity ( )
foot.second
pounds
P = pressure differential across liquid in the tube ( )
square foot
R = inside radius of the tube (feet)

L = length of the tube (feet)

cubic feet
Q = volume rate of flow of liquid ( )
second

R V
Vmax

P1 P2

Figure 11: Hagen Poisuille Law

Rheograms can be used to determine the characteristics of any fluid. Rheograms evolved from
the science of rheology, which studies flow. (“Rheo,” derived from the Greek language, means “a
flowing.”) Rheograms are useful as an aid to interpret viscosity measurements.

Newtonian Fluids – A Newtonian fluid exhibits the constant ratio of shear stress to shear rate
(flow velocity) when subjected to shear and continuous deformation. When a fluid’s temperature
is fixed, the fluid exhibits the same viscosity through changing shear rates. Viscosity is not
affected by shear rate (flow velocity). The relationship is linear between the shear stress (force)
and velocity (resulting flow). Newtonian fluids are generally homogeneous fluids. Gasoline,
kerosene, mineral oil, water and salt solutions in water are examples of Newtonian fluids.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids – Fluids that do not show a constant ratio of shear stress to shear rate
are defined as non-Newtonian fluids. Fluids exhibit different viscosity at different shear rates. In
non-Newtonian fluids, there is a nonlinear relation between the magnitude of applied shear stress
and the rate of angular deformation. Non-Newtonian fluids, which have different classifications,
tend to be liquid mixtures of suspended particles. Thick hydrocarbon fluids are considered non-
Newtonian fluids.

)
ar
(T
an
ni
to
ew

lt)
ha
-N

)
er
sp
on

at
(A
N

,W
Shear Stress (Force)

an

e)
ne
ni

rin
se
to

ce
ro
ew

ly
Ke
-N

l-G
,
on

as

co
N

ly
(

(G
n
ia

an
n
to

ni
ew

to
ew
N

-N
on
N

Shear Rate (Flow)

Figure 12: Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian

Viscosity

Viscosity is a property of a fluid which affects the fluid’s behavior. Viscosity is defined as a fluid’s
internal resistance to flow. If a fluid undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to a shear
stress, than the resistance (consistency) offered by the fluid can be stated for such deformation.
Viscosity is often expressed in terms of the following:

• Dynamic viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity
• Viscosity index
• Viscosity scales

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Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity) represents a fundamental viscosity measurement of a

fluid. Density of fluid does not play a part in the viscosity measurement. Absolute viscosity is a
ratio of applied shear stress to resulting shear velocity, the resistance offered by the fluid to such
deformation. If static pressure and temperature are fixed and consistency is constant for gases and
Newtonian liquids, the viscosity is called absolute viscosity (µ).

One method to measure viscosity is to rotate a disk in the fluid at a particular rotational speed.
The rotational torque required to keep the disk rotating divided by the speed of rotation and by
the disk contacting surface area is a measure of absolute viscosity. The measurement units for
dynamic (absolute) viscosity are centipoise, Pascal-seconds, or lb/ft-second.

Another viscosity measurement that can be used for liquids and gases is the falling sphere
viscometer (viscosimeter).

Capillary
Torque Reading
Proportional To
Viscosity

Torque Spring
Sphere

Angular Speed (Constant)

Spindle

Outer Cylinder Etched

Markings

Fluid Test
Fluid
Gold-Plated
Plug

Figure 13: Rotational and Falling Sphere Viscometers

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Kinematic Viscosity (ν) represents a ratio of dynamic (absolute) viscosity to the density of the
fluid and is expressed in stokes (ν = µ / ρ). In liquids, an increasing temperature usually results in
lowering the kinematic viscosity. In gases, an increasing temperature increases the kinematic
viscosity. The method for determining kinematic viscosity involves measuring the time to drain a
certain volume of liquid by gravity out of a container through a capillary tube or some type of
restriction. The time it takes to drain a liquid is directly related to viscosity and is recorded in
seconds. The flow rate of fluids by gravity, which is the force causing the flow, depends upon the
density of the fluids. Viscosity measured by this method is called the kinematic viscosity. The
measurement units for kinematic viscosity are either centistokes, meter2/second, or ft2/second.
The centipoise (cP) is equal to centistokes multiplied by the density of the fluid.

Capillary

Figure 14: Ostwald Capillary Viscometer

Viscosity Index represents the change in viscosity with respect to temperature. Viscosity index is
used with reference to petroleum products. A high viscosity index number means that the fluid’s
viscosity does not change very much for a given temperature. A low viscosity index number
indicates that the fluid’s viscosity does change significantly for a given temperature.

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Viscosity Scales present viscosity measurements in time units. Viscosity scales that are commonly
used include the following:

• Saybolt Furol scales

• Redwood scales

• Engler scales

The three scales express kinematic viscosity in time units rather than centistokes. For example, if
the kinematic viscosity of a fluid at 122° F is 900 centistokes, on the Saybolt Furol scale the
equivalent viscosity is expressed as 424.5 seconds (centistokes x 0.4717). Flow engineering
reference manuals often provide conversion formulas between centistokes and the respective
viscosity scale. Note that dynamic viscosity can be derived from the kinematic viscosity.

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FLOW MEASURING DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA

Flowmeter selection can be a very complex task, given the wide range of technologies and
application requirements that must be accommodated. Several approaches to flowmeter selection
begin by a process of elimination–the number of flowmeters is narrowed to a few acceptable
choices. That does not mean that the “acceptable” choices are necessarily the “perfect” choice.
The meters that have been selected as suitable for the application often represent a tradeoff
between meter service, process conditions, and a company’s policy on instrumentation.

A flowmeter selection process takes into account the following:

• Application fundamentals
• Specifications
• Safety considerations
• Metallurgy
• Installation considerations
• Maintenance and calibration
• Compatibility with existing process instrumentation
• Custody transfer concerns
• Economic considerations
• Technical direction

Application Fundamentals

All flowmeter selection begins with a rather simple, though understated, premise — what
is the instrument expected to do? From that simple question, however, one can use
approaches to flowmeter selection that, to a large degree, require an understanding of
the intended application. Two common approaches embed application fundamentals in
their selection approach. The approaches use one of the following:

• Flowchart
• Checklist of selection criteria

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Flowchart

A structured flowchart approach is shown in Figure 15. The selection process begins
with determining the process fluid characteristics through comparing costs and
performance.

Type Of Fluid

Gas Liquid Steam

• Clean/Dirty
• Contaminants
Low Pressure (Sand, Water, Scale, Salt, Additives)
High Pressure • H2S Content of Crude
• Corrosiveness/Erosiveness

Fluid Properties Phase Plant Considerations

• Single Phase
• Pressure • Multi Phase • Pipeline Size
• Density • New or Existing Installation
- Gas/Liquid
• Viscosity (Low/High) • Straight Pipe Runs
- Liquid/Vapour
• Conductivity - Gas/Solid • Enclosures
• Temperature • Meter Output Compatibility
- Liquid/Solid
• Reynolds Number • Vibration
• Range Of Flow
• Pressure Drop

Costs Performance Company Practice

• Purchase • System Accuracy
• Installation • Repeatability
• Maintenance • Stability
• Energy Cost • Pressure Loss Flow Meter Choice

Figure 15: Flowchart Approach to Meter Selection

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Checklist of Selection Criteria

Vendor’s also provide flowmeter checklists that assist an engineer in the selection
process. A checklist, like the sample list that follows, may include the following items:

• Flow stream conditions:

– volume
– temperature
– pressure
– density
– viscosity
– flow velocity
• Flow measurement goals.
• Accuracy requirements.
• Range requirements.
• Acceptable pressure drops.
• Display and system requirements.
• Potential problems (i.e., vibration).
• Flow stream erosive/corrosive materials, entrained gases and solids (if any).
• Available installation space and pipe geometry.
• Economic factors (cost of ownership).

For another flowmeter selection approach, review the method described in the Instrument
Engineer’s Handbook, Process Measurement, Chapter 2.1. Regardless of the flowmeter selection
approach that is followed, the selection begins with an evaluation of the fluid’s characteristics.

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Specifications

Specifications for individual flowmeter selections are listed in SADP-J-100, Attachment 1. The
specifications include:

• Type of service
• Accuracy
• Rangeability
• Pipe size
• Reynolds number limits
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Cost

Selection guidelines from SADP-J-100, Attachment 1, are shown in Figure 16 and Figure 17.

Meter Type Service

High Semi-
Differential Clean Dirty Corrosive Viscous Abrasive Low Vel Vapor Dirty Gas Temp. Cryogenic Filled Non-
Pressure Liqs. Liqs. Liqs. Liqs. Slurries Flows or Gas or Vapor Service Service Pipes Newtonians

Orifice D C A A C D D C D D NA C
Venturi D A C C C C D NA C C NA C
Flow D C C C C C D NA C C NA C
Nozzle &
Tubes
Pitot Tubes D C A C NA C D NA C C NA NA
Magnetic D D D A D A NA NA C NA C A
Mass Coriolis D D A D D A C NA C C NA D
Thermal D C C C C A D NA C NA NA C
Oscillatory Vortex D A A C NA NA D NA C C NA NA
Shedding
Positive D NA C D NA D D NA C C NA NA
Displacement
Target D A A A C C D NA C C NA C
Turbine D C C C NA C D NA C C NA NA
Ultrasonic Transit-T D C C C NA C C C NA C NA NA
Doppler NA D C C A C NA NA NA NA NA C
Variable Area D C A A NA C D NA A NA NA NA

Flowmeter Applications
D - Designed A - Normally C - Conditional NA - Not
For Service Applicable Usage Only Applicable
For This For This
Service Service

Figure 16: Flowmeter Applications

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Rey nolds
Temperature Pressure Cost
Range- Pipe Size No. (R)
(F) (PSIG) ($)
Flowmeter Accuracy ability Inches Limits
316ss Plate
Orifice: Process: Pipe Rating To $100 to $400
• Square-Edge +/- 2 % FS 3:1 >2.0 R>2000
To 1000F 6000 PSIG $1,500 for
• Quadrant-Edge +/- 2 % FS 3:1 >2.0 300<R >3300 Trans mitter
+/- 2 % FS Trans mitter:
• Segmental 3:1 >4 R>10000 1" Integral Orifice
+/- 2 to 5 % FS 3:1 <0.5 R>100 -20 To 250F
• Integral with T ransmitter
$2,000
Target +/- 2 to 5 % FS 3:1 0.5 to 4 R>100 $1,400 to 2,000
Venturi +/- 1 to 2 % FS 3:1 >2 R>75000 2" CS $1,200 8" CS $3,500
Flow Nozzle +/- 1 to 2 % FS 3:1 >2 R>10000 Same as Venturi meters
Flow Tube +/- 1 to 2 % FS 3:1 >3 R>12500 Same as Venturi meters
Pitot +/- 5 % FS 3:1 >3 No Limit 6" with Transmitter $2,000
Annubar +/- 1 to 2 % FS 3:1 >1 R>10000 3" $800 12" $1,400
$2,000 with Transmitter
Pos. Displace- Liq. +/- 0.25 % (Rate) Liq 2 to 16 Cs<8000 Liquid: 600F < 1440 PSIG 2" CS $2-3,000
10:1
ment (P/D) Gas +/- 1 % FS Gas 1 to 16 Gas : 250F 6" CS $6-8,000
Turbine Liq. +/- 0.25-1.0 % 0.25 to 24 -300 To 500F <3000 PSIG 4" $2 to 3,500
10:1 2 to 15 Cs
• Inline Gas +/- 0.5 % of Rate 0.25 to 24 -300 To 500F <3000 PSIG 6" $3 to 5,000
• Insertion +/- 5-10 % FS line size>1.5 -50 To 500F <1440 PSIG $2 to 4,000
Ultr asonic
• Transit Time +/- 1% of Rate to 5% FS >10:1 >0.5 No Limit -300 To 500F Pipe Rating 4" $3 to 5,000
• Doppler +/- 5 % FS 10:1 >0.25 No Limit -300 To 500F Pipe Rating 4" $2 to 3,000
Magnetic +/- 1 % FS 10:1 0.1 to 72 No Limit Up To 300F < 1440 PSIG $3 to 10,000
Mass Flow +/- .25- 1.0% of Rate >10:1 1/16 to 6 No Limit -400 To 400F Pipe Rating $1 to 20,000
•Coriolis Pipe Rating $1 to 15,000
• Thermal +/- 1% FS >10:1 >1 No Limit -50 To 350F
Variable Area +/- 0.5% of Rate 5:1 to To Highly Glass:< 400F Glass:350 PSIG 1" $600 3" $1,000
12:1 <6
To +/- 10% FS Viscous Fluids Metal: <1000F Metal: 720 PSIG
Vortex Shedding +/- .75 to 1.5 % of Rate 8:1 to 4" $2,500 8" $5,000
0.5 to 16 R>10.000 -300 To 400F Pipe Rating
15:1

Figure 17: Flowmeter Applications (Continued)

Safety Considerations

Safety considerations that influence flowmeter selection are described in terms of

• Providing protection to the flowmeter
• Hazardous area requirements
• Personnel protection

Providing Protection to the Flowmeter

Flowmeters can be protected through the use of

• Strainers
• Deaerators
• Isolation valves
• Block and bleed valves
• Control valves

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Strainers are used to protect meters from debris in a liquid stream. Strainers are not intended for
filtering a liquid. Strainers should be carefully selected to ensure that they have a low pressure
drop when used with high velocity flowmeters.

Deaerators are air elimination devices that protect the meter from receiving a large slug of air.
The air elimination device separates that air from the liquid through the use of special baffles. In
the case of some positive displacement meters, a large slug of air can completely damage the
meter. In the case of a turbine meter, air may not cause damage, but will cause errors in readings
(registrations).

Isolation Valves are typically provided at a meter inlet to permit meter repairability without
shutting down the process.

Block and Bleed Valves are used in meter runs to provide a means for calibration. These valves
divert the flow to the meter prover loop.

Control Valves provide a means of controlling flowrate and/or back pressure. For example,
flowrate control is necessary to prevent a positive displacement meter from overspeeding. While
control valve selection is beyond the scope of this participant module, the proper valve selection is
important to the measurement system’s accuracy.

Hazardous Area Requirements

When a flowmeter is installed in a hazardous location or used to measure an explosive fluid,

various safety standards specify the necessary precautions. Vendors provide designs that are
approved by third party agencies such as UL (Underwriters Laboratories), FM (Factory Mutual),
and CSA (Canadian Standards Association). The hazardous atmospheres, described in an earlier
participant module, are defined in the National Electric Code (NEC) Articles 500 through 503.
The NEC articles indicate the types of required protection and precautions.

Personnel Protection

Personnel protection is provided through

• Good design practices

• Proper installation practices
• Proper maintenance procedures

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Good Design Practices include proper selection of materials of construction, which if not
properly selected, can present hazards in applications where the metal reacts with the process
media. An additional safety concern is the avoidance of toxic leakage, which increases as the
number of manifolds, taps, and other meter components increases. Practices may also include
designing in an extra margin of safety. For example, a vortex meter with a flanged body is safer
than a vortex meter with a wafer body, especially if hazardous fluids are measured.

Proper Installation Practices are defined in the vendor’s documentation and should be closely
followed. Several common scenarios illustrate the need for safe practices. For example,
flowmeters have their pressure ratings stamped on the outside of the meter. Likewise, flange
ratings also are stamped with their pressure ratings. Users must not mistake the flange rating
which can be significantly different than the meter, for the meter body rating. Otherwise, meter
damage and possible harm to personnel will result. Another example of safe installation practices
involves grounding. In the case of the magnetic flowmeter (magmeter), proper grounding is
necessary to avoid shocking personnel.

Proper Maintenance Procedures include wearing protective clothing, opening valves slowly and
carefully, de-energizing electric circuits to prevent shocks, using proper tools, and following
vendor guidelines for their equipment.

In summary, safety begins with good design and installation practices.

Metallurgy

Metallurgy considerations involve selecting meter materials of construction that

• Provide chemical resistance

• Avoid reaction with process media
• Provide corrosion/erosion resistance
• Meet special requirements for hydrogen sulfides

Provide Chemical Resistance

Chemical resistance charts are available that describe how well a material resists chemical attack.
An example series of charts can be found in Appendix A.3, Process Measurement, Liptak, Third
Edition. Charts generally use a format similar to the one shown in Figure 18. Additionally,
vendors provide charts that summarize metal resistance to environmental conditions. (Refer to the
Work Aids for an example vendor chart.)

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X: Very Good Service

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel
+: Moderate Service
-: Limited Service

Carbon Steel
0: Unsatisfactory

Hastelloy C
: (Blank) No Data
Available

Benzene + x x +
Carbon Dioxide
(Dry) x x x x
Carbon Dioxide
(Wet) - x x x

Water, Distilled 0 x x

Figure 18: Example Chemical Resistance Chart

Avoid Reaction with Process Media

The meter’s materials of construction must not react with the process media. Fluids such as
oxygen can present explosive hazards if they chemically react with certain materials. Steels, for
example, can present hazards if they are not clean and polished when used in oxygen-enriched,
high pressure, and high flow rate applications.

Provide Corrosion/Erosion Resistance

The meter’s material of construction must also resist corrosion and erosion. Corrosive and erosive
factors prevalent in Saudi Aramco applications include sulfur compounds, hydrocarbons,
chlorides, dust, and sand. Chemicals tend to have corrosive effects, while particulates have erosive
effects. High temperature sulfur corrosion is very common in oil processing environments.
Carpenter 20, an alloy of nickel and chromium, and Hastelloy B2 provide excellent corrosion
protection from sulfuric acids.

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Special Requirements for Hydrogen Sulfides

According to SADP-J-100 Section 5.2.3, “When wet, sour fluids are to be metered, NACE
standard MR-01-75 shall be used as a reference for determining the type of materials to be used
for the wetted flow meter elements. Careful attention must be given to the selection of orifice
metering components to ensure that they are compatible with process fluids.”

NACE MR 01-75 covers the metallic requirements for resistance to sulfide stress cracking. (Refer
to the PCI 101.02 Participant Module for an extended discussion of sulfide stress corrosion.)
Sulfide stress cracking refers to the fracturing of metal in response to pressure and a corrosive
fluid. If sulfides, such as H2S, are present in a fluid, then carbon and low alloy steels are
susceptible to sulfide stress cracking. For example, if crude oil is too sour (over 3% H2S), then a
typical industry approach is to provide a meter, such as positive displacement meter, with special
iron trim, bearings, seals, and gear shaft.

Installation Considerations

Installation considerations are described in terms of:

• Upstream and downstream piping requirements

• Meter orientation
• Piping supports
• Piping and flow conditioners

Upstream and Downstream Piping Requirements

Upstream piping length requirements are often specified by meter type. The upstream pipe must
also be straight. Less obvious are the downstream piping requirements. Downstream piping may
encounter control valves or obstructions that can create effects opposite to the flow direction.
The effects can be large enough to back up to the meter, enter the meter, and alter the
measurement.

Piping requirements that have an influence on flow measurement also include:

• The correct use of gaskets – Gaskets should not protrude into or be recessed from the
flow streams. If gaskets are not flush with the piping, they can create a flow
disturbance.

• Centering the pipe with the meter – Vendors often provide centering devices to ensure
that the meter body is centered in the piping.

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Meter Orientation

The meter’s orientation is important so that the flowmeter can make an accurate measurement.
For example, the electrodes of magnetic flowmeters should be in the horizontal plane. If a flow is
likely to have a large amount of air, the magmeter can be installed vertically. The vertical
installation helps ensure that the pipes and meter are kept full of liquid. The vertical installation
also helps keep the electrode from fouling. Note that some meters, such as variable area type
meters, must be installed in vertical runs of pipe.

All flow meters are to be installed, according to their service, following Standard Drawings:
AC 036231
AC 036232
AC 036233
AC 036234
AC 036235

Think in terms of whether the fluid is homogeneous; i.e., single or two-phase flow and whether
the pipe line is full. If the pipe is partially full, the conditions under which the primary element was
originally considered are not met and the results will be spurious.

Pipe Supports

Flowmeters are not intended to be piping supports. Although smaller meters may be able to
handle pipe stresses, larger meters do not handle stresses well. Large meters are often mounted
upon concrete slabs at ground level. Larger meters — such as Coriolis, magmeter, turbine,
positive displacement — may require supports and anchors to limit piping stresses.

Piping and Flow Conditioners

Upstream piping should provide enough fluid mixing so that the flow profile at the meter is close
to the flow profile used to calibrate the meter. Some flowing fluids experience jets and swirls that
affect the flow profile. The two approaches to get the right profile are to use either longer lengths
of pipe or flow conditioners. Flow conditioners reshape a swirling profile. Flow conditioners are
available that can handle a full range of flow profiles. Note that an engineer should be aware that
flow conditioners contribute to a pressure (head) loss.

Figure 17 references installation practices that influence flowmeter selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

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Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SAES-J-100, PD meter installation Install horizontally
Section 5.2
SAES-J-100, Turbine meter • Liquid meter must comply with Chapter 5, Section
Section 5.3 installation 5.3 of MPMS
• Gas meters must comply with AGA Report No. 7
• Install horizontally
SAES-J-100, Orifice plate Orientation per AD-036004
Section 5.4 installation
SAES-J-100, Flow nozzle Pipe section requirements
Section 5.5 installation
SAES-J-100, Interconnecting • Minimum bends and fittings
Section 5.6 piping • Avoid straightening vanes
• Tubing requirements
• Seal liquids
• Impulse line sloping
SAES-J-100, Local indication Transmitter, recorder, and indicator mounting.
Section 5.7
API RP 551, Accessibility Flow devices should be accessible
Section 2.2.3
API RP 551, Local indication Mountings
Section 2.2.4
API RP 551, Vibration Most flowmeters are susceptible to vibration damage;
Section 2.2.5 supports required
API RP 551, Pulsation Flow measurement is difficult if fluid pulsates, avoid
Section 2.2.6 if possible
API RP 551, Purging and sealing Protection required if fluids are corrosive or viscous
Section 2.2.7

Figure 19: Installation References

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Maintenance and Calibration

Maintenance considerations that influence flowmeter selection are described in terms of:

• Typical maintenance concerns by flowmeter type

• Meter failure concerns

Typical Maintenance Concerns by Flowmeter Type

Typical maintenance concerns by flowmeter type are shown in Figure 20.

Flowmeter Flow Element Maintenance Concerns

Differential Pressure • Orifice Plate • Simple, no moving parts
• Pitot • Susceptible to wear in dirty
• Venturi services except vertically
• Orifice edge sharpness affects
accuracy

Turbine • Rotor • Moving parts can wear

Vortex • Bluff Body • No moving parts; bluff body can
corrode
Positive Displacement (PD) • Oval Gear • Many moving parts subject to
• Sliding Vane wear
• Nutating Disk • Prefilters for dirty service
Magnetic Field (Magmeter) • AC Field • Low maintenance element,
• DC Field although electrode may foul
Ultrasonic • Very low maintenance,
nonintrusive
Mass • Coriolis • Very low maintenance,
• Thermal Mass nonintrusive (Coriolis)
• No moving parts, corrosive fluid
may effect element (Thermal
Mass)

Figure 20: Maintenance Concerns

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Meter Failure Concerns

Flowmeters will, at some time in their life cycle, need repair. With that in mind, the engineer
should review the following failure concerns:

• Repairability of flowmeter.
• Spare parts availability.
• Whether the failure would be catastrophic or not.
• What consequences will result if the meter fails.

Compatibility with Existing Process Instrumentation

Compatibility with existing process instrumentation is described in terms of:

• Relationship to metering system.

• General transmission practices.
• Signal levels to receiving devices.

Relationship to Metering System

Flowmeter selection is just one aspect in designing a liquid metering system. It should be noted
that it is common to use meters in parallel. For greater accuracy, the same orifice primary can be
connected to two differential pressure transmitters. A typical dual-range system can have
transmitters sized to a 10-to-1 pressure ratio that, when square-rooted, works out to a 3-to-1
flow ratio. Whether the meter is in parallel or not, the following list of design criteria is reviewed
by the engineer. Along with selecting the correct meter and meter size, the engineer considers the
following:

• The minimum and maximum flow rates.

• What system pressure drops occur.
• The minimum back pressure for the meter run.
• The length of meter run.
• What isolation, block, or bleed valves are needed.
• What flow control and back pressure valves are necessary.
• Temperature and pressure indicators.
• Readout devices.

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The intent of the previous discussion is to illustrate that metering system design is more than just
selecting the correct flowmeter. While metering system design is beyond the scope of this
Participant Module, the selection and installation of the above devices has a major influence on
the flowmeter’s accuracy. It can become a very complex process to design a liquid metering
system, because the design involves more than just selecting the correct flowmeter.

General Transmission Practices

According to SADP-J-100, Section 5.2.2, “Receiving instruments (e.g., transmitters, transducers,

switches, etc.) should be located to provide convenient access for their operation, maintenance,
and removal. Refer to Saudi Aramco Standard Drawings AC-36231, 36232, 36323, 36234 and
36235 for instrument arrangement details.”

According to API/RP551, Section 2.2.2. “Hydrocarbons or other process fluids should not be
piped to any instruments located in a control room. Standard industry practice is to convert the
flow measurement to an electrical or pneumatic signal and transmit the signal to remote receiving
instruments.”

Signal Levels to Receiving Devices

Control systems and/or computers that interface to flow measurement systems/meters must
interface with four common types of input and output signals:

• Analog input/output signals

• Computer communication protocols
• Contact closures
• Frequency signals

Analog Input/Output Signals – Input signals are traditionally the 4 mA to 20 mA dc signal

representation of a process variable. Analog inputs provide the portion of data that represents the
temperature, pressure, and flow rate data. Analog output signals provide the variable signals for
recorders, display, or control functions.

Computer Communication Protocols – Flow measurement computers use common protocols

such as RS-232C and RS422. The measurement system’s speed and compatibility with an existing
system’s protocol are common selection considerations.

Contact Closures – Discrete digital inputs can come from valves, pressure switches, or push
buttons. Digital outputs from the computer system can control devices, transmit totalization data,
and initiate alarm annunciators. The most common interface voltage is 24 Vdc.

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Frequency Signals – Flowmeters can generate pulses that represent an amount of product. The
receiving device counts the number of pulses generated during the flow’s duration. The main
concern here is that the receiving device and flowmeter are compatible in the minimum and
maximum frequencies. The receiving device is also evaluated for the capability to sense a pulsed
waveform’s positive and negative thresholds.

Custody Transfer Concerns

Custody transfer concerns are described in terms of:

• Reasons for metering hydrocarbons

• Classifications of custody transfer measurements
• Metering approaches
• Meter provers required

Reasons for Metering Hydrocarbons

In typical oil processing plants, liquid hydrocarbons are metered at each custody transfer point
and often at points where custody does not change. Several reasons for the metering are:

• Corporate accounting requires data

• Billing is dependent upon accurate measurements
• Losses are detectable
• Business decisions are based on the measurement data
• Assist negotiations, if necessary
• Provide auditable, historical records

Classification of Custody Transfer Measurements

For a custody transfer measurement of a liquid hydrocarbon, a contract requires a volumetric

measurement at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. The techniques to do this are
broadly categorized as “static” and “dynamic.” Static measurements are accomplished through
automatic tank gauging. (Another example of a static measurement is the measurement of a
marine cargo tank.) Approximately 30% of custody transfer occurs this way at Saudi Aramco.
Dynamic measurements are accomplished through liquid metering methods. The majority of
custody transfer occurs using liquid metering methods at Saudi Aramco.

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According to SADP-J-100, Section 4.3, “All flow meter installations involving royalty and
custody transfer metering of hydrocarbon gases or liquids shall comply with Saudi Aramco
Standards SAES-J-101 and SAES-J-102.”

Metering Approaches

Two types of meters are traditionally used in most industries for custody transfer of liquid
hydrocarbons—the turbine meter and positive displacement meter. While turbine meters and
positive displacement meters are described in more detail later in this course module, several
custody transfer concerns can be mentioned in terms of the following:

• Turbine meter custody transfer considerations.

• Positive displacement custody transfer considerations.

Turbine Meter Custody Transfer Considerations are best seen by reviewing how a turbine
calculates flowrate. A turbine meter measures flowrate based on the calculation

Q= VxA
where
Q = volumetric flowrate
V =measured flow velocity
A =constant flow area

Thus, anything that affects A or V has a direct bearing on Q, the volumetric flowrate. The custody
transfer concerns are summarized as:

– over registering
– under registering

Over registering – The meter over registers when the constant flow area is reduced. The reduction
in flow area causes the flow velocity to increase. The flow area is reduced either through coating
buildups or debris caught on the final conditioning element.

A coating buildup of 0.001 inch on a 4 inch turbine meter internal parts can have a 0.5% effect on
its registration. Coating effects are proportional to the square of the meter size. Thus, a 0.001
inch coating causes a 2% shift on a 2 inch meter. Turbine meters used to measure high paraffin
content products have a tendency to buildup coatings.

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Under registering – The meter under-registers if the flow area, A, increases. The increased flow
area decreases the flow velocity. Under registering occurs when swirling occurs near the leading
edge of a turbine rotor. Flow conditioners installed according to API standards prevents this
occurrence.

Positive Displacement Meter Custody Transfer Considerations– Unlike turbine meters,

positive displacement meters transfer fixed volumes of liquids. The flowing stream is sent into
measuring chambers; the meter totalizes the fixed volumes transferred through the measuring
chambers.

A typical approach is to use displacement meters for custody transfer operations. Several reasons
for this are the following:

– Historically, the positive displacement meter has been successful

– Electrical power not required
– Smaller than turbine meters (less space required)
– Can be temperature compensated
– Crude oil provides good lubrication to the PD meter

A positive displacement meter’s custody transfer performance is a function of slippage and wear.
Slippage represents the amount of product that passes the seal in the measuring chamber of a
positive displacement meter. Slippage is dependent on the clearances in the measuring chamber
remaining constant. However, if the viscosity or flowrate changes, the amount of slippage
changes.

Meter Provers Required

Any flowmeter’s indication of a volume represents an unknown volume unless the volume can be
compared to a known volume. The known volumes are called “meter provers.” For a meter to be
considered accurate, the meter must be proved at the same conditions of flowrate, temperature
pressure, and product viscosity. Meter provers are described in more detail later in this course
module.

Economic Considerations

Economic considerations are described in terms of:

• Cost of ownership
• Pumping costs

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Cost of Ownership

Cost of ownership can easily exceed the initial purchase price of the meter. Cost of ownership
includes the following factors:

• Meter Cost – The initial purchase price of a meter is the most obvious cost. As a
general rule, meter costs increase as greater accuracy is required. Cost should include
primary and secondary devices and auxiliary equipment.

• Accuracy – The cost of accuracy (or inaccuracy) is best seen in custody transfer
operations, where the cost of unaccounted for products can be quantified.

• Repeatability – If a device became inaccurate because of wear or process damage, its

repeatability may still be acceptable for continued process use.

• Installation – Cost including labor and materials.

• Mean time between failure (MTBF)

• Number of mechanical parts – as the number of moving and exposed parts increases,
so does the probability of repair.

• Process downtimes caused by failure or scheduled maintenance and calibration.

• Cost to Repair – some flowmeters may require specialized personnel skills or

equipment.

• Implementation Costs – If the device can interface and share date with other
instrumentation, the costs are obviously lower.

• Disposal Costs – A device exposed to toxic chemicals may contain hazardous

chemicals.

Pumping Costs

Pumping costs account for the energy costs in overcoming the pressure losses through a
flowmeter. Calculations are available for determining the operating cost of a flowmeter. For a
simple orifice plate, these costs can reach thousands of Riyals per year. (Refer to Chapter 2.1
“Process Measurement,” Liptak, Third Edition, for pumping cost calculations.)

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Technical Direction

Technical directions in flow instrumentation improvements are occurring in the following areas:

• Improvement in overall design

• Increasing integration of microprocessor technology
• Improvements in vortex and mass based meter designs
• Introduction of multivariable transmitters
• Evolution of Fieldbus standard

Improvements in Overall Designs

Flowmeter manufacturers have improved the meter’s design in order to facilitate flowmeter
cleaning and disposal. Product redesigns eliminate or minimize the number of crevices or openings
where process fluids accumulate.

Increasing Integration of Microprocessor Technology

Increasing integration of microprocessor technology has led to flowmeters that have increased
performance functionality and communication capabilities. The improvements in performance are
seen in better accuracies and improved effect specifications. A temperature effect specification,
for example, is improved in mass flowmeters because of ambient measurements that compensate
for the thermal expansion coefficients in the flowmeter’s materials of construction.

Increased functionality includes the flowmeter’s ability to access additional process variables. The
additional process variables can include process density, process temperature, and gravimetric
flow rates.

Use of microprocessor based differential pressure transmitters in flow applications can

significantly improve performance without the need to replace the orifice plates (or other primary
element). In pre-existing applications that have a conventional transmitter, there is usually no need
to shut down the process or make new process tap connections.

The microprocessor based instruments can be expected to develop into a spectrum of

performance levels. On the low end of the spectrum, flowmeters with remote communication
capabilities would be used in hard to reach locations. On the high end of the spectrum, flowmeters
that offer higher accuracies and functionality will find use in applications such as custody transfer.

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As microprocessor based flowmeters evolve, and the meter’s related performance improvements
become common place, product differentiators will be the meter’s added software capabilities.
The capabilities are hard to predict, but could include data collection, predictive maintenance,
embedded control, or other software functions.

Improvements in Vortex and Mass Based Meter Designs

Although the orifice plate and differential pressure transmitter are the most commonly applied
flowmeter, advances in flowmeter designs have created new interest in other flowmeters, such as
vortex and mass based flowmeters.

Vortex meters have been successfully used in sulfur and crude oil operations that traditionally are
measured with orifice plates. Vortex meters prices have been decreasing and are slightly higher
than an orifice plate. The reliability for a vortex meter is better than that of an orifice plate, which
wears because of corrosive/erosive flows. Vortex meters also offer higher turndown ratios.

Mass-based flowmeters are finding use in applications that require higher accuracies,
measurements in terms of mass instead of volume, or nonintrusive measurements. A Coriolis
flowmeter, for example, can measure low flow rates. The rangeability for a Coriolis flowmeter is
greater than that of an orifice plate’s.

Introduction of Multivariable Transmitters

In measuring flow, temperature is required to compensate for changes in density. Correct

placement of a temperature probe (process temp. not body temp.) is required whether measuring
with a multivariable technique or the old fashioned way.

A multivariable transmitter is essentially four transmitters in one package. A multivariable

transmitter (Figure 19) measures differential pressure, absolute pressure, and process temperature.
The multivariable transmitter also calculates the compensated flow. Traditionally, three separate
transmitters and flow calculation were required for this measurement.

The multivariable transmitter incorporates microprocessor based technology which provides the
advantages of better readability and tighter integration. Additionally, the multivariable transmitter
reduces installation costs, spares inventories, and commissioning times. The transmitter has the
flexibility to be used in applications such as custody transfer, energy and material balances, and
advanced control and optimization.

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Flow = DP X P Calculation and

T FIC control done in
DCS, PLC, or
Single Loop
Controller

Flow Temperature
Pressure
Before - Three separate transmitters required for this application.

Control done in
DCS, PLC, or
Flow Calculation Flow = DP X P FIC Single Loop
Done in SMV 3000 T Controller
SMV 3000
Transmitter

Flow and Pressure Temperature

From Same Sensor

After - Only one SMV 3000 is required for this application.

Figure 21: Multivariable Transmitter Example

Evolution of Fieldbus Standard

Improved communications are accomplished through the use of proprietary digital

communications protocols and/or a standardized fieldbus. The improved communications provide
tighter control, better reporting, and data collection. The development of a Fieldbus standard, as
mentioned earlier in this course, has the potential for the following:

• Reduced wiring costs.

• Interoperability among field devices.
• Field devices that send messages to the control system or other field devices.
• Reduced need for controller I/O hardware.
• Reduction of maintenance costs.
• More precise control.
• Migration of control to field devices.
• Reduced need for conventional “nonsmart” flowmeters.

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DETERMINING WHETHER AN ORIFICE PLATE FLOW MEASURING DEVICE

MEETS APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS

Differential pressure flowmeters work on Bernoulli’s Energy equation applied to a streamline

principle.

The principle states the when a restriction is placed in a pipe where fluid flow occurs, the kinetic
energy increases at the expense of the static pressure. The differential pressure (h) produced by
the restriction can be measured and is related to the flow ratio.

Basic Flow Metering Equation

The equations used in flow metering calculations are derived from the fundamental concepts of
fluid mechanics, using the following assumptions:

1. That the flow is steady – This means that the flow metering equations cannot be used for
flow measurements made during periods when the rate of flow is varying.

2. That this flow is one-dimensional – This means that the velocity profile is assumed to be
uniform and that the velocity is computed from
Q
V=
A
where:
ft
V = average velocity ( )
sec
ft3
Q = volumetric flow rate ( )
sec
A = passage area (ft2)

3. That the flow is frictionless – This means that the Bernoulli equation in the “HEAD” form
can be used:
V12 V22
z1 + + h1 = z2 + + h2
2g 2g
where:
z = elevation above a datum (ft)
h = pressure (ft) (ρ/ρg)

and subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to inlet and outlet sections respectively.

4. That the flow meter is horizontal – This means that z1 = z2, so that the Bernoulli equation
can be written in the following form:
V12 V22
h1 + = h2 +
2g 2g

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5. That the fluid is incompressible – This means that thew equation of continuity can be written
in the following form:
πD2 πd2
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = ( )V1 = ( )V2 or
4 4
d
V1 = ( )2V2 = β2V2
D
where:
D = internal pipe diameter (ft)

d = primary element internal diameter (ft)

d
β = beta ratio = dimensionless
D
A2 = area of primary element (ft2)

Ideal Flow Rate

For computing the ideal volumetric flow rate, the above equations can be combined to obtain

A2 2g(h1 - h2)
Qideal =
1 - β4
Working Equation for Flow Meters

For calculating the actual flow of fluids through a differential flow meter, the following working
equation is used to adjust the ideal flow to the actual:

W = NCEd2FaY hwρ1

where:
lbm
W = mass flow rate
hr
N = number for unit conversion
lb
= 358.93 for m in
hr
C = discharge coefficient-ratio of actual to ideal flow

E = Velocity of approach factor ratio

1
=
1 - β4
d = primary element diameter measured at 68°F (20°C) inches

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Fa = thermal expansion factor ratio

takes into account the expansion of the primary element and the
pipe when metering is at other than 68°F

Y = expansion factor ratio

takes into account the compressibility of fluids. For incompressible
fluids (liquids) Y = 1

hw = pressure differential inches of water at 68°F

lbm
ρ1 = fluid density 3
ft
Figure 22 illustrates this notation.

Discharge Coefficient C

The discharge coefficient C is a function of

Rd Reynolds No. 
ε 〉 Velocity profile
Relative Roughness 
D
L
Tap Location Ratios 
D
d 〉 Pressure gradient
Beta Ratio 
D
M Mach No.

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E = Velocity Of
Approach Factor Primary
Element d v, µ, ρ ε
D
Meter Tube P1 P2 Meter Tube

hw P/ρ

Figure 22: Differential Pressure Flowmeter Principle

The volumetric flow rate through the cross-sectional area is represented as

Q = A x v
where
Q = volumetric flow rate
A = flow in cross sectional area
v = the average fluid velocity

The average fluid velocity can be calculated as follows:

v ∝ 2gh
where
g = acceleration caused by gravity
h = change in height (differential head)

Substituting for v, the continuity equation can be written as

Q ∝ A x 2gh
where:
A = upstream area

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Volumetric flow rate can also be calculated by using the equation

h
Q = KA
ρ
Mass flow rate can also be calculated by using the equation

W = KA hρ
where
W = mass flow rate
h = differential pressure
ρ = fluid density
K = constant based upon dimensions, thermal and expansion
factors, and units

Differential pressure flowmeters are also known as head meters. The differential pressure
flowmeter is suitable for a variety of applications — including gas, liquid, viscous, and corrosive
fluid measurements. Differential pressure flowmeters have no significant pipe size or flow rate
limitations. Differential pressure flowmeters have no moving components; however, measurement
accuracy is reduced when an uncalibrated orifice plate or improperly calibrated meter is installed
in the pipe.

All differential pressure flowmeters show a square root relationship between differential pressure
head and flow rate (Figure 23). The square root relationship limits the usable flow range for any
service. For example, 50% of flow rate produces 25% of full differential pressure. When
maximum accuracy is required, it is generally recommended that the maximum-to-minimum flow
ratio shall not exceed 3 to 1. If flow measurement has a 10 to 1 ratio, use two primary elements
sized for different capacities, or two differential pressure transmitters with different ranges on a
single primary element.

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h Q

100 100

90

80 90

70
80
60

50 70

40
60
30
50
20
40
10 30

0 10

Linear Flow Rate ( h )

Q • h

Figure 23: Differential Pressure to Flowrate Relationship

The following are the most commonly used differential pressure flowmeters:

• Orifice plates

• Venturi

• Flow nozzles

• Pitot tube / annubar

• Elbow or wedge meter

This section of the course module introduces to the Participant the following flow measurement
topics:

• Orifice plates

• Software versus manual calculations for orifice plate sizing

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• Software versus manual calculations for flow rate

• Software versus manual calculations for pressure drop

• Instrument Specification Sheets (ISS)

• Computer programs for sizing orifice plates

• Expected accuracy

• Review orifice flow meter auditing/troubleshooting

Orifice Plate

General Description

An orifice plate is the main element within an orifice meter tube. An orifice plate is the simplest
and most economical type of all differential pressure flowmeters. An orifice plate is constructed as
a thin, concentric, flat metal plate. The plate has an opening or “orifice.” An orifice plate is
installed perpendicular to the fluid flow between the two flanges of a pipe. As the fluid passes
through the orifice, the restriction causes an increase in fluid velocity and a decrease in pressure.
The potential energy (static pressure) is converted into kinetic energy (velocity). As the fluid
leaves the orifice, fluid velocity decreases and pressure increases as kinetic energy is converted
back into potential energy (static pressure). Orifice plates always experience some energy loss –
that is, a permanent pressure loss caused by the friction in the plate. The Beta ratio is defined as
the ratio of the diameter of orifice bore to internal pipe diameter. The most common holding
system for an orifice plate is a pair of flanges, upstream and downstream piping, and a pressure
tap (Figure 24). The pressure taps are located either on orifice flanges or upstream and
downstream of the pipe from the orifice plate.

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Flange Taps

Pipe
Orifice Plate Tap

Figure 24: Orifice Plate Pressure Tap Configurations

Several types of orifice bore designs are available for orifice plates; concentric, segmental, and
eccentric orifice plates. The plates are used for a wide range of applications. For precise
measurement, various types of fittings are used; junior fittings, senior fittings, and simplex fittings.
The fittings provide easy installation of an orifice plate, removal of the plate for changes in flow
rate services, and convenient removal for inspection and maintenance. Limitations of orifice plates
include a high irrecoverable pressure and a deterioration in accuracy and long term repeatability
because of edge wear.

Two types of orifice plates designs are available — paddle type and universal type. The paddle
type orifice plate, used with an orifice flange, has a handle for easy installation between flanges.
On the paddle type plate, the orifice bore, pressure rating (flange rating), bore diameter, Beta
ratio (β), and nominal line size are stamped on the upstream face of the plate. The outside
diameter of a paddle plate varies with the ANSI pressure rating of the flanges.

The universal orifice plate is designed for use in quick change fittings, or in the plate holder of the
ring type joint (RTJ) orifice flanges. The universal plate is placed in a plate holder, the outside
diameter is the same for all pressure ratings for any given size. When using orifice fittings, the
internal diameter of the meter tube must be specified because the orifice plate is held in an orifice
plate sealing unit. The sealing unit is made of metal, viton, or rubber material.

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Some orifice plates have a small hole in the orifice plate besides an orifice bore, either above or
below the center of the plate that is called a weep hole. The purpose of the weep hole is to allow
the passage of any condensate in a gas application or passage of gas in liquid service applications.
The area of the weep hole must be considered when sizing an orifice plate. An orifice plate with a
weep hole should not be used when accurate measurement is required in a flow measurement
application, such as in gas sales service. (See Standard Drawing: AB 036094 NOTE 8.)

Figure 25 shows a paddle-type orifice plate and a universal orifice plate assembly.

Paddle Type Universal

Orifice Plate Orifice Plate Assembly

Figure 25: Paddle Versus Universal Orifice

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Figure 26 shows a concentric orifice plate.

3" 1" 3" 1" 3" 1" 1" 3" 1"

16 8 16 8 16 4 4 16 8
Stamp Mark Number 1/ T
FE- 2
Drill 1/4" 0
45Þ
Stamp Actual Dia/ To
Nearest Thousandth
B Inch
d-
Stamp Line Size And Sched.
L-
Before Boring Silver
Solder Or Weld And
Upstream ORNP Flush
3" +2o
16 45Þ o
-0

J d d +0.000"
1/ T
2 -0.015"
W

Upstream
Edge
T
Drill 2 Holes T" 0

Figure 26: Concentric Orifice Plate

The orifice plate, although a relatively simple element, is a precision measuring instrument and
should be treated accordingly. Critical items considered when evaluating orifice plates are the
following:

• Flatness, smoothness, and cleanliness of the orifice plate.

• The sharpness of the upstream orifice edge.
• The bore diameter and thickness of the orifice plate.

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Cutouts – Figure 27 shows a bevel-edge cutout of an orifice plate face.

• d represents the bore of the orifice plate.
• D represents the pipe inside diameter.
• The upstream and downstream sides of the orifice plate are flat. Flatness of the
orifice plate is specified as ≤ 0.010 inch per inch of dam height. Dam height
represents the difference of pipe inner diameter and diameter of bore divided by 2.
• T represents the thickness of the plate.
• e represents the orifice plate bore thickness which is 1/2 T
• θ is called orifice plate bevel angle. “θ” is 45 °, +20 ° -0°.

T
Thickness "T"
of the Plate

Upstream Downstream

Face A Face B

Angle of Bevel "0"

D
Flow d

Downstream Edge

Dam Height
Thickness "e" of the Orifice Bore

Figure 27: Orifice Plate Dimensions

Thickness – According to S.A. 990J AB 036094 Std Dwg., the recommended value of the orifice
plate thicknesses are
• 1/8 inch thickness for pipe size nominal diameters from 2 inches to 12 inches,
• 1/4 inch thickness for pipe size nominal diameters from 14 inches and 30 inches,
• 3/8 inch thickness for pipe size nominal diameters from 32 inches to 42 inches,
• 1/2 inch thickness for pipe size nominal diameters of 44 inches and above.
(For specific applications, contact the orifice plate’s vendor for technical assistance.)

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Tolerance – According to AGA Report Number 3, the absolute value of the percentage
difference between the meter tube’s internal diameter D and any individual diameter within a
distance of 1 meter upstream of the plate should not exceed 0.25% of D.
Any diameter within one D - D
( x 100) ≤ 0.25 %
D
For more details on tolerances, refer to AGA Report Number 3, Orifice Metering for Natural Gas
and Hydrocarbon Fluid. Reference 2.5.1.3.1.1 (also Amoco Meas. and Control, Vol. 1, pg 1-
667).

Orifice Plate Bevel Angle ( θ ) – The plate bevel angle is defined as the angle between the bevel
and the downstream face of the plate. According to S.A. 990J AB 036094 Std Dwg., bevel angle
of the orifice plate should be 45°, + 20° -0°.

Beta Ratio ( β ) – Meter head depends upon a restriction in the flow path to generate a change in
fluid velocity. For a circular pipe, beta ratio represents the ratio between the diameter of
restriction bore (d) and the inside diameter of the pipe (D). The ratio between the fluid velocity in
the pipe and velocity at the restricted bore is equal to the ratio of area. For a noncircular pipe, β
(beta) is defined as the square root of the ratio of area of the restriction bore to the area of the
pipe. For an orifice plate to provide accurate flow measurement, select a beta (β) ratio between
0.2 to 0.70. (AGA allows 0.1 to 0.75.)

Four Basic Orifice Plate Types

The orifice plate with a bevel edge and concentric bore is used for general applications. Four basic
types (Figure 28) of orifice plate bores are the following:

• Concentric

• Eccentric

• Segmental

• Quadrant or conical edge

Concentric Plates – The concentric orifice bore plates are used in general flow measurement
applications. The concentric orifice plate has an orifice bore in the center of the plate. The center
of bore is either beveled or straight. The beta ratio for the concentric plate is between 0.1 to 0.75.
The beta ratios of the plate is “ β = d/D,”. where “d” is the diameter of the bore and “D” is the
diameter of the plate or internal diameter of the pipe. The concentric bore plate is used for clean
fluid services, as well as for applications requiring accurate flow measurement.

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Eccentric Plates – The eccentric orifice plate is similar to a concentric plate, but the eccentric
plate has the bore in an offset position. The eccentric orifice plate is used when dirty fluids are
measured, to avoid the tendency of hole plugging if a concentric plate were used. Flow coefficient
data is limited for eccentric orifices; therefore, it provides less accurate measurement. In an
eccentric orifice plate, the hole is bored tangent to the inside wall of the pipe or, more commonly,
tangent to a more concentric circle with a diameter not smaller than 98% of the pipe’s internal
diameter. When lacking specific process data for the eccentric orifice plate, the concentric orifice
plate data may be applied as long as accuracy is not a major issue. During the installation of an
eccentric plate, make sure that flanges or gaskets do not interfere with the plate hole.

In an eccentric orifice plate, the line size ranges from 4 inches minimum to 14 inches maximum.
The eccentric plate can be made smaller than a 4 inch size as long as the orifice bore does not
require a beveling edge. Beta (β) ratio is limited between 0.3 to 0.8. Flange taps are
recommended for eccentric orifice plate installations. In an eccentric plate, the pressure taps
should be located in the quadrants directly opposite the hole. The tabs on these plate should be
stamped after installation to indicate the type of bore that the plate has.

Segmental Plates – The segmental orifice plate’s bore looks like a segment of a circle. The
segmented circle hole is offset from the plate’s center. In a segmental orifice plate, the orifice hole
is bored tangent to the inside wall of the pipe or, more commonly, tangent to a more concentric
circle with a diameter not smaller than 98% of the pipe internal diameter. The plate arc is parallel
to the pipe wall. During the installation of the segmental plate, make sure that the flange or gasket
does not interfere with the plate hole. The beta ratio (β) for the segmental orifice plate is
expressed as β = a/A , where “a” is the area of the hole segment and “A” is the area of the
internal pipe. Beta ratio is limited between 0.3 to 0.8. In a segmental orifice plate, the line size
ranges from 4 inches minimum to a maximum of 14 inches. Reynolds number for segmental plate
is limited to 20,000D, where “D” is the diameter of the pipe. However, the Reynolds number
should not be less than 10,000. Flange taps are recommended for segmental orifice plate
installations. The taps for the segmental orifice plate should always be in the line with the
maximum dam height. The tabs on this plate should be stamped after installation to indicate the
plate’s type of bore.

Quadrant Edge Plates – Quadrant edge bore (quarter circle) orifice plates are used for lower
pipe Reynolds numbers where flow coefficients for sharp-edge orifice plates are highly variable.
The Reynolds numbers range from 500 to 10,000; maximum allowable pipe Reynolds numbers
range from 500,000 X (β - 0.1). The stability of flow coefficient will be increased by a factor of
10. The quadrant edge orifice plate is used for viscous clean liquid applications. Nominal pipe size
ranges between 1 and 6 inches.

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Flow

Concentric Eccentric Segmental Quadrant

Edge (Side
View of Plate)

Figure 28: Types of Orifice Plates

Orifice Plate Parameters – The orifice plate is a simple and accurate flow measuring device. The
accuracy of measurement depends on the quality, installation, and maintenance of the orifice plate.
The following are the main parameters of an orifice plate, refer to Figure 28 as needed.

(1) Orifice flow rate: The orifice flow rate represents the mass or volume of flow through an
orifice meter per unit of time.

(2) Pipe line size and pressure rating: When sizing or specifying the orifice plate, the pipe line size,
schedule, and pressure rating need to be specified. For example, 4 inches, schedule 40, and
pressure or flange rating 300 # RFSF are example specifications. For a pipe size of 4 inches,
schedule 40, the internal diameter of pipe is 4.026 inches. The internal diameter of pipe is
specified as parameter “D”.

(3) Thickness of orifice plate: It is important to specify the thickness of the plate. The thickness of
the plate is from 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch in size. The specified thickness depends on the size of the
plate, the operating pressure, and the differential pressure across the orifice plate.

(4) Orifice Bore (d): The orifice bore is simply the hole opening in the plate. An orifice bore is
either in the center of the plate or offset from the center of the plate. The orifice plate bore
diameter(d) is calculated at flowing temperatures under physical and chemical conditions. The
orifice bore is calculated either manually or through the use of commercially available orifice
sizing programs.

(5) Orifice plate holders: The orifice plate holder includes orifice flanges, orifice fittings (simplex,
junior or senior fittings), or regular flanges (if it is a restriction orifice plate).

(6) Beta Ratio (β): The beta ratio is also called a diameter ratio. The beta ratio is defined as the
calculated orifice bore’s diameter to the internal pipe’s diameter.

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(7) Differential Pressure (∆P): The differential pressure represents the static pressure difference
upstream and downstream of the plate. Generally differential pressures across the plate range
from 0-50, 0-100, 0-200 inches of water column. Note that the differential pressure is used in
calculations for the orifice plate bore or flow rate.

(8) Temperature: The temperature represents the fluid temperature flowing through a pipe. The
flowing fluid temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Temperature is
used to determine the density of the fluid. The temperature of the fluid value can be converted to
an absolute temperature value in degrees Rankine or Kelvin.

(9) Reynolds Number (Re): In an ideal condition fluid with no viscosity, the velocity profile of the
fluid in a pipe would be uniform. In a real condition fluid with a viscosity, the fluid slows down
near the pipe wall and velocity is zero. The flow profile is nonuniform across the pipe wall. The
pipe Reynolds number represents a dimensionless ratio of density of fluid times the internal
diameter of the pipe times the velocity of the fluid to the viscosity of the fluid.

vDρ
Re =
µ
At low Reynolds numbers below 2,000, the flow is laminar. The flow can be visualized as a group
of concentric shells where each shell reacts in a viscous manner on adjacent shells, the velocity
profile across the diameter is substantially parabolic. At higher Reynolds numbers, flow is
turbulent. Turbulent flow creates eddies between the body of the flowing fluid and the boundary
layer, and propagates through the flowing stream pattern. For Reynolds numbers above 10,000,
flow is turbulent. The coefficient of discharge of the various head type flowmeters changes as the
Reynolds number changes.

(10) Pressure taps: Taps are holes drilled radially in the wall of the pipe or in a pair of orifice
flanges. A differential pressure measuring device is piped to an orifice plate through the taps.
Several types of taps are available for the orifice metering device and are described later in this
section.

The following parameters are required to calculate the orifice bore

(1) Flow rate: The rate of the flow flowing through a pipe per unit of times at a flowing
temperature. Normal and maximum flow rate are required. If the normal flow rate is not available,
then use 80 % of the maximum design flow rate.

(2) Temperature: The temperature of a flowing fluid is required at flowing and base conditions.
The unit of temperature is in degrees F or degrees C. The temperature can be converted into
absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin.

(3) Pipe diameter: The internal pipe diameter equals the outside nominal pipe diameter minus
twice the wall thickness ( I.D. = O. D - 2 x wall thickness).

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(4) Pressure rating: Pressure ratings are important because selection of the thickness of the plate
depends on the pressure rating. For example, specifications can be in terms of 150#, 300#, 600#,
1500#, 2500# class ratings.

(5) Operating pressure: The operating pressure of fluid flowing through a pipe can be expressed in
psia (pounds per square inch absolute) or KiloPascal units.

(6) Differential pressure (∆P): The differential pressure represents the static pressure difference
across the upstream and downstream of the plate. Typical units of differential pressure are: inches
of water column for the orifice plate, venturis, flow nozzles, annubar, or pitot tube and psia or
KiloPascal for the restriction orifice plate.

(7) Density of fluids: The density of homogeneous fluid represents the ratio of its mass to its
volume. The density varies with temperature changes. The density of fluid is expressed in mass
per unit volume at a specified temperature and its units are lb/ft3, or kg/m3.

(8) Viscosity: Viscosity represents the fluid’s property of shearing stress on fluid velocity at a
flowing temperature. Units of viscosity are Centistokes (Cs) or Centipoise (Cp).

(9) Specific gravity: The specific gravities of fluid at operating temperature and base temperature
are required for the calculation.

(10) Supercompressibility: Compressibility represents the change in volume per unit of volume of
a fluid caused by a unit change in pressure at a constant temperature. The ideal gas law does not
fully explain gas behavior when pressures are above 100 psig. In order to explain gas behavior,
supercompressibility factors are required for gas flow measurements when pressures over 100
PSIG are encountered.

(11) Molecular weight (Mw) / Specific heat ratio (Cp/Cv): Molecular weight of gas is required as
an input for the calculation. Specific heat represents the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure
Cp to specific heat at constant volumes at operating temperature (that is, k = Cp / Cv).

(12) Base conditions: Also called standard conditions, base conditions represent pressure and
temperature conditions to which measured volumes are referenced to. For example:
Base pressure and base temperature : 14.7 PSIA @ 60°F
Base pressure and temperature in SI unit 100 kPa @ 15.6°C

(13) Plate Thickness: Thickness of the plate specified in inches.

(14) Vent or Drain Hole: Also called a weep hole, the engineer determines whether it is required
or not on the orifice plate (Weep holes are described in this section of the course material).

Differential Pressure Range (∆ ∆ P) represents the drop in pressure across a head device at
specified pressure tap locations. The pressure drop is generally measured in inches or millimeters
of water column. The differential pressure is the most important variable factor for differential
head meters, because it is used to calculate flow rate. When errors in flow measurement occur
with a differential head meter, the error is seen in this measurement.

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Differential pressure for orifice meter tubes, venturi and flow nozzles, is typically 0-100 inches of
water column (0 to 25 kPa) for a full scale flow. The 100 inches in span permits a 2:1 flow rate
change in either direction to accommodate changes in operating conditions. The pressure loss in
an orifice is about 65% when a beta ratio of 0.75 is used. The higher the differential pressure, the
lower the beta ratio. An application where the pressure loss is up to 3.5 psi becomes expensive. If
a high-range differential pressure transmitter is not available, it can be handled by the selection of
a lower differential pressure or venturi tube.

Orifice Meter Tube and Straight Pipe Parameters – The meter tube assembly (Figure 29)
consists of an orifice plate, orifice plate holders (such as orifice flanges or simplex, junior, or
senior fittings), straight pipes runs (upstream and downstream from orifice plate), straightening
vanes (at upstream side if required), pressure taps, and temperature taps. The length of the
straight upstream pipe and straight downstream pipe of the same diameter depends on beta ratio
and configuration of piping layout.

Meter Tube

Straight Straightening Orifice

Pipe Vanes

Figure 29: Meter Tube Assembly Example

To assure accurate flow measurement, fluid flow should be free from swirl or vortices. To achieve
the best flow free from swirl or vortices, use flow conditioners and adequate lengths of straight
pipe runs upstream and downstream from the orifice plate. Normally, upstream straight pipe runs
are from 20 to 25 times the diameter of pipe (20D to 25D) and downstream straight pipe runs are
from 5 to 7 times the diameter of pipe (5D to 7D) from the orifice plate.

Requirements for a straight upstream pipe will be reduced by use of straightening vanes. No pipe
connections should be within these distances other than the orifice pressure taps or temperature
connection. Thermowell connections may be installed in the meter tube upstream of the
straightening vanes if required. The selection of the meter tube is determined by the volume of the
fluid to be measured. For sizing of the meter tube, first determine what range of differential
pressure instruments will be used. The beta ratio (β) should be within a range of 0.20 to 0.7 for
flange taps, 0.25 to 0.67 for pipe taps. Refer to the manufacturer’s catalogue or AGA Report
Number 3 for more information on requirements for straight upstream and downstream pipe
based upon beta ratio calculations and piping configuration layout. Example charts similar to the
one shown in Figure 30 are available to assist the engineer when sizing a meter tube.

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Flow

A B 1
A B

C
Straightening Vanes

40 A

35
Run Pipe (In Pipe Diameters)
Minimum Length Of Straight

30

25

20

15 A1

10
C
5 B

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Orifice To Pipe Diameter Ratio,

Figure 30: Straight Run Piping Requirements (Elbows)

The guidelines for 6.7 orifice meter runs and straight pipe requirements are stated in SADP-J-100
in the following manner:

“Orifice Meter Runs and Straight Pipe Requirements

6.7.1 Fabrication: Meter runs are normally field fabricated using orifice flanges or fittings
(except where precision meter tubes are required) for process monitoring and control. Refer to
paragraph 6.8 for precision meter tubes.

6.7.2 Straight Pipe Requirements: To obtain a uniform flow stream hydrodynamic profile,
sufficient straight pipe shall be provided upstream and downstream of the primary element, as
indicated by Saudi Aramco Standard Dwg. AB-036197.

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NOTE: A beta d/D of 0.75 should be used in determining the minimum length of straight pipe
required for new meter installations. (Exception: Where space limitations preclude the use of
adequate upstream straight run pipe, 0.7 should be used, or flow straightening elements can be
installed upstream to reduce straight run requirements.

6.7.3 Pipe Wall Finish: The condition of the pipe walls upstream and down-stream of an orifice
shall be round, smooth, and free from roughness. Roughness shall not exceed 7.62 micrometers
(300 micro in.) per AGA-3.

6.7.4 Concentricity of the orifice bore should be within 3 percent of the I.D. of the meter tube
or fitting along all diameters in order to maintain acceptable metering accuracies. Refer to AGA-
3, Part. 2 for specific details.

6.7.5 Orifice piping size limitations: An orifice metering run shall not be sized less than 2 inches
in diameter unless the process flow rate is sufficiently low to fall below the minimum
recommended beta limit of 0.2.

6.7.6 For very low flow rates, where the 2-inch minimum orifice run size cannot be used, a 1-
inch external, or 1/2-inch integral orifice differential pressure transmitter may be used. These
transmitters preferably shall be close-coupled to the calibrated orifice run by means of a 3-valve
manifold.

6.8 Precision Meter Tubes: When accuracy and repeatability within +/- 1% of full scale
measurement is desired, precision meter tubes should be used as specified in SAES-J-101,
Custody Transfer Metering of Hydrocarbon Gases.

6.9 Straightening Vanes: The application of straightening vanes to the upstream side of orifice
metering runs (in order to correct flow stream profiles or increase primary element accuracy), is
permissible provided that adequate straight run lengths are designed according to Saudi Aramco
Standard Dwg. J-AA-036197 and AB-036965.”

Four Common Types of Pressure Taps

A tap hole is a hole drilled in the wall of a meter tube or flange of an orifice plate. Four common
types of pressure taps (Figure 31) are the following:

• Flange taps
• Pipe taps
• Corner taps
• Vena Contracta taps

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Pressure tap holes are drilled radially to meter tube wall or in the flanges for the orifice plate.
Generally, differential pressure instruments are close coupled to the pressure taps or connected
through a downward sloping connection pipe to allow gas bubbles to flow up and back into the
flowline.

Flange Taps

Flange taps are holes drilled into a pair of flanges. The location of the tap hole center is 1 inch
upstream and downstream from the face of the orifice plate. Tap holes are drilled radially into the
meter tube. The diameter of pressure tap holes are 3/8 inch ± 1/64 inch for a pipe size of nominal
diameter 2 and 3 inches. Tap hole sizes are 1/2 inch ± 1/64 inch for a pipe size of nominal
diameter of 4 inches or larger. Flange tap holes are not recommended when the pipe size is below
2 inches.

Pipe Taps

Pipe taps are located at 2 1/2 pipe diameters upstream and 8 diameters downstream from the
orifice plate. Exact location of the taps is not critical. However, the effect of pipe roughness and
dimensional inconsistencies can be severe. The uncertainty of measurement is 50 % greater with
full flow taps than with taps close to the orifice. Pipe taps are not normally used unless it is
required to install the orifice meter on a existing pipe, or other taps (such as radius taps or vena
contracta taps) cannot be used.

Corner Taps

Corner taps are a style of flange taps, the only difference between corner and flange taps is that
the pressure is measured at the corner between the orifice plate and the pipe wall. Corner taps are
most commonly used in Europe for all sizes of pipe diameters. Some tests indicate inconsistencies
with high beta (β) ratio installations that have some instability of flow upstream of the orifice
plate. For this situation, an upstream tap is at one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice plate.
Corner taps are used when the pipe size is 2 inches or less.

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2.5D 8.0D

Pipe Corner Pipe

Tap Taps (D<2") Tap

1"
1"

Flange
Taps
D>2"

Orifice
Plate

Figure 31: Pressure Taps

Vena Contracta Taps

When an orifice plate is inserted into the flowline, it creates an increase in flow velocity and a
decrease in pressure. The section downstream of an orifice bore shows an increase in velocity and
decrease in a pressure at a point called a “vena contracta point.” The location of the vena
contracta point (Figure 32) is between 0.35 to 0.85 of pipe diameters downstream of the plate,
depending on the beta ratio and Reynolds number. Vena Contracta taps are located 1D upstream
and at the Vena Contracta location downstream. Vena Contracta Taps are the optimum location
for measurement accuracy. They are not used for pipes less than 6” in diameter.

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h Differential
Pressure

1D

D Flow Flow

Orifice Vena
Plate Contracta

Figure 32: Vena Contracta Taps

Pressure Profile

As the flow approaches the orifice plate, there is a slight increase in pressure on the upstream side
of the orifice plate. After passing through the orifice bore restriction, the flow velocity increases
and the pressure drops. This is a conversion of pressure head energy to velocity head energy. As
the flow leaves the orifice, the velocity decreases and the pressure increases. Although the flow
velocity downstream of the orifice recovers to the velocity upstream of the orifice plate, there is a
permanent pressure loss across the flowmeter.

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Figure 33 shows pressure and flow profile.

Static
Pressure

Unstable Region,
No Pressure Measured

Pressure At Vena Contracta

Flow

Restriction

Figure 33: Pressure and Flow Profile

Temperature Measurement

The temperature of the flowing fluid is measured either upstream or downstream of the orifice
plate. When the velocity of the fluid is well below sonic levels, you can insert a temperature
sensing device in the flowing stream to measure the temperature of a flowing fluid. In meter tube
assembly, thermowell connections are upstream of straightening vanes. Temperature is either
measured in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. In practice, the temperature is assumed to be
a static temperature for the flowing fluid. In measurement calculations, the flowing temperature is
used to determine the density of fluid at flowing conditions. Temperature units can be converted
from degrees F or degrees C to degrees Rankine or absolute temperature in Kelvin using the
following conversions:

°R = °F + 459.6
K = °C + 273.15

Integral Orifice Meter

The integral orifice meter consists of a primary device (orifice plate) and a secondary device
(transmitter) combined in a single unit. The meter is designed for application with small flow
rates. The integrally mounted restriction consists of an orifice, fittings, and mounting devices. The
differential pressure produced is sensed by either a pneumatic or electronic differential pressure
transmitter.

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The complete assembly is referred to as an integral orifice flow meter. The flow restrictor plates
are interchangeable to support a wide range flow rate measurements. The integral orifice meter is
used in laboratory, pilot plant, or refinery small flow measurements. To avoid plugging the small
hole in an integral orifice assembly, the meter is generally used for clean fluid flow measurements.
The integral orifice meter is a proprietary product. Specific performance data is available from the
respective manufacturer.

Secondary Instrumentation for Orifice Metering

Secondary instruments that are used in orifice metering to measure the flow rate are most often
differential pressure transmitters. In this application, a differential pressure transmitter is either a
pneumatic type or an electronic type. Other secondary instruments that measure the flow rate in
conjunction with the orifice plate are differential pressure indicators, flow recorders, flow
switches, flow totalizers (flow computer), and flow controllers.

Differential Pressure Transmitters

As mentioned above, two types of differential pressure transmitters are often used for measuring
the flow — pneumatic transmitters and electronic transmitters.

The differential pressure flowmeters output a nonlinear signal that corresponds to the square of
the flow rate. A change in flow at a low rate produces a very small signal change. A change in a
large flow rate produces a much larger signal change. For example, a small flow rate from 0 to
10% outputs a signal from 0 to 1%; for a large flow rate, a 90 to 100% flow rate change outputs
an 81 to 100 % signal. A transducer called a square root extractor is often used with transmitters.
A transducer converts a square root signal to a linear signal. The differential pressure transmitter
outputs a signal that is used for control, indication, or totalization. Pneumatic differential pressure
transmitters output a signal of 3-15 psig, and electronic differential pressure transmitters output a
signal of 4-20 mAdc (Differential pressure transmitters are described in the pressure course
module).

Differential pressure transmitters are calibrated in ranges from 0-50 to 0-400 inches of water
column depending upon the delta P (∆Ρ) used in calculating the orifice bore at full scale flow with
0 to 100 being the most common. To determine the flow rate, it is necessary to take the square
root.

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Flow Switches

Flow switches are used to determine if the flow rate is above or below a set value. The set value
(set point) is fixed or adjustable. The switch activates when the flow reaches or exceeds the set
point. Flow switches actuate and remain at that condition until the flow returns to a normal
condition. The difference between the “setpoint” and “reactivation point” is called differential or
deadband. The differential is either fixed or adjustable. The smaller the differential, the more a
switch can fluctuate around its setpoint. Switches have two types of reset — automatic and
manual. In an automatic reset switch, when the flow returns to a normal condition, the switch
returns to its preactuation state and resets by itself. In a manual reset switch, the switch cannot
return to the preactuation state unless it is manually reset by the operator. Manual reset switches
allow an operator a chance to review and eliminate any problems caused by the abnormal flow
condition before resetting the switch.

Flow switches are either pneumatic or electronic types. Note that a flow measuring device can
also be used as a flow switch. A differential pressure switch can be piped to the orifice plate, or a
receiver type switch can be connected to the output signal of transmitters. Various designs are
available for the flow switches. For example, switches can be differential pressure type, paddle
type, thermal type, capacitance type, ultrasonic type, variable area, or piston type.

Flow switches are also available in blind or indicating type models. The switch’s contacts also
vary. Some switches are magnetically operated mercury types, while others are snap-action
mechanical types. The contact types that are available are SPST, SPDT, DPST, and DPDT. The
variety of switch body housings that are available include general purpose, explosion proof, and
weather proof types. In a refinery’s hazardous location areas, the explosion proof type NEMA 7,
Class I, Group B, C, D, Division 1 or 2 are used. For more detail on classifications, refer to Saudi
Aramco design guidelines and NEMA guidelines.

Flow Indicators

A flow indicator is a device that indicates the amount of flow passing though the flowmeter. Flow
indicators measure in inches of water column, square root function, or indicate a linear value such
as flow rate.

Two types of indicators are available — pneumatic and microprocessor-based, electronic type.
Electronic-type flow indicators consist of milliammeters connected to the differential pressure
transmitter (flow transmitter) either in series or parallel. Differential pressure flow indicators are
piped to the orifice plate. The output shows either in 0-10 square root , 0-100% flow rate, or
actual flow rate.

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Sight Flow Indicators

A sight flow indicator is a mechanically driven device. Sight flow indicators are used for visual
inspection of the process. Three types of sight flow indicators are available, which are the
following:

• Paddle

• Flapper

• Drip

Paddle – The paddle type sight flow indicator design has a propeller inside its body. The paddle
type indicator is only used for high flow rate applications because the propeller will not turn in a
low flow rate. A pressure drop in the paddle type indicator is higher than the pressure in a drip or
flapper type indicator. Paddle type sight flow indicators can be installed for flow directions that
are horizontal or vertical upward. The paddle type design is used when dark process fluids are
present.

Flapper – The flapper type sight flow indicator design has a flapper hinged in the body’s center.
Bidirectional flappers are also available. The flapper type sight flow indicator are used for
transparent or opaque solutions and gas services. Flow direction can be horizontal or vertically
upward.

Drip – The drip type design is used when there is a dripping of fluid in a vertically downward
direction. The drip type design is used for vertically downward flows that are intermittent.

Sight flow indicators can be installed in an either horizontal or vertical flow direction. Assembly
of a sight flow indicator consists of a chamber, glass, gasket, end covers, and bolts. Sight flow
indicators are available in sizes ranging from 1/4 inch to 6 inches. Note, however, that it is very
difficult to estimate the amount of flow rate from a sight flow indicator.

Totalization

The process of totalization means to totalize or to determine the total amount of fluid flow
passing through a flowmeter. Devices used for totalizing flow or indicating the total flow are
mechanical or microprocessor based units that track process material usage of chemicals and final
products, and provide data for billing purposes. In an electronic device, the volumetric flow is
transmitted as electrical pulses that are proportional to the flow rate. The electrical pulses are
converted to a digital readout of total flow. A totalizer is often built into flow controllers and
recorders.

It is very difficult to determine the accuracy of the flow totalizer, because accuracy of the totalizer
depends upon the accuracy of the flowmeter. Generally, accuracy is expressed as a percentage.
Accuracy is higher at high flow rates than at low flow rates. Microprocessor based equipment,
often used in a flow computer, has the capability of addition, averaging, division, integration,
lead/lag signal, signal limiting, square root extraction, subtraction, and more.

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Piping Influences

Piping configuration has a tremendous influence on orifice metering. Piping geometry can destroy
the flow profile, produce more turbulence, or produce a spinning and swirling flow. Flowmeters
require that the pipe installed upstream and downstream of the flowmeter be straight, with a
smooth surface inside, and have the same inside diameter as the flowmeter. No fittings should be
installed such as tees, elbows, reducers, valves inside the pipes within the upstream/downstream
constraints.

Requirements for upstream and downstream piping is expressed as a multiple of the inside pipe
diameter and is based on piping configuration and beta ratio from the flow calculation. In a
general flow application, if accuracy is not important, than upstream piping can be approximately
10 to 15 pipe diameters (10D to 15D) and downstream piping can be 5 to 7 pipe diameters (5D to
7D). Refer to AGA Report Number 3 and manufacturer’s guidelines when installing the
flowmeter. Always install the control valve on the downstream side of the flowmeter. Proper
support should be provided for upstream and downstream pipe to and from the flowmeter. Proper
support ensures that no load or torque passes over to the meter, vibration is minimized, and meter
removal is easier between flow services.

Installation Criteria

The following discussion describes installation criteria for liquid, gas, and steam services.

Liquid Service

Tap Locations – The pressure tap location in liquid service orifice meters should be located to
prevent accumulation of gas or vapor in the connection between the pipe and the differential
pressure instrument. Generally, pressure taps are located in the horizontal plane of the horizontal
pipe’s center line. The differential pressure instrument should be close to the pressure taps or
connected through downward sloping connecting pipe of sufficient diameter to allow gas bubbles
to flow back into the line.

Transmitter Installation – The installation of differential pressure transmitters should be located

below the pipe and sloping upwards toward the pipe to prevent the collection of gas bubbles in
the impulse tubing.

Drain and Vent Holes are required for venting of any gas in a liquid service. Location of the vent
hole in a liquid service is at the top of a pipe, above the center line. The size of hole is 1/64” ± the
tolerance listed in API 2540.

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Gas Services

Tap Locations – Pressure tap locations in a gas service must be installed in the top of the line
with upward sloping connections towards a pipe. The differential pressure measuring instrument
may be close-coupled to the pressure taps in the side of the lines or connected through upward
sloping connecting pipe of sufficient diameter to prevent liquid from accumulating in the line.

Transmitter Installation – The installation of differential pressure transmitters should be located

above the pipe with the impulse tubing sloping downward towards the pipe so that any
condensate drains into the pipe.

Drain and Vent Holes – A drain hole is required for draining of any liquid in a gas service.
Location of the drain hole is below the center line of the pipe. The size of hole is 1/32” ± the
tolerance listed in AGA Report Number 3.

Steam Services

Tap Locations require the use of condensing chambers in steam or vapor applications because
condensate can occur at ambient temperatures. Generally, the pressure tap connection has a
downward sloping connection from the side of the pipe to the measuring device.

Transmitter Installation – The installation of differential pressure transmitters should be located

above the pipe with the impulse tubing sloping downward towards the pipe so that any
condensate drains into the pipe.

Drain and Vent Holes – A drain hole is required for draining of any condensate liquid in a steam
service. The location of a drain hole is below the center line of the pipe.

Software versus Manual Calculations for Orifice Plate Sizing

Calculating the orifice bore for a given flow rate or differential pressure can be done manually or
through the use of commercially available calculation programs. Orifice sizing slide rules are also
available to estimate the Beta ratio for an orifice plate. The slide rule also can be used to estimate
flow rate for a given differential pressure and Beta ratio.

Manual calculations are lengthy and somewhat tedious, because many parameters are entered.
Computer programs are simple, self-explanatory, and only require the input of process conditions.

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Standard Flow

Flow measurement of a fluid stated in volume units at base (standard) conditions of pressure and
temperature is called standard flow. For crude petroleum and its liquid products, the vapor
pressure is equal to or less than atmospheric pressure at base temperature of 14.696 psia (101.325
kPa) at a temperature of 60°F (15.56°C). For a hydrocarbon liquid, when vapor pressure is
greater than atmospheric pressure at base temperature, the base pressure is called equilibrium
vapor pressure. The base condition for natural gases is defined as a pressure of 14.73 psia (101.56
kPa) at a temperature of 60 °F (15.56°C).

Compensated Flow

Compensated flow represents a flow under fluid conditions that may vary. The conditions are
measured and used along with flowmeter signal to compute the true flow rate from the flowmeter.
The output signal from a flowmeter represents the true flow rate value under specified fluid
conditions. For a liquid service, variations in density or viscosity can change the meter’s accuracy.
For gas services, a change in temperature, pressure, and molecular weight can ruin the accuracy
of the meter.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers publishes “The Measurement of Fluid Flow in
Pipes Using Orifice, Nozzle, and Venturi” (ASME MFC-3M-1989-R1991). This standard derives
from Ohio State University 1920’s flow tests. The basic data has stood the test of time but the
regression analysis is not up to modern mathematics.

The American Gas Association report no. 3, the American Petroleum Institute API 14.3, and the
Gas Producers Association GPA 8195-90 publication “Orifice Metering of Natural Gas and Other
Related Hydrocarbon Fluids” come in Parts 1 through 4. These three standards-making bodies put
their names and reputations on the document. The experimental data base is still the 1920’s Ohio
State tests but the regression analysis is better than the ASME and, consequently, is more widely
accepted.

Software versus Manual Calculations for Flow Rate

Several commercial computer programs are available for sizing orifice flowmeters, venturi meters,
flow nozzles, restriction orifice plates, and other flow elements. Saudi Aramco uses a program
called ORICALC-2. The other available programs are called Flowel, Flow Consultant (from Dick
Miller), MTS, and others. The programs are self explanatory with easy to follow screen menu
selections for each step by step operation. The programs calculate beta ratio, flow rate, or
differential pressure.

The following equations are used to manually calculate orifice bore for liquid, gas, and steam
services. The various formulas are provided in either AGA Report Number 3, “Process and
Measurement Analysis,” by Bela Liptak, or “Principles and Practice of Flow Meter Engineering”
by L. K. Spink.

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5.663ER hGf
For liquid flow: Z =
QGt

7727ERY hPf
For gas: Z =
Q GTf

358.9ERY h
For steam : Z =
Q V
where
E = Area factor, determine from curve C Liptak page 162 (approximately from
0.995 to 1.002 for 316 SS plate, temperature. 0 to 200°F)
R = Pipe constant (calculate R = 0.00593 (I.D.)2
Q = Flow rate (liquid in GPM, gas in SCFH, steam in pounds mass/hour (lbm/hr))
G = Specific gravity of gas (air = 1.0)
Gf = Specific gravity of liquid at operating temperature
Gt = Specific gravity of liquid at 60 °F (15.6 °C)
h = Pressure differential across orifice in inches of water
Y = Compressibility factor determine from curve B Liptak page 162 based on
pressure loss ratio (X = h/2Pf) and beta ratio.
Compressibility factor between 0.840 to 1.00)
V = Specific volume (ft3/lbm) from steam table.
Tf = Flowing temperature expressed in °R ( °F + 460)
Pf = Flowing pressure in PSIA
X = Pressure loss ratio defined as h/2Pf
Z = Flow factor (Fig. 2.145 Liptak page 162)
B d/D = Orifice ratio determined from curve A - 1 or A2 Liptak page 162.

A simple problem will illustrate the manual calculation:

A sharp-edged, thin-plate concentric monel orifice in a 4 in. schedule 40 steel pipe with 70°F
water having maximum flow of 200 gpm flange-tap pressure differential of 100 inches of water.
The data is entered on ISS 8020-115.ENG.

5.663 ER hGf
The formula Z = will be used.
QGt

The terms of the equation are

Gf = 0.9987 (Specific Gravity @ 78°F Liptak page 1357) 4 in. sched. 40 ID = 4.026 in.
(Liptak page 163)
E = 0.999 (curve C Liptak page 162)
R = 0.0961 (Fig. 2.145 Liptak page 162)
Gt = 1.000 (Liptak page 1357)

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5.663 (0.999) (0.0961) (100) (0.9987)

Z =
200 x 1.000

(0.5437) (9.994)
Z = = 0.02717
200

Orifice ratio β = 0.58 (curve A2 Liptak page 162)

d d
β = = 0.58 = ∴ d = 2.335”
D 4.026

ORICALC 2—Orifice Sizing Calculation

Orifice no. 061296 Fluid : Liquid

Maximum Flow = 200 GPM Normal Flow = 100 GPM

Meter dP = 100” H2O Perm. Press. Loss = 2.4 PSI
Pressure = 100 PSIA Temperature = 70°F
SG @ Flow Temp. = 0.999 Viscosity = 1.0 cp
SG @ Std Cnd = 1.000
FA =1 FR = 1.006943

A = 5.667 B = 3163
Beta = 0.580178 Reynolds No. = 135408
B2Ko = 0.2163346
Eo (Beta, PD) = 402.4861 Ko (Beta, PD) = 0.642927
E = Eo * OD = 940.1257
Pipe ID = 4.026 Iterations =8

Orifice (d) = 2.335797 (d) Corrected = 2.335797

The calculated orifice diameter for practical purposes is identical whether manually or computer
calculated.

Software versus Manual Calculations for Pressure Drop

To calculate the pressure drop manually, the above formula can be used. After inputting all
necessary data, calculate the differential pressure drop (h) across the meter. To calculate pressure
drop by computer program, follow the step by step screen menus, input all the information, and
let the program calculate the pressure differential.

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Instrument Specification Sheets (ISS)

Instrument Specification Sheets applicable to orifice plate implementation are listed in Figure 34.
Blank Instrument Specification Sheets are available in the Work Aids for review. (Three flow
exercises using process data and specification sheets are attached.)

Saudi Aramco Form Reason for Use

3175-ENG Orifice plate details for 2”-6” RF flanges
3176-ENG Orifice plate details for segmental plate
3176A-ENG Orifice plate details for restriction plate
3177-ENG Orifice plate details for quadrant edge
3188-ENG Meter reading tables
6078-ENG ISS for flow instruments
8020-111M ISS for flow transmitters
8020-115 Metering orifice calculation
8020-115M Metering orifice calculation, SI units
8020-115A Orifice plate detail, size 8” and up
8020-124 Restriction orifice calculation
8020-124M Restriction orifice calculation, SI units

Figure 34: ISS Forms Applicable to Orifice Plate Implementation

Computer Programs for Sizing Orifice Plates

Several commercial computer programs are available for sizing of the orifice plate: ORICALC-2,
EA-25, ORSPEC, FLOWEL, INSTRUCALC, ORIFICE2, and FLOW CONSTANT are
representative.

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Expected Accuracy

Because accuracy is important to the flowmeter measurement, the precision of bore calculation is
critical; otherwise, an approximate calculation of bore gives good repeatable performance, but not
absolute accuracy. Accuracy of the orifice meter is improved by using a microprocessor based
(“smart”) differential pressure transmitter. The smart d/p transmitters that are currently available
have 0.1% or better of span accuracy.

To size an orifice plate accurately, one needs a thorough knowledge of the variables. Published
coefficients are not to be relied upon. An accurate transmitter is desired but not paramount. If an
orifice coefficient is ±1% and the transmitter accuracy is ±0.1%, the system accuracy is not the
simple sum of the two accuracies ±1.1%. To really improve the accuracy, a wet flow calibration
of the orifice plate in the meter run is required.

Total Probable Error (TPE) Calculation

To combine flow rate accuracy statements, they must all be in the same mathematical form. An
accuracy statement in ±% of full scale cannot be combined with an accuracy statement in ±% of
rate. The total probably error (TPE) is the square root of the sums of the squares of the
uncertainties.

The AGA-3 part 1 uncertainty estimate for natural gas flow lists nine uncertainty variables. They
all must be squared, massaged by sensitivity coefficients, summed, and square-rooted to obtain an
acceptable uncertainty estimate.

To Illustrate the TPE Principle

Let’s use an orifice in a liquid flow line with a transmitter, square root extractor, and recorder
with each element’s accuracy statement in usual format. Figure 35 shows the various flow rates in
gallons per minute and each element’s accuracy statement given in ±gpm. The TPE is calculated
for each flow rate by summing the squares of the ±gpm errors and then taking the square root.
The TPE is shown in % of the flow rate by dividing the TPE in gpm by the flow rate in gpm.

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+ 0.5% F.S. Output

+ 0.25% of Max. D.P. -
-
+ 0.5% F.S.
-
SQ
RT
+ 0.5% Act. Rate FT FY FR
-
FE

Flow Range: 0-50 gpm

Orifice

Flow Rate Flow Error ( +- gpm) Total Probable T.P.E.

(gpm) Error ( +- gpm) %
FE FT FY FR
50 .25 .0625 .25 .25 + .437 + .87%
- -
40 .2 .0781 .25 .25 + .414 + 1.03%
- -
30 .15 .104 .25 .25 + .398 + 1.33%
- -
20 .1 .156 .25 .25 + .399 + 1.99%
- -
10 .05 .312 .25 .25 + .474 + 4.74%
- -

Figure 35: Total Probable Error

Common Troubleshooting Scenarios

Orifice meter troubleshooting classifies typical errors that occur as either

• Common primary element errors
• Common secondary element errors

Common primary element errors are the following:

• Beta ratio is too large for the meter run
• Orifice plate is not flat, it is concave or convex
• Orifice does not have sharp edges
• Orifice plate is installed backwards
• Orifice plate is damaged through poor handling
• An incorrect size is used for the orifice meter tube or plate
• Orifice plate is not centered in the line

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• Orifice meter tube is corroded

• Tap locations are incorrect
• Contaminants build up on orifice plate
• Contaminants build up on meter run
• Hydrates build up on meter run and orifice plate
• Flow conditioners are dislodged and move closer to plate
• Leaks occur around orifice plate
• Pressure tap or thermowell installed upstream of meter
• Welding meter supports distorts meter run

Common secondary element errors are the following:

• Gauge lines are too small
• Gauge lines are too long
• Gauge lines leak
• Gauge lines have sags or loops that collect condensates
• Gauge line slopes are not correct
• Incorrect ranges are used on secondary instruments
• Differential pressure transmitter was not zeroed properly
• Excessive dampening is used in secondary instrument

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EVALUATING OTHER DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

FOR SUITABILITY IN A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION

In addition to the orifice plate, other differential pressure flowmeters (Figure 36) are available.
This section of the course module introduces to the Participant the following differential
procedures:

• Restriction orifice plates

• Flow nozzles

• Venturis

• Pitot tubes

• Annubars

Restriction
Orifice Flow
Flow Nozzle

Venturi

Hi

Lo

Flow
Flow

Pitot Annubar
Tube

Figure 36: Other Differential Pressure Flowmeters

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Restriction Orifice Plates

Principles
Bernoulli’s theorem applies the conservation of energy to flowing fluids. Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed — only transformed. All differential producers transform energy.
A restriction orifice plate restricts the flow in the process by reducing the pressure at the
downstream side of the plate. A restriction orifice plate is not used as a measuring device. A
restriction orifice plate is required when it is desirable to control the flow rate and reduce the
pressure in a system.

Design
A restriction orifice plate’s design is similar to an orifice meter plate’s design, the only difference
is that the restriction orifice plate does not have a bevelled edge to the orifice bore. The bore in
the plate has a flat, square edged surface. Two types of restriction orifice plate designs are
available — the universal type and paddle type. A restriction orifice plate is held in place by
regular pipe flanges or a union. No pressure tap connections are required, because no secondary
differential pressure measuring device is used. No limitations on beta ratio or Reynolds number
apply when using restriction orifice plates.
Universal Type Plate – A universal type restriction orifice plate is a flat, concentric plate. The
universal restriction orifice plate is held in place with a sealing unit in the plate holder. The
universal restriction orifice plate is used in ring type joint pipe flanges. Several types of sealing
units are available for the different type of fluids encountered in a flow application.

Figure 37 shows a universal orifice plate.

A Bore

Figure 37: Universal Orifice plate

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Paddle Type Plate – The paddle type restriction orifice plate is a flat, concentric metal plate with
a handle sticking out as part of the plate. The design of the paddle type restriction orifice plate is
similar to that of a metering orifice plate. The paddle type orifice plate is held in place between
pipe flanges.

The thickness required for the restriction orifice plate depends upon the size of plate, the pressure
drop across the plate at the flowing temperature, and upstream operating pressure.

Performance

A restriction orifice plate is used only to restrict the flowstream. The restriction orifice plate is
simple to apply and does not require major maintenance while in service. Note that hole plugging
can occur in dirty services because of the very small orifice bore.

Installation

The restriction orifice plate can be installed in any flow direction. The plate and plate holder are
installed between regular pipe flanges. The universal type plate is used for ring type joint piping
systems; paddle type plates are used for raised face flange piping systems. A drain plug is
provided in the pipe flanges to drain out any liquid collected in a gas service.

Applications

Restriction orifices are very useful for creating unrecoverable pressure drops or for establishing
minimum flow bypass loops (around pumps, for example), or for enabling multiple stream mixing.
Multiple restrictive orifices can, in fact, be installed in series to create large, unrecoverable
pressure drops, thereby minimizing requirements for high-pressure letdown devices. A nest
application is upstream of a turbine flow meter to prevent the turbine from overspeeding because
of too high a flow.

Calculation for Sizing

The sizing procedure for a restriction orifice plate is same as the procedure for sizing a metering
orifice plate. Note that the differential pressure for a restriction orifice plate is much higher than
that of the metering orifice plate. The manual calculation for a restriction orifice plate, however, is
the same as the meter orifice plate’s calculation.

The ORICALC2 computer program is available in the Work Aids. The computer program is
convenient and easy to use when calculating a restriction orifice plate size.

We can calculate a restriction orifice plate by using the same data as is used for the previous
sharp-edged thin-plate orifice with one major change. Instead of a 100 inch water column
pressure drop (a standard for a dP meter), we will request a 70 PSI pressure drop.

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5.663 ER hGf
The formula Z= will be used for the manual calculation.
QGt
The terms of the equation are
Gf = 0.9987 (Specific Gravity @ 70°F — Liptak page 1337)
4 in. schedule 40 pipe ID = 4.026 in. (Liptak page 163)
E = 0.999 (curve C Liptak page 162)
R = 0.0961 (Fig. 2145 Liptak Page 162)
Gt = 1.000 (Liptak page 1357)
5.663 (0.999)(0.961) (1939.9)(0.9987)
Z =
(200)(1.000)

(0.5437)(44.016)
= = 0.1197
200
Orifice Ratio β = 0.290 Daniel Slide Rule
(curve A - 1 Liptak page 162)
d
β= ∴ d = 0.29 x 4.026 β = 0.28
D
Orifice (d) = 1.168” d = 1.127

RO Calculation (ORICALC2)

Fluid Liquid

Flow Rate = 200 GPM PD REQUEST = 70 PSI

Upstream Press = 100 PSI Cal. Orif. dP = 79 PSI

Temp. = 70°F Perm. Press. Loss = 70 PSI

SG @ Flow Temp. = 0.9987 Viscosity = 0.9748 cp

ID = 4.026

FA =1 FR = 1.0006
β = 0.2789382 Reynolds No. = 577845.5
ID = 4.026” (IT) =5

Orif. (d) 1.123055” (d) corr. = 1.123055”

The calculated orifice diameter for practical purposes is identical whether calculated manually or
by computer.

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Saudi Aramco 8020-124-ENG (7/89)

APPD.

SAUDI ARABIAN OIL COMPANY

INSTRUMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET - RESTRICTION ORIFICE CALCULATION AND SPECIFICATION
CERT.

TAG NO. SERVICE

1 FLUID WATER MOLECULAR WEIGHT MW
11
2 MEASUREMENT UNITS GPM SPEC. GRAVITY REL. TO AIR G
CHKD.

NORMAL FLOW (VOL. UNITS) Q 12 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS Zf Zb

3
NORMAL FLOW (WEIGHT UNITS) W 13 PRESSURE DROP P 70 PSI
4 BASE CONDITIONS Tb Pb 60ÞF 14 PSIA 14 NOMINAL PIPE SIZE 4" - 40
5 BASE SPEC. GRAVITY Gb 1.0 15 PIPE WALL THICKNESS 0.237 INCH
6 OPERATING UPSTREAM PRESSURE Pf 100 PSIA 16 ACTUAL INTERNAL DIAMETER D 4.026 INCH
7 OPERATING TEMPERATURE Tf 70 ÞF 17 PLATE MATERIAL 304 SS
8 OPERATING SPECIFIC GRAVITY Gf .9987 18 PLATE THICKNESS T 0.125 INCH
DESCRIPTION

3
9 OPERATING DENSITY f 62.29 LB/FT 19 PLATE BORE d INCH
10 OPERATING ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY F 1.0 CP 20
21 CALCULATION DENSITY

DENSITY DENSITY
f = G f X 62.37 = .9987 X 62.37 = 62.29
f = 2.699 X G X P f = 2.699 X X =
LIQUID: LB/cu. ft. GAS: Tf X Z f X LB/cu. ft.

22 CORRECTIONS

I PLATE THERMAL EXPANSION Tf = ÞR tf = ÞF F a = 1.0

NO. DATE BY JO/EWO

Q X Gf W
II VISCOSITY (FOR LIQUIDS ONLY) e= REd = B or RE d= B
DX fX e DX f X e

E= REd = =
F r = 1 + E/RE d = 1 + / =Fr =

III EXPANSION COEFFICIENT k = c p /cv = P/kP f = Y = 1.0

IV SUPER COMPRESSIBILITY F pv = Z b / Z f = / F pv = 1.0

23 CALCULATION OR ORIFICE BORE A=

REVISIONS LIQUIDS (VOLUME) GASES (VOLUME) WEIGHT UNITS

DRAWN 2 Q X Gb 2 QX G X Tf 2 W
BY ............................. K0 = 2 K0 = 2 K0 = 2
A X D X Fa X F r X G f X P A X D X F a X Y X F pv X P f X P A X D X Fa X F r X f X P
DATE .........................

CHKD BY ..................
2
K0 = =
OPRG. DEPT.
= d=DX = X = INCH
BY .............................

DATE .........................
NOTES

ENG. DEPT.

BY .............................

DATE .........................

APPD. FOR
CONSTR.
BY .............................

DATE .........................

CERTIFIED
BY .............................

DATE .........................

THIS DRAWING IS NOT

TO BE USED FOR ISS FOR PLANT NO. INDEX DRAWING NO. SHT. NO. REV. NO.
CONSTRUCTION OR
FOR ORDERING
MATERIALS UNTIL
CERTIFIED AND
J DE-
DATED. SAUDI ARABIA JO/EWO -

Figure38: Example ISS

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Flow Nozzles

Principles

The flow nozzle is another type of differential-producing device that follows Bernoulli’s theorem.
The permanent pressure loss produced by the flow-nozzle device is approximately the same as the
permanent pressure loss produced by the orifice plates. The flow nozzle can handle dirty and
abrasive fluids better than can an orifice plate. In a flow nozzle with the same line size, flow rate,
and beta ratio as an orifice meter, the differential pressure is lower, and the permanent pressure
loss is less.

Design

The flow nozzle design is one that has a smooth entry and sharp exit. Several configurations are
available, but the most important flow nozzles are ASME long radius nozzle, high or low beta
ratio series, and the throat tap nozzle for gas and liquid applications. High beta ratio nozzles are
acceptable for a diameter ratio that ranges between 0.45 to 0.80. Low beta ratio nozzles range
from 0.25 to 0.50. For best accuracy, beta values between 0.25 and 0.8 are used. The nozzles can
be welded in the pipe line, or mounted in a holding ring between flanges. If frequent maintenance
inspection of the nozzle is required, then the holding ring design is preferred for flow nozzle
mounting. Flow nozzles can be fabricated from any material such as aluminum, fiberglass,
stainless steel or chrome-moly steel. The outlet or discharge side of the nozzle is beveled and is
the most critical part of the flow nozzle to manufacture

r1 Lt
D

D
D

r1 Lt r1 Lt
d

High Nozzle, Low Nozzle, Low Nozzle

> 0.45 < 0.5 With Throat Taps
= =
r1 = 1/2D r1 = d r1 = d
Lt = 3/4d
Lt <= 0.6d or <=1/3D 0.6d < L < 3/ d
= t = 4

Figure 39: ASME Long-Radius Flow Nozzles

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Performance and Applications

Changing a flow nozzle is more difficult than changing an orifice plate when there is a change in
flow rate requirements. Flow nozzles are used for steam, high velocity, nonviscous, erosive fluids,
fluids with some solids, wet gases, and similar materials. The flow nozzles pass 60% more flow
than the orifice plate of the same diameter and differential pressure. A flow nozzle’s inaccuracy of
± 1% of rate is standard with ± 0.25% of rate flow calibrated.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 8.1, flow nozzles are considered an alternative flowmeter and
“Alternative flow meters should be considered when it is evident that orifice plates, or precision
flow metering devices are not suitable nor practical for metering process fluids caused by process
constraints, short meter run lengths, or specified accuracy requirements.” Additionally, SADP-J-
100, Section 8.4 states that “ASME wall-tap flow nozzles or ISA type flow nozzles should be
considered for flow metering applications involving: a) The measurement of wet gases (e.g.,
saturated steam with condensate in suspension) or b) Entrainment in gas, liquid, or vapor streams
(e.g., metering liquids with suspended solids). Note: When metering liquids with suspended
solids, the flow of liquids should be oriented vertically downward so that all suspended solids can
be swept through the throat of a flow nozzle. Flow nozzles are not recommended for highly
viscous fluids or fluids containing large amounts of sticky solids.”

Installation

The installation of a flow nozzle (Figure 40) is preferably horizontal, but can be installed in any
position. A vertical downflow position is preferred for wet steam or gases and liquid with solid
particles. The requirement of upstream and downstream piping is the same as that of an orifice
meter’s. The location and installation of taps are the same as the orifice plates. The nozzles taps
are located in the pipe wall; one pipe diameter upstream and one-half pipe diameter downstream.
Corner taps are used if an ISA-1932 nozzle is installed. A spool section shall be provided
upstream of the flow nozzle for inspection and maintenance. Pipe sections for the installation of
flow nozzles shall be stamped with the number of the element, the element location in the pipe,
the pipe internal diameter, and the direction of flow.

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D .5D

Flow

Typical Nozzle Installation

Flow

Typical Throat Tap Nozzle Installation

Figure 40: Typical Nozzle Installations

Sizing of Flow Nozzles

Flow nozzles have very high coefficient of discharge, typically 0.99 or higher. By using a typical
value of 0.993, approximate flow rate can be calculated as follows:
hρ
W = 358 d2
1 - β4
and for approximate flow nozzle design

β = Error!

The terms in these equations are the same as those used in deriving the basic flow metering
equation on page 55 of PCI 101.04 Participant Information sheet.

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Venturi Meters

Principles

A venturi meter is a flow measuring device whose principle of operation is based upon Bernoulli’s
theorem. A venturi design can be described as a restriction with a long passage with smooth entry
and exit. Venturi tubes produce less permanent pressure loss and more pressure recovery than the
other meters. It is one of the more expensive head meters. Whenever low pressure drops are
required for nonviscous fluids, the amount of pressure drop becomes dependent on the angle of
the downstream cone and the beta ratio of the venturi.

A venturi (Figure 41) consists of a cylindrical inlet section, converging conical section, throat
section, and diverging section. The diverging section is called the recovery section. A converging
conical section, in which the cross-sectional area decreases, causes an increase in the velocity and
decrease in pressure head. A cylindrical throat section, where the velocity of the fluid remains
constant, is where the decrease in pressure head can be measured. A diverging recovery cone is
where the fluid velocity decreases and most of the pressure is recovered. The unrecovered
pressure head is called head loss.

D d

Throat

Converging Diverging
Inlet Conical Conical
Section Section Outlet
(Recovery
Zone)

Figure 41: Venturi Principles

Design

Two types of venturi meter designs (Figure 42) are available:

• Classic venturi

• Short form venturi.

(The classic venturi is also called a long form venturi.)

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Classic Venturi – The classic venturi is manufactured as a cast iron body, while the throat is
made from stainless steel or bronze. Several pressure taps, typically 4 to 6 taps, are at the
midpoint of throat, connecting the throat to the annular chamber, so that the throat pressure is
averaged. The cross sectional area of the annular chamber is 1.5 times the cross sectional area of
the tap. Because no movement of fluids occurs, the pressure sensed at the annular chamber is
static pressure. The external taps are offset from the internal taps. The throat pressure is measured
through the internal taps. The diverging cone (that is, the recovery cone) sets at an angle of 7
degrees. The classic venturi is limited to clean, noncorrosive liquid and gas applications. If the
venturi should be used in a dirty service, the taps can plug up with dirt. If the taps clog up with
dirt, it is impossible to clean or flush out the pressure taps. The flow coefficient for the classic
long form venturi is 0.984. The overall length of the venturi is 8 times the diameter of pipe.

Short Form Venturi – Because of cost and the longer length of the classic venturi,
manufacturers have developed new designs for the venturi called the short form venturi. The
internal annular chamber is replaced by single pressure taps. The recovery cone angle is increased
from 7 to 21 degrees. The short form venturi can be manufactured using a cast iron body or
fabricated from other materials. The flow coefficient of discharge for the short form venturi is
0.985 with an uncertainty tolerance of ±1.5%.

The high pressure point tap is located at one-quarter to one-half of the pipe diameter of the inlet
cone, the low pressure point tap is located at the middle of the throat. A piezometer ring is used
for differential pressure measurement. A piezometer ring consists of a number of holes in the
plane of the tap locations.

Each hole of the ring is connected together in an annular ring to provide an average pressure.
Piezometer ring connections are used for large tubes or when a more accurate average
measurement is desired. A piezometer connection is not advisable for a dirty fluid or slurry
service. In a modified short form venturi, all of the cones are shortened. In a short form venturi,
the converging cone angle is 21 degrees and the diverging cone angle is 15 degrees.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.5.2, “Only industrial quality, low loss venturi-type flow
elements with machined convergent tubes shall be used. The minimum nominal line size shall be 2
inch with beta limits (d/D) from 0.30 to 0.75 and a minimum pipe Reynolds number of 100000.”

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Annular
High Pressure Tap Chambers
Low Pressure Tap

Flow

Inlet Throat
Inlet Cone Divergent Outlet
Classic Venturi Design

High Pressure Tap

(Pipe Tap) Low Pressure Tap
(Throat Tap)

Flow
Up to 21Þ

Short Form Venturi

Figure 42: Venturi Designs

Performance

Performance of the venturi is described in terms of

• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages

Performance Advantages are the following:

• The long form venturi develops up to 89% pressure recovery for a 0.75 beta ratio
and decreases to 86% recovery for a 0.25 beta ratio.
• The short form venturi develops up to 85% recovery at 0.75 beta ratio and
decreases to 7 % at 0.25 beta ratio.
• A venturi meter has a low permanent pressure loss and high recovery at higher
beta ratios.
• A venturi meter can be used for dirty fluids and slurries.
• Higher accuracy (better than orifice).

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Performance Disadvantages are the following:

• A venturi meter is a very expensive measuring device to use.
• A venturi meter has limited rangeability and is only installed when flow rate’s
rangeability is less than 3 to 1.

Installations

A venturi can be installed either horizontally or vertically. For liquid service applications, a venturi
meter always needs to be filled with liquid. Valve and pressure tap locations follow the same
requirements as those of an orifice meter. ASME recommends that the use of tubular type
straightening vanes reduces the inlet piping requirements. No limitation exists on piping
configuration downstream of the venturi to reduce the inlet pipe length. Valves and other devices
should not be installed close to the downstream side of the venturi meter.

Applications

A venturi can be used for dirty fluids and slurry services. A venturi meter experiences less
permanent loss and exhibits high recovery. According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.5.1, “Venturi
tubes shall be considered for special flow measurement applications where higher instrument costs
can be economically justified by a lower unrecoverable pressure loss, enhanced flow meter
accuracy, or the ability to meter fluids containing suspended solids. (e.g., measuring inlet flow
rates to gas compressors).”

Calculations

The general flow equation for venturi is the same as that for the orifice meter, the only difference
is that the venturi’s coefficient of discharge is 0.984. For a rough cast venturi (long form), the
coefficient of discharge is 0.984 with beta ratio between 0.3 to 0.75. For a venturi tube with a
machined finish, the coefficient of discharge is 0.995 with a Reynolds number of 200,000 or
greater. The ASME calculation for flow and beta ratio follows:

hρ
W = 353 d2
1 - β4

Approximate venturi tube beta ratio

1
β =
4
125000 hρD4
1+
For Reynolds number betweenW2 50,000 to 200,000, substitute 344 in place of 353 in the
calculation. The Work Aids contain Saudi Aramco’s ORICALC-2 program, which also can
support venturi meter sizing calculations.

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Figure 43 references standards and practices that influence venturi meter selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, Application Application criteria
Section 7.5.1
SADP-J-100, Selection criteria Use only machined converged tubes
Section 7.5.2 and
SAES-J-100,
Section 4.3.3
34-SAMSS-116 Specification Specifications and requirements
API RP 551, Section Guidelines General application comments
2.3.1.1.5
Liptak, “Process Venturi meters Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.27

Figure 43: Venturi Meter References

Pitot Tubes

Principles

The previously discussed primary differential pressure flow metering devices utilized the
difference in static pressure perpendicular to the direction of flow as a basis for inferring velocity.
The actual velocity was not measured, but was calculated after many experimental laboratory
measurements and correlations.

The pitot tube senses total pressure in the direction of flow and static pressure perpendicular to
the flow. The pitot tube sensing effects are used to derive velocity pressure from which the
flowing fluid velocity can be inferred. The pressure relationship is:

PT = Ps + Pv

where: lbf
PT = Total, Impact, or Stagnation Pressure,
ft2

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lbf
Ps = Static Pressure,
ft2
lbf
Pv = Velocity Pressure, 2
ft
From energy considerations
ρ (Vp)2
PT - Ps = Pv =
2gc
And by Algebra
C (PT - Ps)0.5 C (Pv)0.5
Vp = ) =
ρ ρ
where: ft
Vp = Approach velocity at the probe,
sec
lbm
ρ = Fluid density, 3
ft
lbm ft
gc = Dimensional constant = 32.2
lbf sec2
and
C = Dimensional constant
= 1,096.5 when Pv is in inches of water

Static Pressure

Flow

Total Pressure

PT PV PS

Figure 44: Pitot Tube Principles

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A pitot tube is designed to sense pressures in an enclosed moving fluid stream. It is frequently
used traversing a duct determining average fluid velocity across the duct. It must be light and
portable so that it can be moved to sense in more than a single location. It must be long enough to
push in for adequate insertion length. It must be capable of connecting to pressure measurement
devices. The static connection must be in the same extended plane as the nose. All pressure
sensing holes must be free from nicks and burrs.

1"
5" = 16D 2 = 8D
2 1"
1" 8 Dia.
4
A
5"
= 1D
16
A
15"
R
16
5"
8 Holes - 0.04" Dia. 32 Rad.
Equally Spaced
Free From Burrs
Nose Shall
Be Free
90°±1° - Section A-A - From Nicks
And Burrs

Inner Tubing - Approx.

1/8 " O.D. x 21 B&S Ga.

Static Pressure

Outer Tubing
5/16" O.D. x Approx. 18 B&S Ga.

Total Pressure

Figure 45: Pitot Tube Design

Performance

Performance is described in terms of

• performance advantages
• performance disadvantages

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Performance Advantages are the following:

• A pitot tube has a major advantage in that it creates very little permanent pressure
drop and, as a result, is less expensive to operate.
• A pitot tube can be installed on 4-inch and larger pipe sizes.
• Performance of the pitot tube is historically proven.
• A pitot tube’s installation and operation costs are low.
• A pitot tube can be a standard differential producing device for all pipe sizes.

Performance Disadvantages are the following:

• Point-type pitot tubes require traversing the flow stream for average velocity.
• Poor rangeability.
• Nonlinear square root characteristic.
• Difficulty of use in dirty flow streams.

Installation

The pitot tube’s installation practice is similar to other head meter installation practice, the
installation is preferably on a horizontal pipe with the mounting in a vertically upward position.
For larger pipe diameters, support is required at the end of pipe. The averaging pitot tube can be
installed on an operating pressurized pipeline. The hot tapping capability allows easy installation
and removal of the sensor without the need for a plant shutdown.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 8.5.3, “The installation of pitot type meters should meet the
following requirements:
a. All pitot meters should be accessible for maintenance or servicing in accordance with
paragraph 6.17.
b. Pitot tube installations in low pressure service should incorporate an adjustable packing
gland which will allow the measuring element to be traversed across the cross sectional
area of the pipe. A retaining ring assembly should be incorporated to prevent the removal
of the element from the process line in service and to prevent leakage around connections
and fittings.
c. In special situations where increased accuracy is demanded of the pitot element, two pitot
elements can be installed with traverses at right angles to each other. This allows the
measurement of velocities at all points with the capability of obtaining the average value of
a flowing velocity.
d. Minimum recommended upstream straight meter run lengths vary between 14 and 28 pipe
diameters; and downstream, 7 pipe diameters, depending on piping profile.”

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Applications

The pitot tube is used for flow measurements of liquids, gases, and low flow measurements. A
pitot tube is used for control purposes and not for custody transfer purposes. When a single
point’s flow velocity is measured, accuracy generally ranges to ± 5% unless specifically calibrated
for higher accuracy.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 8.1, pitot tubes are considered alternative flowmeters and
“Alternative flowmeters should be considered when it is evident that orifice plates, or precision
flow metering devices are not suitable nor practical for metering process fluids caused by process
constraints, short meter run lengths, or specified accuracy requirements.” Additionally, SADP-J-
100, Section 8.5 states that “Pitot tubes and pitot venturi tubes should be considered only for flow
metering applications involving clean liquids or dry gases where a substantial pressure drop
cannot be tolerated and where accuracy is of minimal concern.”

Figure 46 references standards and practices that influence pitot tube selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, General criteria Usage guidelines
Section 8.5
SADP-J-100, Calculations Use Bernoulli’s theorem
Section 8.5.1
SADP-J-100, Constraints Line size and fluid property constraints
Section 8.5.2
SADP-J-100, Installation Installation guidelines
Section 8.5.3
API RP 551, Section Guidelines General application comments
2.3.1.1.6
Liptak, “Process Pitot tubes Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.15

Figure 46: Pitot Tube References

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Annubars

Principles

The single-point pitot tube is moved from point to point sensing impact and static pressures in a
definite pattern. The sensing points are arrayed along perpendicular diameters with the number of
points in each traverse based upon the duct size. The velocity of the moving fluid is calculated
from the square root of the differential pressures and averaged to determine a representative
velocity. Because Q = AV, and the area is a function of the duct diameter, Q (volumetric flow
rate) can be easily calculated.

The Annubar is a tradename for an averaging pitot tube. The sensor is inserted athwart a circular
duct or pipe. The impact pressure is sensed through the upstream holes, which are placed
representing annuluses or rings of the flowing fluid. Static pressure is sensed by a hole or holes
downstream — hopefully unaffected by velocity. The double hollow tube with these holes is a bar
— hence, annu bar. Impact pressure sensed through an upstream set of four or six holes is
averaged in the forward plenum of the bar. Static pressure sensed through one, four, or six holes
is averaged in the downstream plenum of the bar. The pressure difference between impact and
static is measured by a manometer or a transmitter. The square root is taken of the pressure
difference or average velocity pressure to calculate the representative velocity of the flowing fluid
just as in the single-point pitot tube.

Design

An annubar is designed to sense impact and static pressure when mounted in a pipe with a flowing
fluid. The bar is so placed that it is cutting a diameter of the velocity profile. The holes are large
to allow adequate sensitivity to pressure while trying to avoid plugging from dirty material in the
flow. Some manufacturers have four upstream sensing holes and others have six. Some
manufacturers have only one static pressure sensing hole while others supply four or six. The
original bar design was a circular cross-section while the current annubar has a modified diamond
with the sensing holes at home plate and second base. Annubar claims less clogging of the sensing
holes. The annubar is still sensing at one point in the pipe.

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PH PL

A = 3/8", 7/8", 11/4" or 2"

(9.5, 22, 32 or 51mm)

High Low
Velocity Pressure Pressure
Profile Profile
Flow Profile

Average PH PL
Velocity DP
Average High Average Low
(Impact) Pressure Pressure

Figure 47: Annubar Design

Performance

Annubars have the following performance characteristics

• The diamond shape annubar has long term accuracy.

• The annubar has an accuracy of ±1% of actual flow and ±0.1 repeatability of the
actual value.
• The annubar has low installation costs; a system shutdown is not required to install
the device.
• The annubar produces a repeatable signal even when the run requirements are not
met.
• The annubar flow sensor can handle a wide range of flow conditions with two
measuring instruments.
• The annubar should not be used if the viscosity approaches 50 centipoise.
• The annubar can be used on two phase flow measurements.

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Installation

The annubar can be installed in any direction, preferably on horizontal pipe with vertical
mounting. Selecting the correct mounting location of an annubar is important, because
disturbance in the flow produced by the pipe layout affects the accuracy of measurement. A
uniform diameter is recommended at the upstream and downstream side of the annubar. Provide
supports to the annubar at the other end of the pipe when large pipes are used.

Applications

The annubar can be used for liquid and gas flow measurement services. Generally, the annubar is
used in clean liquid services to avoid plugging. The annubar can be installed for low and medium
pressure applications without shutting down the system.

Sizing of Annubar

To size an annubar, use the computer sizing programs available from annubar manufacturers. The
programs are easy to follow and often select the desired model number. Manual sizing equations
are also provided in Liptak pages 174 and 175.

Reference Reason for use Summary

Liptak, "Process Differential pressure Calculations for liquid, gas, steam flow
Measurement," calcualtions
Table 2.150
Liptak, "Process Calculate flow Metric equivalents
Measurement," coefficient, K
Table 2.15p
Liptak, "Process Pressure differentials Averaging pilot station calculations
Measurement,"
Table 2.15t

Figure 48: Averaging Pitot Tube Equation References

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Figure 49 references standards and practices that influence annubar selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, Annubar application Same criteria as pitot tube.
Section 8.5 criteria
SADP-J-100, Additional criteria Additional application constraints
Section 8.6
Liptak, Basic Information
Chapter 2.15

Figure 49: Annubar References

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EVALUATING THE SUITABILITY OF OTHER RATE AND QUANTITY-TYPE FLOW

MEASURING DEVICES FOR SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION

Flow measurement includes other rate and quantity-type flow measuring devices. This section of
the course module describes the flow measuring devices listed in Figure 50.

Type of device Rate/quantity/mass Frequency of Use

Positive displacement • volumetric flow detection medium
Turbine meters • flow rate sensing high
• volumetric flow detection
Magnetic flowmeters • flow rate sensing low
• volumetric flow detection
Mass flowmeters (Coriolis) • flow rate sensing low
• volumetric flow detection
• mass measurement
Ultrasonic flow • flow rate sensing low
• volumetric flow detection
Vortex • flow rate sensing low
• volumetric flow detection
Variable area flow meters • flow rate sensing high
(rotameters) • volumetric flow detection

Figure 50: Frequency of Usage at Saudi Aramco

Positive Displacement Meters

Positive displacement (PD) meters (Figure 51) are used for measurement of gas and liquid.
Positive displacement meters come in several varieties. Positive displacement meters include
rotating paddle meters, oscillating piston meters, oval gear meters, sliding vane meters, and
birotor meters. The term “displacement” refers to a discrete volume that is flowing through the
meter, displacing (replacing) a previously counted volume. PD meters are mechanically driven
meters and have one or more moving parts. The energy required to drive the meter’s mechanical
components is generated from the flow stream. The energy to drive the meter creates a pressure
loss between inlet and outlet of the meter. A PD meter’s output hardware can convert each unit of
volume displacement into an electrical pulse.

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Flow

Flow

Sliding Vane Meter

Rotating Paddle Meter

Flow
Flow
Bi-Rotor Meter
Oval Gear Meter

Figure 51: Positive Displacement Meters

Principles

Positive displacement meters precisely separate a flowing stream into discrete volume, count
them, then return the discrete volume to the flowing stream. The meter (Figure 52) shows a count
of volume, rather than flow rate. For the rotation of the volume measuring element within the
meter to occur, there must be a pressure drop. The pressure drop, or pressure difference, between
the inlet flow and outlet flow, causes the rotation of the measuring element.

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Piston Measuring Chamber

Pulse Output
Signal Type:

Meter Housing

Inlet Port Outlet Port

(Oscillating Piston Type

PD Meter Shown)

Figure 52: PD Meter Design

Design

Although positive displacement meters come in several varieties, all positive displacement meters
have the following in common:

• Measuring element
• Meter housing, and
• Counter drive train

Measuring Element – The most important part of a positive displacement meter design is the
measuring element. The measuring element consists of a measuring chamber and displacement
mechanism. The function of the measuring element is to precisely separate a flowing fluid into
discrete volumes. In order to do that, vendors use precision manufacturing techniques to ensure
that metal to metal seals are maintained and any distortions are minimized.

Meter Housing – The housing of the meter is designed to absorb system piping stresses so that
critical clearances are maintained in the measuring element. The housing also maintains a pressure
balance between inlet and outlet flow so that pressure distortions do not affect measurement
accuracy.

Counter Drive Train – The counter drive train transfers the displacement motion occurring
within the measuring chamber into a meter’s output signal. The counter drive train is typically a
mechanical gear arrangement that corresponds mechanical revolutions to volumes of fluid.

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Performance

Performance of the positive displacement meter is described in terms of

• Accuracy
• Rangeability
• Repeatability
• Pressure drop
• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages
• Output signals

Accuracy for a positive displacement meter in terms of percentage registration is based upon the
calculation or percentage variation of the flowmeter factor.
actual quantity
% registration = x 100
metered quantity
At high flow rates, the increase in pressure drop (differential pressure) increases the flow slippage
rate, reducing the meter’s accuracy. At low flow rates, the meter has low energy because of the
lower pressure drop, so the flow is under-counted, again reducing the accuracy. Accuracy of the
meter is in the range of ± 0.1 to ± 2% of the actual flow.

Rangeability of PD meters typically is 5:1, although 10:1 and greater flow ranges are possible.
Maximum-rated capacities often apply to intermittent flow rates. Maximum capacities are
sometimes derated if continuous flow is anticipated. The minimum and maximum range of
flowmeter depends on flowmeter design and viscosity of the products.

Repeatability, which is the ability to repeat the accuracy of measurement, specifications are
typically ± 0.05% or better.

Pressure Drop represents the energy loss in driving the flowmeter and its accessories. The
pressure drop across the internal of flowmeter creates an unbalanced pressure, which causes the
rotation of the rotor.

Output Signals are obtained from the gear driven train. Output signals are available either in
mechanical or electrical form as digital pulses or analog sinusoidal signals. Signal compatibility
with other meter accessories should be verified.

Following are some advantage and disadvantages of using positive displacement meters.

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Performance Advantages are the following:

• Ideal for viscous liquids

• Upstream piping requirements are minimal
• Some versions do not require electrical power
• High rangeability in liquid and gas meter without loss of accuracy
• Operating principle is simple to understand

Performance Disadvantages are the following:

• Not ideal for liquids with suspended particles. Requires filtration or strainer to
minimize the damage to the meter.
• Mechanical wear susceptibility reduces accuracy and repeatability.
• Larger meters require extra installation care.
• Some meters can be damaged by overspeeding.
• According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.4.2.d “PD meters have a substantial pressure
head loss which is unrecoverable. They also have a limited product throughput for
a given meter size.”

Installation

Typical industry installations (Figure 53) include proper mounting and allowing for meter
draining. Installation should also allow for maintenance access and meter proving.

Ticket Printer
Register

Flow Back
Pressure
Positive Valve
Strainer Displacement
Meter
Air
Eliminator

Figure 53: Typical PD Meter Installation

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According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.4.4 and Section 7.4.5, “The accuracy and repeatability of
PD meters is essentially independent of upstream and downstream piping arrangement. However,
all PD meter installations should conform to requirements listed in Chapter 5.2 of the API Manual
of Petroleum Measurement. A readily accessible strainer should be installed upstream of the PD
meter including a differential pressure indicator to determine its need for cleaning. Pipe supports
should be designed to facilitate removal of the PD meter. Piping layout should permit a PD meter
to be isolated and drained. Meter bypass piping: PD meter bypass piping should follow the same
constraints as bypass piping for turbine meters per paragraph 7.3.6.

Electrical (if any) and mechanical installation requirements for PD meters are essentially the same
as those for turbine meters according to Sections 7.3.7 and 7.3.9.”

Applications

Positive displacement meters are used primarily in applications where the goal is to measure
volume and not a flow rate. Although fluid viscosity must be accounted for when selecting a
positive displacement meter, viscosity differences do not have a significant effect on measurement
accuracy. Positive displacement meters are often considered ideal for viscous liquids (Refer to
vendor’s data on registration curves for a lengthier discussion about viscosity). Positive
displacement meters have limited use when the application is one where the liquid contains solid
particles.

Positive displacement meters are often used in combination with other devices, such as pumps and
control valves. Because the positive displacement meter must interact with other devices, the
positive displacement meter must not be viewed as a stand-alone device. For example, a control
valve would have to provide proper flow rate and back pressure for the positive displacement
meter to work properly. Interaction with other equipment is described in more detail in the
vendor’s supporting documentation.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.4.1, Saudi Aramco applications include “Pipeline metering,
oil field production, fuel oil metering including gasoline, asphalt plants, additive metering, and
tank truck metering (Avoid PD meters in LPG).”

Sizing and Equations

The size of positive displacement meter varies from 1/4 inch to 16 inches. A positive displacement
meter should be sized based upon the viscosity of the product and flowrate. The meter should not
be operated at a full rate capacity for a long period of time. The sizing equations of the PD meters
are the same as those for the turbine meter. The sizing equations are discussed in more detail in
the turbine meter section.

Figure 54 references standards and practices that influence positive displacement meter selection.
Review these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) when determining a
device’s suitability.

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Reference Reason for use Summary

SADP-J-100, Piping configuration • Strainer installed upstream
Section 7.44 • Piping supports for removal
• Meter bypass piping
SADP-J-100, Installation • Horizontal installation
Section 7.45 requirements • Positioning of register
• Electrical requirements
SADP-J-100, PD meter constraints Design, application, specification of PD meter
Section 7.2
SAES-J-100, Meter sizing • Normal flow rate 60% of URV
Section 4.5 • Comply to 34-SAMSS-118
SAES-J-100, Installation Install horizontally
Section 5.2
34-SAMSS-118 Specification Specifications and requirements
API RP 551, Section Installation • Proper foundation
2.3.5.2 • Liquid presence required
• Bypass guidelines
• Use of strainers
• Avoid air and vapor
API RP 551, Section Commissioning Follow manufacturer’s guidelines to avoid
2.3.5.3 damage during startup
API MPMS, Selection criteria Checklist of 17 items when selecting a positive
Chapter 5.2.6 displacement meter
API MPMS, Installation • Sect. 5.2.7.1 – usage of valves
Chapter 5.2.7 • Sect. 5.2.7.2 – piping
• Sect. 5.2.8 – performances
• Sect. 5.2.9 – operations and proving
Liptak, “Process PD meters Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.16, 2.17

Figure 54: Positive Displacement Meter References

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Turbine Meters

Principles

The turbine meter is so called because it uses a precision turbine wheel that rests on bearings
within the meter housing. Flowing fluid forces the turbine wheels to rotate at a speed proportional
to the velocity of the fluid. For each revolution of the turbine wheel, a pulse is generated. The
rotational speed of shaft and frequency of the pulse corresponds to the volumetric flow rate
through the meter.

The rotor blade is mounted at an incidence angle “α” to the flowing stream. The momentum of
the flowing fluids stream imparts a rotational velocity on the rotor blade, causing a flow to change
in direction, and discharging the flow from the rotor in a twisting and angular direction. The
rotational velocity is directly proportional to the velocity of flow rate through the turbine meter.

Design

Separate turbine meters are available for gas or liquid measurements. When a fluid (gas or liquid)
enters the turbine meter, it first passes through a flow straightener. The straightener is necessary
to minimize any fluid turbulence and smooth the fluid for the turbine wheel. The turbine wheel
(also called a rotor) then spins at a rate proportional to the velocity of the fluid passing through
the meter.

A turbine meter’s sensors are either mechanical or electronic. An electronic sensor that detects the
passage of each rotor blade generates a pulse. A mechanical sensor consists of a shaft that is
driven by a gear on the rotor shaft that is mounted inside the housing. Mechanical sensors are
connected to measuring devices for direct measurement of a flow rate or total flow (totalizer).

Electronic sensors are also called “pick-off” sensors. Three types of “pick-off” sensors are the
magnetic inductive, magnetic reluctance, and modulated carrier frequency sensors. The sensors
are installed in the body of turbine meters and kept away from the tip of the rotor through a thin
membrane or diaphragm. The magnetic reluctance “pick-off” sensor is the most common sensor.
An example turbine meter is shown in Figure 55.

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Magnetic
Pickoff

Output Pulse

Flow

Rotor Rotor
Support

Figure 55: Example Turbine Meter

Performance

Performance of the turbine meter is described in terms of

• Accuracy
• Rangeability
• Repeatability
• Application effects
• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages

Accuracy

Turbine meters are highly accurate devices, with accuracy of ±0.5% of readings typical, ±0.25%
when measuring rate liquids, and ±1% when measuring rate gas. However, one should note that
accuracy is often stated under ideal conditions. Any calibration accuracy should simulate
operating conditions for viscosity and lubricity. The calibration accuracy is not dependent upon
the meter itself as much as it is a matter of how traceable the standard is for the meter.

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Rangeability

Rangeability of a turbine gas meter depends upon pressure. Typically, rangeability is from 10:1 for
a gas at atmospheric pressure and from 100:1 when gas pressure is greater than 1000 psig.
Rangeability on a liquid turbine meter is about 10:1, but changes caused by viscosity, density, or
meter size. If the viscosity of a fluid goes above the viscosity of water, then the meter range drops
to as low as 3 to 1.

Repeatability

Repeatability for a precision turbine meter can be as low as ±0.02%. When turbine meters are
used over an extended range, note that the low flow rates may not have good repeatability.
Additionally, the type of service can affect repeatability. For example, gas service repeatability can
be ±0.25%.

Application Effects

Although turbine meters are highly accurate, application effects can impact measurement
accuracy. Improper or missing straightening sections, or operations of the meter at Reynolds
numbers different from conditions at calibration, can cause failure. Temperature conditions also
affect the performance of the meters. When a turbine meter uses a fixed K factor in an extended
range, it is possible to add a percentage error into the meter reading. Linearity of a turbine meter
is defined by ISA-RP31.1 as the maximum deviation in K factor:

( K max. - K aver ) x 100

% Linearity =
K aver

The linearity of a turbine flowmeter in liquid measurement is typically ±0.05 % of the measured
value over a range 10 to 1 at fixed viscosity and temperature. Linearity also depends upon the
viscosity of the fluid. A gas turbine meter is more linear in gas than in liquid. The linearity of a gas
turbine is expressed as the percentage of a full scale as opposed to an absolute percentage.
Linearity is also affected by viscosity, density, and type of electronics sensors.

Performance Advantages

• Excellent accuracy and good rangeability over the full linear range of a meter.
• Low flow rate designs are available.
• Some versions do not require electrical power.
• Overall meter cost is not high. Overall meter cost is considered nominal because a
turbine meter can support high flow rate for a given pipe size.
• Output signal from the meter is at a high resolution rate, which helps reduce meter
proving.

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Performance Disadvantages

• Sensitive to a fluids increasing viscosity.

• Two phase fluids can create usage problems.
• Straight upstream piping or straightening vanes are required in a turbine meter
installation to eliminate the flow turbulence into the meter.

Sizing and Selection

Turbine flowmeters are available in a wide variety of sizes and flow capacities. The smallest flow
a liquid turbine meter can measure is as low as 0.001GPM; gas turbine meters can measure as low
as 0.001CFM. Turbine meters also measure high flow rates. The operating pressure and
temperature should be considered in the selection of meter sizes.

Pressure drop is also considered when selecting a turbine flowmeter. A high pressure drop could
damage the blade of rotor. High velocity can damage the bearings. The following are the
equations for the gas and liquid turbine meters.

Equation for Gas Applications

Pf Tb Zb
qb = qf Mf ( ) ( ) ( )
Pb Tf Zf
where:
qb = Flow rate at base conditions, SCFM @ 14.73 PSIA & 60°F
qf = Flow rate operating conditions (meter reading), SCFM
Mf = Meter factor to correct meter output based on calibration
Pf = Pressure at flowing conditions, PSIA
Pb = Base pressure set by agreement near atmosphere pressure,
14.73 PSIA
Tb = Base temperature by agreement near ambient (60 °F), 520°R
Tf = Temperature at flowing conditions, °R
Zb = Compressibility at base pressure and temperature
Zf = Compressibility at flowing pressure and temperature

Equation for Liquid Applications

qb = qf Mf Ft Fp

where:
qb = Flow rate at base conditions, GPM
qf = Flow rate at flowing conditions, GPM
Mf = Meter factor to correct output based on calibration
Ft = Correction from flowing temperature to base temperature
Fp = Correction from flowing pressure to base pressure

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Installation

Installation of turbine meters is described in terms of

• Typical industry installations
• Saudi Aramco installation requirements
• Electrical connections to turbine meter

Typical Industry Installations – Installation of gas turbine meter must be according to AGA-7
or ISO 9951. For custody transfer, installation of liquid turbine meter should be according to the
API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards.

A common installation practice is to install 10 pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream of the
meter to minimize flow velocity profile disturbances for 2 inches and greater pipe size. However,
swirl is the most sensitive external influence on a turbine meter, and swirl can exist for up to 100
pipe diameters. Thus flow straighteners are also installed to minimize swirl. For a pipe size 2
inches and under, 20 pipe diameters of straight pipe run upstream of the meter is required.

If there is not enough space upstream of the meter for straightening vanes, and the meter must be
installed in a large flow disturbance, it is advisable to install a perforated plate or screen to
provide the normal turbulent flow.

A very obvious installation mistake is not observing the direction arrow on the turbine flow meter.
If the meter is installed backwards it provides incorrect flow meter readings. In order to minimize
the cavitation in the turbine meter, make sure that there is sufficient back pressure in the system.
If there is not sufficient back pressure in the system, then installation of a back pressure regulator
is necessary at the downstream side of the meter.

For turbine meter installations, a common practice is to purge the flow lines before installation of
turbine meter to avoid debris damage to the turbine rotor and rotor blades. The turbine meter is a
precision meter and should be treated with the care that a precision device needs. For example,
one should avoid blowing compressed air across the blades because it could easily overspeed the
meter; overspeeding could damage the bearings.

Saudi Aramco Installation Requirements – Turbine installation requirements are defined in

SADP-J-100, Sections 7.3.5 through 7.3.8 in the following manner: “[Section 7.3.5] All turbine
meter installations require strainers and/or filters to prevent foreign matter from blocking or
partially restricting the flow passages or lodging between the rotor and meter body. The strainer
should be capable of removing particles of a size (50 micrometers) that might damage the rotor or
bearings.

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NOTE: Limitations on strainer or filter mesh may be dependent on process applications in which
the pressure drop caused by excessive strainer plugging becomes an important factor. Filters and
"Y" type strainers should be installed upstream of the first elbow from the meter, or at least
twenty (20) nominal pipe diameters upstream if inline. While concentric cone type strainers may
be installed inline, they should never be located closer than ten (10) nominal pipe diameters
upstream of the meter. In all cases, provision must be made for the removal of the filter or strainer
element for inspection and maintenance.

[Section 7.3.6 Turbine Meter Bypass Piping]

Bypass piping needs shall be determined for each individual process application. For continuous
services, involving applications where shutdown is considered undesirable, block and bypass
valves should be installed to permit process operation during meter servicing.

[Section 7.3.7 Turbine Meter Installation]

a. Turbine flow meters should be installed in horizontal lines with flanged connections. The
process line should also be relatively free of vibration.
b. Vertical turbine meter installations should be avoided if at all possible because special
meter calibration for that position may become necessary as well as special thrust bearings
to prevent excessive rotor wear.
c. If a turbine meter includes an integrally mounted, direct-reading register, it should be
positioned so that it can be easily read and maintained.

[Section 7.3.8 Temperature compensation]: If temperature compensation is necessary for

standardizing flow rates, two thermowells are recommended with placement a minimum of two
pipe diameters downstream of the meter. One of the thermowells should be designated as a test
well used for calibration and/or monitoring purposes. Refer to Saudi Aramco Drawing. AE-
036175 for welding boss details for thermowell connections to pipelines and vessels.”

Electrical Connections to Turbine Meter – The electrical connection to the meter itself is made
to the “pick-off” sensor. Meters are supplied with pigtail wire or connectors. Amplifiers are
available for AC or DC power types. Always put the amplifier as close to meter as possible to
minimize the signal noise. Always keep the power line and signal lines separate from each other.
The shield cable or ground wire is grounded at one point in the system to prevent ground loops.

Electrical installation requirements are defined in SADP-J-100, Section 7.3.9: “The signal from a
turbine meter is typically a low-level sinusoidal or square wave pulse which makes it especially
susceptible to electrical noise interference. All electrical installations should comply with the
requirements listed in the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards, Chapter 5 and RP-
550, Sec. 1.”

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Applications

Applications for turbine meters are dependent upon whether the turbine meter is one of the two
types:

• Insertion type turbine meters

• Full bore (also called line size or reduced bore) turbine meters

Insertion type turbine meters are only recommended for the Saudi Aramco application where a
nominal accuracy ±5% to ±10% of a flow rate is required. The insertion type meter (Figure 56) is
used when the pipe has more than a 4 inch diameter.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.3.1, “Turbine meters [full bore types] should be considered
for fluid flow measurement when rangeability (10:1), accuracy, and process dynamics of
installation parameters suggest their use. Services include the metering of hydrocarbon liquids and
gases as well as metering cryogenic fluids.”

Insertion Tube
With Electronic
Pickup

Pipe

Rotor
Cage
Assembly

Figure 56: Insertion Type Turbine Meter

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Figure 57 references standards and practices that influence turbine flowmeter selection. Review
these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, Piping configuration • Accuracy, repeatability, and
Section 7.3.4 dependency
• Flow profile uniformity
• Meter bypass piping
• Minimum 10 pipe diameters
upstream
•Throttling device installation
SADP-J-100, Turbine meter constraints • Avoid flashing and cavitations
Section 7.3.3
SADP-J-100, Turbine meter bypass piping Install block and bypass valve to
Section 7.3.6 permit process operation during
meter servicing.
SAES-J-100, Design criteria • Process requirements
Section 4.4 • Comply to 34-SAMSS-117
SAES-J-100, Installation Compliance to API MPMS and/or
Section 5.3 AGA Report No.7
34-SAMSS-117 System specification Specifications and requirements
API RP 551, Section Turbine meter practices Practices regarding piping, bypass
2.3.4 piping, strainers, electrical wiring,
and commissioning
API MPMS, Liquid metering for custody Selection criteria
Chapter 5 transfer
Liptak, “Process Turbine meters Additional reference for selection
Measurement,” and implementation
Section 2.23

Figure 57: Turbine Meter References

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Magnetic Flowmeters

Principles

Magnetic flowmeters operate on the principles of Faraday’s Law that state that an electrical
current or voltage potential is created when a conductive fluid moves through a magnetic field.
The axis of the conductive fluid flows at a right angle to the magnetic field. Fluid flowing in this
manner causes a voltage that is proportional to the flow rate.

Faraday’s Law: E = KBDV

The magnitude of induced voltage “E” is directly proportional to the velocity of conductive fluid
“V”, “D” is conductor width or length of path and “B” is strength of magnetic field density. In the
above equation, there is no effect of pressure, temperature, density, or viscosity of the process
fluid. A magnetic meter develops its signal independent of those conditions. A magnetic
flowmeter, shown In Figure 58, consists of a detector and signal converter.

Detector
Measuring Pipe
(Inside Diameter, D)
Core

Exciting
Current
Output
Converter Signal

Power
Supply
Magnetic Field
w (Flex Intensity B)
Flo
uid ge )
Liq vera ty, V
(A l o c i Electrode (emf E)
Ve

Figure 58: Magnetic Flowmeter Principles

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Design

In a magnetic flowmeter, magnetic coils are placed on the opposite side of the pipe. The coils
generate the magnetic field. Voltage applied to both of the coils is generally 120 or 240 volts AC
at 50 or 60 Hertz. As the current passes through the coils, a magnetic field is generated inside the
pipe. A conductive fluid with velocity (V) passes through a pipe at a right angle to the magnetic
field. As the conductive process fluid moves through the field, electrodes sense the induced
voltage. The magnetic field density is fixed for each meter. The width or length of the conductor
is represented by the distance between the electrodes and fixed by the meter size. When a pipe
section is manufactured from a conductive material, it is lined with a nonconductive material to
insulate the pipe from the electrodes, preventing signals from shorting to the pipe wall. The only
variable in this principle is the velocity (V) of the conductive process fluid. Magnetic field density
is constant and the distance between the electrodes is fixed; therefore’ the output voltage is
directly proportional to the average fluid velocity, resulting in a linear output signal fed to the
magnetic flowmeter transmitter.

The process fluid particles in the magnetic meter do not move at the same velocity, so they do not
generate the voltage of the same magnitude in uniform field. A signal coefficient varies with axial
or radial displacement of the liquid particles from the electrodes. An increase in flow rate of the
fluid conductor moving through the field results in an increase in the instantaneous value of the
voltage generated. The signal voltage generated is equal to the average velocity of the fluid,
regardless of flow profile. The magnetic flow meter detects the volumetric flow rate by sensing
the linear velocity of the liquid.

A magnetic flowmeter (Figure 59) can include optional flowrate indication.

Flowrate Indicator
(Optional)
Analog Signal
Pulse Signal
Power Supply
Grounding

Flow

Straight Pipe in
Straight Pipe in Downstream Side (2D)
Upstream Side (5D)

Figure 59: Typical Magnetic Flowmeter

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Magnetic flowmeters do an excellent job of averaging the voltage combination across the
metering cross-section. The voltage developed at the electrodes has an extremely low level signal.
In order to use this low level signal, a transmitter or signal conditioner must provide amplification
of the signal in the range of 4-20 mAdc. A 0-1000 Hz frequency output signal is also used in
magnetic flowmeters that totalize flow. Magnetic flowmeters are available with remote or integral
type transmitters. Each device is individually calibrated. There are two types of magnetic
flowmeters:

• AC excitation, and
• DC pulse excitation.

AC Excitation – In an AC type magnetic flowmeter, line voltage (120 or 240 V AC) is applied
directly to the magnetic coils. This generates a magnetic field in the outer body that varies with
the frequency of the applied voltage. An AC meter’s signal has a sine wave pattern. The flow
signal at a constant flow velocity also looks like a sine wave. The magnitude of the sine wave is
directly proportional to the flow velocity. The system produces an accurate, reliable, fast
responding meter. The AC-type system must be periodically energized by stopping the flow and
maintaining a full pipe in order to zero out any voltage present at that time, which could cause a
potential offset. An AC-type system is normally considered as a percentage of full scale flow
system.

DC Pulse Excitation – In a DC type magnetic flowmeter, line voltage is the main source of
power, but instead of applying it directly to the coils, it is first applied to a magnet driver circuit.
The magnet driver circuit sends low frequency pulses to the coils to generate a magnetic field.
While many forms of excitation are in use, on-off excitation and plus-minus excitation are the
main types used. The DC pulse system eliminates the zero shift problem that occurs in an AC
system.

In a DC pulse system, a reading of induced voltage is taken and stored when the coils are excited.
A second reading of induced voltage is taken when the coils are not excited. The voltage induced
when coils are energized is a combination of noise and signal. The induced voltage when coils are
not energized is noise only. The result of these two signals becomes the final output signal for the
flowmeter.

Performance

Performance is described in terms of

• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages
• Rangeability and accuracy

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Performance Advantages are the following:

• The magnetic flowmeter is nonobstructive and has no moving parts.
• Pressure drop is very little, so pumping costs are minimized.
• DC pulse-type meter electrical power requirements can be as low as 15 to 20
watts.
• The magnetic meter is suitable for acid, bases, water, and aqueous solutions. The
lining materials provide good electric insulation and corrosion resistance.
• The magnetic meter can handle extremely low flow rates and can also be used for
bidirectional flow measurements.

Performance Disadvantages are the following:

• The meters only measure conductive fluid flows. Hydrocarbons, gases, and pure
substances cannot be measured by these meters.
• Proper electrical installation care is required.
• Conventional meters are heavy and larger in size.
• Meters are expensive, but the cost of the meters can be justified by the accurate
performance over a wider turndown ratio.

Rangeability and Accuracy – Magnetic flowmeters have excellent rangeability. The AC-type
meter has 100:1 rangeability and an accuracy of ± 1% of full scale. A pulse DC-type meter has an
accuracy of ±1% rate applicable to 10:1 rangeability or, for higher accuracy, ± 0.5% of rate over
a 2:1 to 5:1 range.

Installation

Proper magnetic flow meter operation is very dependent upon the installation. Indeed, the
warranty could become void if the flowmeter is improperly installed. Installation considerations
for a magnetic flowmeter primarily involve the following:

• Meter orientation
• Minimum piping requirement
• Grounding

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Meter Orientation – A vertically installed flowmeter, with the fluid flowing upwards, is the
preferred installation for a magnetic flowmeter. The preference for a vertical installation is that the
meter remains full of liquid at all times. A vertical installation also minimizes wear from abrasive
particles. A sloping installation, with flow moving upward through the meter, is also acceptable.
Horizontal installations, which are very common, are also considered acceptable for most typical
process industry flow measurements. A magnetic flowmeter can measure the flow of conductive
liquid in both the forward and reverse directions. Flow in the forward direction develops a voltage
opposite in phase or polarity from the flow in the reverse direction. If the system is designed for
bidirectional flow, it cannot detect this difference. Many meters are built with flow direction
arrows to indicate the proper direction for the flow through the meter. If the unidirectional meter
is installed in the bidirectional flow line, the flow through the opposite direction remains zero.

Minimum Piping Requirements – General guidelines regarding piping requirements include

locating elbows, pumps, and control valves a certain distance from the magnetic meter. Elbows
are usually located 3 pipe diameters upstream of the magnetic meter, pumps, and control valves
are usually located 10 pipe diameters downstream of the meter. The reason for locating valves
and pumps downstream of the meter is to minimize turbulence as well as to provide enough back
pressure to keep the magnetic meter full of liquid. If higher accuracy of a magnetic meter is
required, the distances should be doubled for those previously mentioned.

Installation guidelines, in terms of orientation and piping, are shown in Figure 60

Not Filled
Air May Be With Liquid
Entrapped

May Not
Be Filled
With Liquid Good
Location
Pump

Good
Location

Figure 60: Magnetic Flowmeter Installation Practices

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Piping configurations, according to SADP-J-100, Section 7.6.3 are defined as follows: “The
magnetic flow transmitter tube should be installed in either a horizontal or vertical position; it
must operate liquid full to ensure accurate measurement. If mounted vertically, flow should be
from bottom to top to assure a full pipe. When mounted horizontally, the electrode axis should
also be horizontal.

Vertical mounting with a straight run on the inlet side and upward flow is recommended if an
abrasive slurry is being measured. This arrangement distributes wear evenly.

Magmeters up to 12 inches (nominal) in size require no support other than that required for an
equal length of pipe. The magmeter should not however, be used to support adjacent piping. For
larger meter sizes, depending upon size, construction, and manufacturer's recommendations, a
support structure may be necessary.

Meter run piping should be designed with sufficient flexibility to prevent excessive forces from
being transmitted to the electrically insulated flange faces. Particular attention shall be paid to
installations in vertical lines to ensure that the excessive weight of the transmitter or piping is not
applied to the flange facing. For meter applications which require frequent line cleaning, the
magmeter should be installed with block and bypass valves to permit access to the tube interior
without interrupting the process. The bypass valves should be of the ball-valve type capable of
tight shutoff.”

Grounding is, according to SADP-J-100, Section 7.6.4 “extremely important .. both for the
safety of personnel and for satisfactory flow measurement”. Stray electrical currents often develop
as leakage from capacitive motor insulation’s ages, or currents develop from inductive coupling
from other motor conductors. The currents are carried by the pipe or process fluid. The magnetic
meter thus becomes a path for the current. To provide safety and proper measurement, magnetic
meter grounding rings and piping grounding are implemented. Grounding practices are explained
in more detail in vendor literature and SADP-J-100, Section 7.6.4b. Electronics should be
oriented properly so that they are not at the top of the pipe in a horizontal and sloping installation.
This prevents air from coming into contact with the electrode, causing errors in the flow signal.

Applications

Magnetic flowmeters are well suited for the flow measurement of slurries and dirty fluids because
magnetic flowmeters do not have sensors that enter the flowing stream of fluids. However, the
fluid must be conductive, or have some minimal amount of conductivity (20 microSiemens per
centimeter or more) for the flowmeters to work properly. The magnetic flowmeter’s limitation of
usage on conductive materials means that magnetic flowmeters are not used in the measurement
of hydrocarbon fluids.

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According to SADP-J-100, Section 7.6, “Magnetic flowmeters are recommended for

measurement of conductive fluids, i.e., corrosive acids, sewage, abrasive slurries and crude oil
that contains salt water. This type of meter is well suited for bidirectional flow streams requiring
virtually no pressure drop.”

Magnetic flowmeters are not affected by viscosity or the consistency of Newtonian or non-
Newtonian fluids. The resulting change in flow profile caused by a change in Reynolds number or
upstream configuration piping does not change the meter’s performance or accuracy. Follow the
manufacturer’s instruction when calibrating flowmeters.

Selection of magnetic flowmeters follow Saudi Aramco Design Practice, SADP-J-100, Section 7-
6 Attachment 1, and Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard, SAES-J-100.

Mass Flowmeters (Coriolis Flowmeters)

Mass flowmeters are so named because the mass of the fluid is measured with the flowmeters, as
opposed to the fluid volume or flow rate. A changing density or viscosity can affect the
performance of a volumetric flowmeter, while a mass flowmeter would not be affected by these
changes. Technologies, such as the use of Coriolis flowmeters, allow for the direct measurement
of mass. Coriolis meters can also be used on liquid and some gas applications.

The direct measurement of mass is necessary for applications where chemicals are balanced,
combustion efficiencies are calculated, or production quantities must be consistent. Often a sale of
a product is based on mass, not volume. Of the mass flowmeters, the Coriolis mass flowmeter is
the most predominant. If a measurement volume is desired, density corrections are required to
measure the fluid at base conditions.

Principles

Coriolis flowmeters are based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where F = ma (Force = mass
x acceleration). A Coriolis force (Figure 61) is caused by flowing fluid through a tube. The
Coriolis force equation is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where
→→
F=2mωv

where
m = mass
→
ω = angular motion
→
v = velocity

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Force = Mass * Acceleration

F = m * 2*(vX )

F = ∆m * 2*(∆vX )
Angular Motion
Frequency Is Constant
Velocity Changes With Flow
Mass Is Constant Unless Density Changes

The Effect Of The Coriolis Force Is Measured

Figure 61: Coriolis Meter Principles

In Coriolis flowmeters, fluid typically flows through an U-shaped tube (Figure 62) that vibrates at
its natural frequency. As the fluid flows into the U-shaped tube, the fluid is forced to conform to
the vertical momentum of the vibrating tube. If the U-shaped tube is moving upward during its
vibration, the fluid flowing into the U-shaped tube resists and pushes downward. However, the
fluid now has an upward momentum as it approaches the part of the tube where it must exit. So if
that portion of the tube has a downward motion, the fluid resists the downward motion by
pushing up on the tube. The U-shape tube then twists. The twisting is called the Coriolis effect.
While it is impractical to measure the Coriolis force directly, it is practical to measure the Coriolis
effect. The amount of U-shaped tube twisting becomes directly proportional to the mass flow rate
flowing through the tube.

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Figure 62: Sensing Element Geometries

Design

A Coriolis meter consists of one or more detectors and a transmitter (Figure 63). The detector
senses the amount of tube twisting. To measure the Coriolis effect, the amount of tube twisting is
directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the fluid flowing through the tube. The U-shaped
tube can be vibrated by an oscillating driver at its natural frequency. Electromagnetic devices,
such as velocity detectors, can be located on each side of the tube and be used to measure the
velocity of the vibrating tube.

Flowrate

Detector Transmitter

Figure 63: Coriolis Meter Overview

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When no fluid flows through the tube, all points move in sequence with the oscillating driver,
forming a sine wave. When fluid flows in the tube, twisting occurs. The twisting causes a time
difference to occur between the velocity detector's signals. The time difference is directly related
to the mass flow rate.

No Flow, Flow Occurs,

No Coriolis Force Coriolis Force Exists,
No Phase Shift Phase Shift
Detected Detected by Coriolis
Meter Detectors

Figure 64: Design Detects Phase Shift

Performance

According to SADP-J-100, a Coriolis meter is described in the following manner: “Coriolis

flowmeters are applicable to single-phase liquid metering installations which are not susceptible to
gas entrainment problems....Coriolis flowmeters eliminate many of the problems commonly
encountered in mass flow measurements. The output of the meter is directly proportional to mass
flow rate. Therefore, there is no need to measure the critical parameters of pressure, velocity,
temperature, viscosity, or density. Also, it is a nonintrusive meter, i.e., there are no moving parts
in the flowing fluid, and the meter is unaffected by erosion, corrosion, or scale buildup in the flow
sensor.” Some additional advantages and disadvantages to mass Coriolis flowmeters follow.

Performance Advantages are the following:

• Coriolis flowmeters can handle difficult applications that could, for example, plug
an orifice plate. The Coriolis flowmeters are suitable for a large number of fluids,
whether Newtonian or non-Newtonian, high or low viscosity that would create
problems for other flowmeters. Flowmeters can be used on liquids, slurries, gases,
and 2-phase gas and liquid flows.

• The nonintrusive design means less susceptibility to damage, wear, and

maintenance.

• Coriolis flowmeters can measure bidirectional flow.

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• Accuracy is very good, typically ± 0.2% of rate or better. The linearity is usually
over the entire flow range. The rangeability is typically 20:1 or better with Coriolis
meters.

• The operation of these flowmeters is independent of a fluid’s property

characteristics. The Coriolis flowmeters are independent of a fluid’s Reynolds
number, as well as a fluid’s turbulence and flow profile.

• The Coriolis meter has a very high turndown ratio.

Performance Disadvantages are the following:

• Some earlier versions of Coriolis flowmeters were susceptible to external

vibrations.

• The durability of contoured sensor tubes should be considered if a corrosive fluid

is used at high velocities.

• Pressure-drop requirements can be a factor in performance of Coriolis meters.

Some Coriolis meters may require, for example, a 10 psi pressure drop. Others
may require higher velocities and pressure drops to have an accurate measurement.

• A Coriolis meter is available only up to a maximum 6 inches in size.

• Special installation requirements are followed to isolate the Coriolis meter from
mechanical vibration.

• SADP-J-100, Section 7.8.4 states the following constraints: “Avoid using Coriolis
meters in piping or meter runs which are prone to substantial vibration, shock, or
extreme temperature gradients. External meter piping must be well supported.
Avoid using Coriolis meters in liquid services prone to gas entrainment or slugs.
Coriolis meters can not be used in gas service.”

Installation

In general, the main installation concern for liquid applications is to install the flowmeters so that
the meter remains filled with liquid; a partially filled meter will not provide accurate measurement.
For gas applications, do not install the meter sensor at the lowest point in the system,
condensation may accumulate in the meter sensor.

Typical installation procedures also include considerations such as the following:

• Install a downstream shutoff valve for rezeroing the meter.

• Avoid strong magnetic fields that would affect the meter’s velocity detectors.

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• Provide proper piping support to avoid abnormal vibration.

• Operations in temperature extremes require taking steps to equalize differential

pressures within the sealed meter enclosure.

SADP-J-100, Section 7.8.4 describes installation requirements in the following manner: “Coriolis
meters should be installed as per manufacturer's recommendations. Horizontal or vertical meter
runs are preferred, however, they must be designed for maintenance accessibility and freedom
from external pipe vibration. Recommended upstream and downstream straight pipe run is 5 D
respectively. Meters installed in a vertical position should be oriented so that fluid flow is from
bottom to top. All external meter piping must be properly supported to prevent sagging, stress, or
improper alignment at the meter body.”

Applications

The Coriolis flowmeter is a versatile flowmeter. Applications range from process control,
inventory control, blending, and custody transfer. For example, mass flow applications include
boiler control applications, where accurate measurements of combustion and preheat flows, along
with fuel gas flows, are used for greater heating efficiencies. Other gas flow examples include
metering natural gas in pipeline; and gas flow to flare stacks. (Note: Not all Coriolis meters
support gas measurement.) Crude oil, asphalt, gasoline, and fuel oil applications are just several
examples of process media that are usable with Coriolis meters.

Figure 65 references standards and practices that influence Coriolis meter selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

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Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, Design parameters • Accuracy
Section 7.8.1 • Straight pipe requirements
• Turndown ratio
SADP-J-100, Constraints Avoid vibration, shock, temperature extremes
Section 7.8.2
SADP-J-100, Piping Meter run guidelines
Section 7.8.3
API RP 551, Section Commentary General discussion of philosophy and usage
2.3.7.2
Liptak, “Process Coriolis meters Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.10

Figure 65: Coriolis Meter References

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

The ultrasonic flowmeter category contains a number of different designs for measuring an
average velocity of a fluid in a flowing system. Flowmeters that use sound waves to measure flow
rate are called ultrasonic flowmeters. The accuracy of the meter relates to the ability of the system
to represent the average velocity – the whole stream passing through the meter body hydraulic
area.

Principles

Ultrasonic flowmeters use several different principles to determine flow rate,

as follows:

• Doppler shift (frequency shift) method

• deflecting beam method
• transit time (aka “frequency difference” or “pulsed type”) method

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Doppler Shift Method – Ultrasonic flowmeters using this method transmit a sound wave through
the flowing fluid. The sound waves are reflected from the fluid to a receiver on the ultrasonic
flowmeter. The frequency of the sound waves sensed at the receiver shift are affected by the
Doppler effect. The frequency shift is used to determine flow rate. Several types of meters are
available — one type requires installation of a transducer into the flowing stream, the other is a
strap-on model where installation of a transducer on the pipe is noninvasive.

Transmitter
Receiver

Flow
With Particulates

Figure 66: Doppler Meter

Deflecting Beam Method – For ultrasonic flowmeters using this method, the transmitter sends a
sound wave that is at a right angle to the flow. Because the liquid carries the sound wave, the
sound wave is “pushed” or deflected downstream. The deflection is directly related to the flow
rate and is used to determine the flow rate.

Transit Time Method – For ultrasonic flowmeters using this method, the meter sends a diagonal
beam across the flow path. The beam is sent with the flow and against the flow. Because sound
will travel slower against flowing fluid, a frequency difference can be detected between the
ultrasonic signals. As the flow rate increases, the time difference between the signals detected
becomes greater. Transit time method ultrasonic flowmeters (Figure 67) are the most commonly
used of the ultrasonic flowmeter family.

Transit time meters have been used successfully for homogeneous fluids without entrained
bubbles. They are not recommended for heavy slurry-type applications, because of the high
accoustic impedance between transducer versus pipe wall coupling.

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Transducer
(Transmitter/Receiver)

Sound Beams

Flow

Transducer

Figure 67: Transit Time Meter

Note that SADP-J-100, Section 8.9 states, “[A transit time flowmeter] is generally more accurate
than a Doppler-type meter and therefore, should be given preference over Doppler meters.”

Design

The following discussion describes design aspects of transit time flowmeters. An ultrasonic
flowmeter has two transducers installed diagonally to the flow. Each transducer acts as a
transmitter and receiver. The transmitter and receiver are never installed directly across from each
other. One can measure the time a signal is received downstream and calculate a time difference
from the time a signal is received upstream. Changes in the time difference becomes a
measurement of changes in flow rate.

The transit time flowmeter is divided into two categories — time domain transmit-types and
frequency domain types. Both meters transmit pulses from a transmitting transducer that passes
through flowing media to a receiving transducer. The difference between the times of arrival for
an upstream and a downstream direction is used to calculate flow velocity in both types. Both
meters have the same type of transducers. One meter converts a pulse signal into time and the
other one converts it into a frequency signal.

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Transmit Time Frequency Domain Meters

Time frequency domain meters send a pulse signal in a given direction and record the time of
pulse at the other end of sonic path, then the same signal transmits in the opposite direction and
records the time at the arrival. The difference between two time measurements provides
information on motion of the fluid in a pipe. The typical equations for a time frequency domain
meter are developed using Figure 68.

R
TT
- XM
R
RC

L 1
TD VF
Tu
V
Θ
Θ VS
VF
R
RC
R
TT
XM

Figure 68: Transit Time Design

The fundamental equation of uniform linear motion, the quotient of distance and velocity equals
time, will be applied in both upstream and downstream directions from transmitter to receiver.
L L
TU = and TD =
Vs - VF‘ Vs + VF‘
Frequencies are inverses of time.
Vs - VF Vs + VF‘
FU = and FD =
L L
The frequency difference is
Vs + VF‘ Vs - VF‘ 2VF‘
FD - FU = ∆F = - =
L L L
From the vector diagram

VF‘ = VF Cos θ
2VF Cos θ
∆F =
L

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so
∆FL
VF = = ∆FK
2 Cos θ
therefore

Flow = AVF = A * ∆F * K

where
VF = fluid velocity time based
Vs = speed of sound in the fluid
TU = upstream phase travel time
TD = downstream phase travel time
θ = angle between acoustic path and flow axis
FU = upstream phase frequency
FD = downstream phase frequency
∆F = frequency difference (upstream-downstream frequency)
L = length of sonic path in the fluid

It is also defined as follows. The time for an ultrasonic pulse signal to travel from sensors A to B
in a forward direction is:
L
tf =
(C + v Cos θ)
The time for an ultrasonic pulse signal to travel from sensors B to A in the opposite direction is
given as:
L
tf =
(C - v Cos θ)
2 L v Cos θ
∆ t = tr - tf =
C
where
C= speed of sound in the fluid
∆t = the time difference between the forward and reverse direction of a pulse signal
L= the sonic path length in a fluid
θ= the angle of the path with respect to a pipe axis

Frequency Domain Meters

The frequency domain meter uses the same type of transducers as the transit time domain meter.
The only difference is in the processing of the signal, where the time pulse signal is converted to a
frequency signal. A sonic pulse is received and it is immediately re-sent to convert a pulse
repetition rate that represents a frequency proportional to that of a transit time of the pulse. If the
path in each direction of flow is used, the sonic path will generate two frequencies. The delta of
these two frequencies is directly proportional to flow velocity. Flow velocity of a frequency
domain meter is given by the calculation:

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∆f L
v =
2 Cos θ
Where
v= velocity of flow
∆f= frequency difference (upstream -downstream frequency)
L= length of sonic path in the fluid
θ= angle of path with respect to pipe axis

Doppler Flowmeters

The Doppler effect states that a wavelength of a sound moving towards a point (in this case, a
sensor) is shorter, while the wavelength of sound moving away from the sensor is longer. A
Doppler flowmeter transmits an ultrasonic beam frequency at 0.5 MHz into the flowing fluid and
detects a return frequency that is proportional to the fluid velocity. The delta between the
transmitted and returned velocities is called the beat frequency. The equation for the flow velocity
in Doppler meters is as follows:

∆f Ct
v =
(2 fv Cos θ)
where
∆f = difference between transmitted and returned frequency
fv = frequency of transmission
θ= angle of transmitter and receiver with respect to the pipe axis
Ct = velocity of the sound in the transducer
v= fluid velocity

Velocity is a linear function of ∆f. When the inside diameter of pipe is known, volumetric flow
rate can be measured using formula as follows:

GPM = 2.45 • v • (ID)2

The single transducer assembly contains transmitter and receiver that mount on the outside of the
pipe.

Performance

For transit time flowmeters to properly indicate volumetric flowrate, the pipe must always be full
of liquid. A Doppler-type ultrasonic flowmeter will indicate velocity in a partially full pipe as long
as the sensor is mounted below the liquid in the pipe.

The meter has large turndown ratio with higher accuracy for multiple designs compared to other
meters. Accuracy is usually specified as a percent of rate, typically for a single pulse meter
accuracy is about 1 to 2 % of full scale rate. To increase accuracy for a larger pipe, manufacturers
suggest installing another pair of sensors arranged to interrogate a multiple acoustic path.

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While some ultrasonic flowmeters can be used to measure gas flow rates, most are used to
measure liquids. Ultrasonic flowmeters do not require a pressure drop to measure flow rate
because they are nonintrusive. Following are some advantages and disadvantages to ultrasonic
flowmeters.

Performance Advantages include the following.

• Clamp-on versions are convenient for retrofits; process downtime is avoided.

• Ultrasonic flowmeters are usually nonintrusive, no pressure drop is required to
operate the flowmeter.
• Ultrasonic flowmeters have an accuracy comparable to orifice plates. For transit
time ultrasonic flowmeters, this can be ±1% to ±2% of full scale.
• Ultrasonic flowmeters have high rangeability; rangeability can be up to 40:1.
• An ultrasonic flowmeter’s high frequency pulse rate output minimizes errors from
the effects of pulsation and fluctuating flow.

Performance Disadvantages include the following, summarized from SADP-J-100, Section

8.9.3:

• Applications normally are limited to clean, single-phase liquids.

• Straight piping is required for uniform flow profile.
• Sound wave attenuation may limit transmission path length.
• Averaging methods for large pipes are marginally cost-effective.
• An ultrasonic flowmeter requires power to operate.

Installation

Ultrasonic flowmeters can be installed on either horizontal or vertical pipe. Depending upon the
type of meter, a manufacturer specifies the minimum distance from valves, tee, pumps, or other
process equipment in order to ensure accurate flowmeter performance. Typically, 10 to 20
diameters are required on the upstream side and 5 diameters required on the downstream side of
the meter. The meter relies upon an ultrasonic signal traveling across the pipe. The liquid should
be clean and free from air bubbles. Generally, bubbles in the fluid stream cause more alteration of
the sonic signal than solid particles.

Large or complex installations of multiple transducers are mounted in the wall of the conduit. The
transducers are held in place within the pipe wall by a series of expansion rings kept inside the
pipe. Each transducer pair makes an independent measuring path. Each measuring path is
mathematically calculated to produce flow measurement independent of the velocity. A special
calibration is required for that particular installation, and is usually provided by the meter’s
manufacturer.

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Depending on the process fluid, proper selection of transducer material, and protection must be
chosen to prevent the transducer damage caused by the chemical action. A wide variety of pipe
sizes and flow conditions are encountered. Several different sensor configurations are available:

• Axial-type
• Radial-type
• Clamp-on-type

Axial-Type Configuration – When pipes of small diameter are encountered, it becomes

necessary to pass the sound directly down the axis of the pipe and ensure that there is a sufficient
path length to measure the transit time. A path less than 3 inches does not provide adequate time
difference for an accurate measurement.

Radial-Type Configuration – In a radial type installation, sonic transducer sensors are placed on
the either side of the spool section and normally inclined at 45 degrees to the pipe axis to measure
a vector component of the flow. In a radial-type configuration, the lower pipe size limit is about
two inches and with an upper limit in excess of 10 feet.

Clamp-on-Type Configuration – Clamp-on-type meters are desirable to have when the pipe
wall cannot be penetrated. Clamp-on-type meters can be installed without shutting down the
process. Installation of a clamp-on-type meter is very convenient and has an accuracy that is
similar to the accuracy of direct wetted transducers. The clamp on type meter is more complex to
calibrate. The transducers are mounted on a calibration device and affixed to the pipe wall with
grease or epoxy.

Applications

According to SADP-J-100, Section 8.1, ultrasonic meters are considered an alternative flowmeter
and “Alternative flow meters should be considered when it is evident that orifice plates, or
precision flow metering devices are not suitable nor practical for metering process fluids caused
by process constraints, short meter run lengths, or specified accuracy requirements.” Additionally,
SADP-J-100, Section 8.9, states that “Ultrasonic flowmeters are suitable for services involving
either clean or entrained liquids. They are best suited however, for applications involving large
line sizes where noninvasive flow measurement is desired, where low pressure losses are required,
or where fluid properties require an ultrasonic-type meter.

Potential ultrasonic meter applications include wastewater streams, slurries, viscous fluids, liquids
containing suspended solids or entrained gas bubbles, crude oil measurement, and flare gas flow
metering.”

Figure 69 references standards and practices that influence ultrasonic meter selection. Review
these references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

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Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, General usage Types of service, theory of operation
Section 8.9
SADP-J-100, Design parameters • Accuracy
Section 8.9.1 • Straight pipe requirements
• Turndown ratio
SADP-J-100, Doppler type meter Liquid flows only, pipe must be full, other
Section 8.9.2 constraints constraints
SADP-J-100, Transit time meter Single phase fluids, other constraints
Section 8.9.3 constraints
SADP-J-100, Piping Sensor location
Section 8.9.4
Liptak, “Process Ultrasonic meters Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.24

Figure 69: Ultrasonic Meter References

Vortex Meters

Three types of vortex meters are available – vortex precession, vortex shedding, and fluidic
oscillation. All types of meters utilize fluid oscillation to provide the meter with no moving
components, and are suitable for gas, steam, or liquid services. They generally have wide flow
range capability, minimal maintenance, good accuracy, and long term repeatability. Only the
vortex shedding type will be described here. Vortex shedding meters (Figure 70) are the most
common type of vortex meters used by Saudi Aramco.

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Pressure
Velocity
Detector Vortices

Flow

Bluff Body

Figure 70: Vortex Meter Overview

Principles

The principle of a vortex flowmeter’s operation is based on a phenomenon of vortex shedding

known as the Von Karman effect of flow across a bluff body. A bridge pier in a river generates
Von Karman vortices. The principle states that flow alternately sheds vortices from one side to
the other side of a bluff body. The frequency of the shedding is directly proportional to fluid
velocity across the body. As a fluid passes the bluff body it separates and generates small eddies
or vortices that are shed alternately along and behind each side of the bluff body.

The output of the vortex flowmeters depends on the K-factor. The K-factor relates the frequency
of generated vortices to the fluid velocity. The K-factor varies with the Reynolds number, but is
virtually constant over a broad flow range. Figure 71 shows the relationship between two
numbers. The formula for fluid velocity is
Vortex frequency
Fluid velocity =
K - factor

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K - Factor

Linear
Operating
Range

Reynolds Number

Figure 71: Vortex Meter K Factor

Reynolds Number Equation

The Reynolds number equation shown below combines effect of density (ρ) , viscosity (µCP), pipe
inside diameter (D), and flow rate (Qf).
K x ρ x Qf
Re =
D µCP
where: K = 50.7 and K = 6.32
ρ = #/ft3 ρ = #/ft3
Qf = GPM Qf = SCFH
µ = centipoises µ = centipoises
For liquids For gases

Design

The meter body contains a shedder bar that acts as an obstruction on a flowing stream. As a
vortex is shed from one side of the bluff body, the velocity on that side increases and pressure
decreases. On the opposite side of the bluff body, velocity decreases and pressure increases, thus
causing a net pressure change across the bluff body. The entire effect is then reversed on the next
vortex as it is shed from the opposite side. This results in alternating forces on a small section of
the bar at the same frequency as the formation of vortices.

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Velocity Increase
Pressure Decrease

Velocity Decrease
Pressure Increase

Bluff Body

Figure 72: Vortex Meter Principles

The alternating forces on a section are transmitted to the sensor. A piezoelectric element inside
the sensor detects this movement of the vortices, which creates an electrical signal and transmits it
to the electronic module device. The frequency is then converted to an output signal proportional
to the volumetric flow rate. The electronic module device receives the piezoelectric sensor signal,
digitizes it, and passes the digital information to digital tracking device.

Detector

Vortex
Meter Body

Figure 73: Vortex Flowmeter Design

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Performance

The vortex shedding meter provides a linear output signal (digital or analog) without the use of a
separate transmitter or converter. Meter accuracy is good over a potentially wide flow range. The
meter does not have any moving or wearing components, provides improved reliability, and
reduces maintenance. Vortex meters have no valves or manifolds that could cause leakage
problems. The same meter can be used for a gas or a liquid application.

SADP-J-100, Section 7.7.2, describes vortex meter performance constraints in the following
manner: “The minimum number of straight upstream and downstream pipe diameters must be
maintained to ensure maximum flowmeter accuracy. Oscillatory type flow meters are sensitive to
increases in fluid viscosity, density, and solids entrainment.

It is difficult to calibrate vortex meters in the field. Electronic calibrations are easily performed,
but actual flow calibrations are difficult to achieve unless a comparison test is made against a
turbine, PD, or D/P meter.

Avoid using vortex meters for metering laminar flows or streams with Reynolds numbers below
10,000. Avoid using insertion type vortex meters where full line-size vortex meters can be used.
Potential insertion vortex meters installations must undergo careful investigation and user surveys
to determine if they are applicable to Saudi Aramco process situations and environmental
constraints.”

Installation

The vortex shedding flowmeter is not attitude sensitive. Flow can be upward or horizontal
without affecting meter performance. However, note that SADP-J-100, Section 7.7.3, states that
“Vortex meters should be installed in horizontal meter runs...” The line must be kept full of liquid
at all times when metering is required. The vortex shedding meter requires the same straight run
as the orifice meter run. The flow stream should be smooth for better accuracy. If the flow stream
is not smooth and does not have enough upstream piping run, then straightening vanes are
required on upstream of the meter.

When mounting the vortex shedding meter on-line, correct installation is important. The mating
pipe should be the same diameter as the meter bore. Most manufacturers indicate that the pipe
size should be used to mate with meter bore. The pipe sizes are generally schedule 40 or 80.
Some vortex shedding meters may be able to function properly in other pipe schedule with or
without some adjustment to the meter K-factor (For more installation details review the
manufacturer’s guidelines).

Vortex Meter Selection

Manufacturers provide computer programs to aid in the selection of a vortex meter. After
inputting the process data, the program calculates the size for the meter. Generally, the selected
meter is one size smaller than the pipe size. Note that a reduction in size creates a higher fluid
velocity.

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Vortex flowmeters work best when there is a high fluid velocity. The high fluid velocity does not
have an adverse effect on the meter. Vortex shedding flowmeters are available in sizes from 1-1/2
to 8 inches. Meter connections are wafer-type or flange-type.

Manual calculations are shown as follows.

Equation for Gas Applications

Pf Tb Zb
qb = qf Mf
Pb Tf Zf
where:
qb = Flow rate at base conditions, SCFM
qf = Flow rate operating conditions (meter reading), ACFM
Mf = Meter factor to correct meter output based on calibration
Pf = Pressure at flowing conditions, PSIA
Pb = Base pressure set by agreement near atmosphere pressure,
14.7 PSIA
Tb = Base temperature by agreement near ambient (60 °F), 520°R
Tf = Temperature at flowing conditions, °R
Zb = Compressibility at base pressure and temperature
Zf = Compressibility at flowing pressure and temperature

Equation for Liquid Applications

qb = qf Mf Ft Fp

where:
qb = Flow rate at base conditions
qf = Flow rate at flowing conditions
Mf = Meter factor to correct output based on calibration
Ft = Correction from flowing temperature to base temperature
Fp = Correction from flowing pressure to base pressure

Figure 74 references standards and practices that influence vortex meter selection. Review these
references (as well as the vendor’s supporting documentation) for additional detail when
determining a device’s suitability for an application.

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Saudi Aramco Reason for use Summary

Reference
SADP-J-100, General usage Types of service, theory of operation
Section 7.7
SADP-J-100, Design parameters • Accuracy
Section 7.7.1 • Straight pipe requirements
• Turndown ratio
SADP-J-100, Constraints • Accuracy dependent upon
Section 7.7.2 upstream/downstream straightness
• Avoid usage with laminar flows and Reynold's
numbers below 10,000
API RP 551, Section General guidelines • Usage guidelines
2.3.6 • Installation
• Commissioning
Liptak, “Process Vortex meters Additional reference for selection and
Measurement,” implementation
Section 2.28

Figure 74: Vortex Meter References

Applications

The vortex shedding flowmeter can be used for liquid as well as gas applications. The flowmeters
are not recommended for viscous and dirty fluid applications. If two phase fluid flows are present,
the vortex shedding meter will not provide accurate flow measurement.

When the meter is measuring a gas flow, the operating density becomes very important to
measurement accuracy. At some point the density/velocity relation becomes so low that the meter
cannot detect the flow signal. At the no flow point, the meter should be calibrated to indicate a no
flow condition.

When the meter is measuring a liquid flow, the fluid’s Reynolds number becomes very important
to measurement accuracy. Refer to manufacturer’s guidelines for how low a Reynolds number can
be for a particular application. Pressure drop and fluid velocity also must be considered when
selecting a vortex meter.

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Variable Area Flow Meters (Rotameters)

Several types of variable area flow meters are available. The types are rotameters (float in a
tapered unit ) type, gravity type, spring and vane or piston type, and open channel variable gate
type. Only the rotameters are described in this section. Rotameters are the most common types of
variable area flowmeters used at Saudi Aramco.

Principles

The rotameter’s operation (Figure 75) is based upon variable area principles, where the flow
raises a float in a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the flow. The greater the flow,
the higher the float is raised. The rate of flow is directly proportional to the height of the float.

The float moves up or down in a tapered tube, proportional to the fluid flow rate and the annular
area between the float and tube wall. In a liquid flow measurement application, the float is raised
by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the liquid. On a gas
application, the buoyancy effect is negligible and the float responds to the velocity head alone.
The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted by the flowing fluid
equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight of the float. A change in flow rate
upsets this force balance. The float then moves up or down changing annular area until it again
reaches a position where the forces are in equilibrium.

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Flow

Position Of Float
Provides Flowrate
Reading

Flow

Figure 75: Rotameter Principles

Design

Rotameters are good for low flow measurement because of their low cost, simplicity, low
pressure drop, relatively wide rangeability, and linear output. The rotameters consist of a tapered
metering tube and a float that is free to move up and down within the tube. Metering tubes are
made of glass as well as metal. Glass tubes are limited to their maximum pressure and temperature
rating and type of fluid. Metal metering tubes are used in applications where a glass metering tube
is not satisfactory to use. The metering tube is mounted vertically with the small end at the
bottom. The fluid to be measured enters at the bottom of the tube and passes upward around the
float and out the top. When there is no flow through the rotameter, the float is at the bottom of
the metering tube, where the maximum diameter of the float is nearly same as the metering tube
bore. A small annular opening is present between the float and the meter tube. When fluid enters
the metering tube, the buoyant effect of the fluid lightens the float, but because it is greater than
the density of fluid, the buoyant effect does not have enough force to raise the float. In a metal
metering tube that use the floats, the float position must be determined by either magnetic or
electrical techniques. The use of indirect float position sensors also provide functions other than
the direct visual indication. Meters can transmit pneumatic, electronic, or time pulse signals for
totalizing, recording, and controlling functions.

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Outlet Connection

Maximum Flow Area

Outlet Flow Stop

Metering Float

Tapered Glass Minimum Flow Area

Metering Tube

Inlet Connection

Inlet Flow Stop

Figure 76: Rotameter Design

Performance

The vast majority of rotameters operate with an error of 2 % to 10 % of full scale. Some are
available with percent of rate performance. Logarithm scale meters are designed to give the same
percent of rate accuracy at all scale positions over a 10:1 range of the meter. The high accuracy-
type meters find the greatest application in laboratory testing, development, and production where
the highest accuracy is required. The capacity of the rotameters is changed by changing the float.

Rotameters typically deviate from linearity by approximately 5 percent. When the meter is
equipped with a transmitter, linearity adjustments are generally supplied to guarantee linearity of
the output versus flow rate. The linearity of transmitters are usually rated at ± 1 % full scale.

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Installation

Rotameters are limited to vertical installations. Rotameter installation includes a small needle
valve that regulates the flow. The bottom portion of the tube is connected to the pipe inlet where
the fluid enters and the upper portion of the tube is connected to the pipe outlet where the fluid
leaves after metering the flow. The meter is not affected by an upstream piping effect. The meter
can handle any configuration of upstream piping.

Always install some safety device to ensure that the line pressure cannot exceed the pressure
rating of the flowmeter. A pressure gauge can be used for gas pressure indication and should be
located as close to the outlet of the meter as possible. No valve or any kind of restriction should
be present between the meter and pressure gauge. For a gas service application, a throttling
device such as valve or pressure regulator should be installed close to the meter outlet. In that
case, follow the manufacturer’s installation guidelines.

SADP-J-100, Section 8.8.5, states the following: “Rotameters should be mounted vertically in
locations which are free from vibration and where sufficient clearance is available for occasional
float removal for service or inspection. Meters shall be located so that they are visible and readily
accessible for operation and maintenance. In general, when a meter is to be used in regulating
service, it should be placed as close as possible to the throttling point, preferably with the valve
located at the outlet fitting.”

Sizing of Rotameters

To size a rotameter, it is customary to convert actual flow to standard flow. For liquid service, it
is necessary to calculate flow in GPM or cc/in/min. of equivalent water. It is also necessary to
determine the cc/min. of equivalent air at standard conditions. Capacity tables (provided in a
manufacturer’s catalogue) and computer programs are available for sizing and selecting meters.

The sizing formula is as follows:

Liquid volume rate:

(GPM) (ρ) (2.65)
GPMb water equivalent = Liptak
(ρf - ρ ) ρ page 234

For gases or vapors at standard volume rate:

(Q) (ρg std ) (10.34 )

SCFM air equivalent: = Liptak
ρf (ρg act ) page 234

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where
GPM = maximum flow of liquid at metering condition in units of gallons per minute
ρ = density of flowing liquid at metering condition in units of grams per cubic
centimeter
ρf = density of float in units of grams per cubic centimeter
Q = maximum flow of gas at metering condition in units of SCFM
ρg std= density of gas at 14.7 psia and 70°F or 14.4 psia and 60°F in units of pounds
per cubic foot
ρg act = density of gas at metering conditions in unit of pounds per cubic foot

Applications

Flowmeters can be used for liquid, slurries, some gas applications, or 2-phase flow applications.
Meters can also be used for flow rate measurement with limited supply pressure for a liquid and
gas. Rotameters are also used for purging application.

According to SADP-J-100, Section 8.1, rotameters are considered an alternative flowmeter and
“Alternative flow meters should be considered when it is evident that orifice plates, or precision
flow metering devices are not suitable nor practical for metering process fluids caused by process
constraints, short meter run lengths, or specified accuracy requirements.”

Additionally, SADP-J-100, Section 8.8, states that “Rotameters are recommended for metering
applications requiring wide rangeability, linear output, measurement of low flows, or where
indication only is required. Rotameters are available as indicators, transmitters, recorders, local
pneumatic controllers, and totalizers with or without alarm functions.

Typical applications include:

a. Purge rotameter with integral needle control valve for the measurement of: Inert gases or
liquids, seal liquids, small volumes of chemicals, chlorinator flow rates, and air purges for
instruments, analyzers or sample flow streams.

b. Glass taper-tube rotameters for flow indication of: Liquid streams with or without
suspended solids or other volatile liquids in nonhazardous services.

c. Armored – metal taper tube rotameters for measurement of: Hot liquid flows above 40°C
(104°F), strong alkalies or acids, steam or slurry services, high pressure fluids, freezing or
congealing liquids such as strong chemicals, waxes and asphalts, liquid streams with or
without suspended solids, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or other volatile liquids.”

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FLOW METER CALIBRATION: IMPORTANCE AND TECHNIQUES

Calibration is typically performed in a laboratory setting at several different flow rates, and uses
conditions such as changing densities, pressure, and temperatures. When calibration is performed,
the meter’s inherent calibration factors are determined. Proving differs from calibration in that it is
done in the field, typically under a single set of conditions. When a meter is proved in the field, a
meter correction factor is determined that is multiplied by the reading from the meter to offset its
indication.

The calibration can be defined as the comparison of a measuring instrument with specified
tolerance but an undetermined accuracy, to a measurement standard with known accuracy. The
use of noncalibrated instruments creates potentially incorrect measurement and erroneous
conclusions and decisions. It is calibration that provides assurance and confidence in measurement
that the instrument has an accuracy required to maintain product or process-specified ranges.
Calibration can be a simple dimensional check to detect measurement variables. Before starting
calibration, a decision must be made for the following:

• Which variables should be measured.

• What accuracy must be maintained.

The calibrated device must show sufficient range and be capable of transferring to the desired
level of accuracy. Some element of error exists in all measurements no matter how carefully they
are conducted. The magnitude of the error can never be easily determined by experiments; the
possible value of the error can be calculated.

This section of the course module introduces to the Participant the following flow measurement
topics:

• Methods of calibrations
• Provers
• Weight and volume methods

Method of Calibrations

In general the flow measurement devices are calibrated by three methods:

• Wet calibration uses the actual fluid flow

• Dry calibration uses flow simulation by means of an electronic or mechanical
signal.
• A measurement check of the physical dimensions and use of empirical tables
relating flow rate to these dimensions is another form of calibration.

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Wet Calibration

Wet calibration uses actual fluid flow. Generally it provides high accuracy for a flowmeter and is
used when accuracy is a prime concern. Precision flowmeters are usually wet calibrated at the
time of manufacture. Depending upon the size of the meters, calibration can be performed at the
user site, manufacturer’s facility, or laboratory. Wet calibration for flowmeters is usually
performed with water, air, or hydrocarbon fuels.

Dry Calibration

Dry calibration is performed on a flowmeter without the presence of a fluid medium. In a wet
calibration system, flowing fluid produces the input signal. In a dry calibration system, the input
signal is input as a frequency, millivoltage, or differential pressure. Dry calibration measurement is
much more uncertain than wet calibration and overall accuracy of the flow device is inferred
because the flow transducer is bypassed. The input signal for a dry calibration must be provided
by a measurement standard. The value of the output signal requires use of other measurement
standards. Follow the manufacturer’s guideline and procedures for dry calibration.

Provers

The proving operation verifies the meter’s performance and assures the meter users that the
metering system is operating properly. The necessity of meter proving depends on how accurate
the measurement must be for the product being handled. Larger volume and higher value products
are the most important reasons for using a meter prover. Oil industry measurement of crude oil
and refined products is an example of where the proving system should be used. The proving
system is considered part of the cost of the meter stations and is permanently installed at the
facilities. When the product has a lesser value, portable proving systems are used. The following
discussion describes

• Reasons for meter proving

• Methods of meter proving

Reasons for Meter Proving

Meter proving is generally conducted in oil processing industries for one of these three reasons:

• Custody transfer
• Quality audit (ISO 9000)
• Environmental audit

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Custody Transfer – Proving ensures that product inventory accounting is of the highest
accuracy. Two types of custody transfer are possible — legal custody, which falls under weights
and measures requirements, and contract, which is a contractual agreement between buyer and
seller. Proving must be performed under actual operating conditions. A field reference device is
used to prove the meter.

Quality Audit (ISO 9000) – Proving ensures that the product quality is consistent. When a meter
is used to control the addition of various fluid components to make a final product, the meter
performance must be repeatable to ensure that there is no degradation of the final product.

Environmental Audit – Proving ensures material balances during the manufacturing process and
transfers to the pipelines are correct. The main intent is to verify that what went in and what came
out was accounted for, so there is no loss of product during the process. It also ensures that there
is no violation of environmental regulations. As a part of environmental regulations, it is important
to show that the plan is working properly and accurately. Maintain proper records to show that
meter verification is being conducted on a regularly scheduled basis.

In general, proving in house is seldom done. Metering is assumed to be correct unless the process
goes out of control or breaks down. The proving procedure can be very expensive and time
consuming. The ability of these tests to prove a flowmeter’s accuracy varies from the very best
calibration to a test that has nothing to do with flow accuracy. The ratio of the meter factor is true
volume to the indicated or meter volume.
True Volume
Meter Factor =
Indicated or Meter Volume

Methods of Meter Proving

Pipe provers are one of the most common types of provers in industry today. Their popularity is
due their accuracy over a wide variety of flow ranges and fluids. Pipe provers allow proving to
occur under actual operating conditions. The process does not have to be shut down when
proving a meter. Two types of pipe provers are the unidirectional prover and the bidirectional
prover. Several methods are used for a proving application; typical approaches include using the
following:

• Unidirectional provers
• Bidirectional provers
• Small volume provers
• Master meter method

Unidirectional Provers – The unidirectional prover displaces a known volume by means of a

displacer (piston or sphere) traveling in only one direction inside the prover. The displacer’s travel
is detected by detector switches within the prover. Unidirectional provers are often used in
pipeline operations because they can operate at higher displacer velocities. Because the prover
allows flow in only one direction, the prover can simulate normal pipeline operations.

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Sphere Detector
Sphere

Flow

Sphere
Interchange Calibrated
Volume

Flow
Meter Sphere
Launching
Prover Printer
Tee
Computer

Figure 77: Typical Unidirectional Prover

Unidirectional provers always have the fluid flowing in the same direction through the prover. If
the calibrated volume is used only in one direction, there is a potential for the sphere detector
switches to develop an error. With bidirectional proving and half-trips in both directions, the
detector switches have a chance at cancelling that error. Bidirectional provers are more accurate
and more widely used. Usually provers are themselves calibrated by third parties.

Bidirectional Provers – The bidirectional prover (Figure 78) requires a displacer to travel in both
directions to complete one prover run. Provers can be u-shaped, folded, or straight pipe
depending upon the space requirements or space availability. Fluid is passed through an operating
meter into the prover. After stabilizing pressure and temperature, the displacer is put into the
system. It will slow down flow in the system for a time until the displacer picks up speed. Some
prerun length must be allowed before the displacement of the accurately measured volume starts.
After the flow rate stabilization, a switch indicates entry of the displacer into the calibrated section
and the meter pulses are sent to the proving counter.

Flow continues to the meter until a sufficient number of pulses has been produced by the
operating meter, approximately 10,000 or more. After some time, the exit switch indicates that
the calibrated volume has been achieved and pulses to the prover counter are interrupted. Pulses
generated by the operating meter are sent to the billing meter’s counter. This procedure is
repeated several times while recording the stabilized fluid pressure and temperature. Calculations
convert the pressure and temperature for the meter and the meter prover at the same condition.
The ratio of the prover volume to meter volume is the meter factor for this flow rate.

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4 Way Calibrated
Valve Volume

Sphere
(or Piston)
Meter
Sphere
Prover Detector
Computer Printer

Figure 78: Typical Bidirectional Prover

Small Volume Provers are becoming more widely used over conventional pipe provers because
they can accommodate a wide range of flow rates, products, and pressures. Small volume provers
are so named because they are compact in size and have less volume than conventional
unidirectional and bidirectional pipe provers. The small volume provers use advanced detector
switches and pulsed interpolation techniques to measure a known volume. Because of the smaller
volumes required, the time to obtain a meter factor is significantly decreased.

Master Meter Method is used when a pipe prover is unavailable. The master meter method uses
a known reliable meter configured in series with the meter to be proved. The meter measurements
are then compared.

Weight and Volume Methods

Three methods of calibration are in general use when a weight or volume tank is used as the
standard. The methods are the following:

• Static calibration
• Dynamic calibration
• Hybrid dynamic start-stop, static reading system

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Static Calibration

In the static calibration system, the flow is quickly started to begin the test, held constant during
the test, and then shut off at the end of the test. The totalized flow reading from the flowmeters is
compared with the weight or volume collected and the performance of the meter is calculated.
The static calibration system operates best with flowmeters that have low sensitivity to low flow
rates. The static calibration system does not give maximum results with high performance digital
output meters such as a vortex meter.

Dynamic Calibration

In the dynamic calibration system, the flow is kept at a constant rate before the beginning of the
test. The flow reading from the flow meter and initial weight or volume are read together to start
the test and after the desired collection period to end the test. The dynamic calibration systems are
limited by the meter’s speed of the response.

Hybrid Dynamic Start-Stop, Static Reading System

The hybrid dynamic start and stop, static reading weight, and volume system is more accurate
than the static and dynamic methods for liquid calibration. In this system, the desired test flow
rate is first obtained as the flow is diverted past the weight or volume flow standard. The test run
is initiated by diverting the flow into the standard and then completed by diverting it out of the
system. The digital flow signal is turned on and off by the diversion. The weight or volume is read
after a configured time and compared with the totalized flowmeters reading. The following figure
indicates the basic elements of a standard weighing system.

In this start and stop system, the diverter valve switches the flow in and out of the standard. The
diversion time is less then actual collection time, and the flow pattern through the diverter valve is
independent of the flow rate. The error can be reduced to less than 0.1 % of the reading. The
hybrid dynamic start and stop system is accurate, but relatively few are used because of its cost.

Volumetric Tank Proving Example

Volumetric tank proving uses a start stop method that simulates conditions of vessel loading. The
volumetric tank prover is most often used to prove product loading rack meters because a
start/stop method is used in actual loading.

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Splash Dome

Gauge Glass
And Scale Calibrated Volume

Overlapping
Gauge
Glasses Temperature
Measurement

Discharge

Figure 79: Volumetric Tank Prover

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WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE WHETHER AN ORIFICE

PLATE FLOW MEASURING DEVICE MEETS APPLICATION
REQUIREMENTS

Work Aid 1A: Vendor Data Sheets

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Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets

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FLOW Instrument Specifications Sheets

SA 2517 - ENG (11/90) Pitot Meter

SA 2778 - ENG (10/89) Local Flow
SA 2778 - M - ENG (10/89) Local Flow
SA 2790 - ENG (10/89) Variable Area Flow
SA 2790 - M - ENG (10/89) Variable Area Flow
SA 3175 - ENG (3/91) Orifice Plate 2” - 6”
SA 3176 - ENG (11/89) Segmental????
SA 3176 - M - ENG (11/89) Segmental????
SA 3176A - ENG (11/87) Restriction Orifice
SA 3177 - ENG (7/90) Quadrant
SA 3188 - ENG (11/89) Meter Reading Tables
SA 3188 - M - ENG (11/89) Meter Reading Tables

SA 6078 - ENG (10/89) Flow Inst.

SA 6078 - M - ENG (10/89) Flow Inst.
SA 6239 - ENG (1/91) ISS General

SA 8020-111 - M-ENG (7/89) Flow Xmttr ∆P

SA 8020-115 - ENG (8/89) Meter Orif. Cal.
SA 8020-115 - M - ENG (7/89) Meter Orif. Cal.
SA 8020-115A - ENG (6/91) Orifice 8” & SI
SA 8020-115A - M - ENG (6/91) Orifice 8” & SI
SA 8020-116 - M - ENG (7/89) Venturi
SA 8020-117 - ENG (7/89) Turbine
SA 8020-117 - M - ENG (7/89) Turbine
SA 8020-118 - ENG (7/89) Liq. PD
SA 8020-119 - ENG (7/89) Bidirect Prover
SA 8020-124 - ENG (7/89) Rest. Orif. Calc. 8 Spec.
SA 8020-124 - M - ENG (7/89) Rest. Orif. Calc. 8 Spec.

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Work Aid 1C: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.)

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Work Aid 1D: Procedures for Calculation

Orifice Plate Size (from SADP-J-100, Attachment 2)
Total Probable Error for an Orifice Plate

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Work Aid 1E: SADP-J-100, Section 6 (See Course Handout 1.)

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WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE OTHER DIFFERENTIAL

PRESSURE FLOW MEASURING DEVICES FOR SUITABILITY IN A
SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION

Work Aid 2A: Vendor Data Sheets

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Work Aid 2B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets

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Work Aid 2C: SADP-J-100 (See Course Handout 1.)

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Work Aid 2D: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.)

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Work Aid 2E: Procedures for Manual Calculation of Restriction Orifice Plate Size (from
SADP-J-100, Attachment 3)

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WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE THE SUITABILITY OF OTHER

RATE AND QUANTITY FLOW MEASURING DEVICES FOR
SUITABILITY IN A SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION

Work Aid 3A: Vendor Data Sheets

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Work Aid 3B: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets

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Work Aid 3C: SADP-J-100 (See Course Handout 1.)

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Work Aid 3D: SAES-J-100 (See Course Handout 2.)

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GLOSSARY

NOTE: The definitions presented are taken from “Glossary of Terms Used in the Measurement of
Fluid Flow” (ANSI/ASME MFC-1M-1979.

Absolute Pressure The combined local pressure induced by some source and the
atmospheric pressure at the location of the measurement.
Accuracy The measure of freedom from error; the degree of conformity of
the indicated value to the true value of the measured quantity.
Beta Ratio The ratio of the diameter of the constriction to the pipe diameter,
β = d bore/Dpipe.
Bore Reynolds Number Calculated Reynolds number Rd using Vbore, ρbore, µbore, dbore;
also Rd = RD/β.
Calibration Determination of the experimental relationship between the
quantity being measured and the output of the device that
measures it; where the quantity measured is obtained through a
recognized standard of measurement.
Centrifugal Force A force acting in a direction along and outward on the radius of
turn for a mass in motion.
Choked Flow The condition of maximum velocity at the minimum area section of
a device corresponding to the speed of sound of the gas flowing
through the device.
Coanda Effect A phenomenon of fluid attachment to one wall in the presence of
two walls.
Confidence Level The probability that the interval quoted will include the true value
of the quantity being measured.
Coriolis Force Results from Coriolis acceleration acting on a mass moving with a
velocity radially outward in a rotating plane.
Critical Flow Same as choked flow.
Differential Pressure The static pressure difference generated by the primary device
when there is no difference in elevation between the upstream and
downstream pressure taps.
Dynamic Pressure The increase in pressure above the static pressure that results from
complete transformation of the kinetic energy of the fluid into
potential energy.

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Expansion Factor Correction for the change in density between two pressure-
measurement stations in a constricted flow.
Flow Rate Actual velocity of the fluid medium.
Flow-Rate Range Range of flow rates bounded by the minimum and maximum flow
rates.
Flowmeter A device for measuring the quantity or rate of flow of a moving
fluid in a pipe.
Gage Pressure The difference between the local absolute pressure of the fluid and
the atmospheric pressure at the place of the measurement.
Gravitational Constant A dimensionless conversion factor in English units that arises from
Newton’s second law (F = ma) when mass is expressed in pounds-
mass (lbm).
gc = 1 in SI and cgs, units and English units when mass is
expressed in “slugs.”
lbm
gc = 32.17 in English units when mass is expressed in lbm.
slug
Head Loss Pressure loss in terms of a length parameter such as inches of
water or millimeters of mercury.
Head Pressure Expression of a pressure in terms of the height of fluid, P = yρg,
where ρ is fluid density and y is the fluid column height.
Isentropic Exponent A ratio defined by the specific heat at constant pressure divided by
the specific heat at constant volume.
Kinetic Energy Energy related to the fluid dynamic pressure, 1/2 ρ V2.
Laminar Flow Flow under conditions in which forces caused by viscosity are
more significant than forces caused by inertia.
Linearity The maximum percent deviation of calibration data from a zero-
based straight line.
Mach Number The ratio of the fluid velocity to the velocity of sound in the fluid,
at the same temperature and pressure.
Mass-Flow Rate The product of fluid density, ρ, full closed conduit area, A, and
fluid velocity, V.

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Meter Run A flowmeter installed and calibrated in a section of pipe having

adequate upstream and downstream length to satisfy standards of
flowmeter installation.
Newtonian Flow Fluid characteristics adhering to the linear relation between shear
stress, viscosity, and velocity distribution,
dV
τ = -µ .
dy
Percent of Actual Same accuracy value applies over the entire flow rate range.
Percent of Span Accuracy value applies only at the maximum-rated flow.
Pipe Reynolds Number Calculated Reynolds number RD, using Vpipe, ρpipe, µpipe, and
Dpipe.
Potential Energy Energy related to the position or height above a place to which
fluid could possibly flow.
Precision Or repeatability, a random error caused by numerous small
independent influences that prevent a measurement system from
delivering the same reading when supplied with the same input
value of the quantity being measured.
Primary Device The part of a flowmeter that generates a signal responding to the
flow from which the flow rate can be inferred.
Proving Determination of flowmeter performance by establishing the
relationship between the volume actually passed through the meter
and the volume indicated by the meter.
Pulsating Flow A flow rate that varies with time, but for which the mean flow rate
is constant when obtained over a sufficiently long period of time.
Quantity Meter A flowmeter in which the flow is separated into known isolated
quantities that are separately counted to determine the total
volume passed through the meter.
Random Error Precision or repeatability, data that deviate from a mean value in
accordance with the laws of chance.
Rangeability The ratio of the maximum flow rate to the minimum flow rate of a
meter.
Repeatability See precision or random error.
Reproducibility A measure of the characteristic nature of any flowmeter to be
taken off the shelf, installed in a flow line, and deliver a specified
performance level.

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Resolution The error associated with the ability to resolve a flowmeter output
signal to the smallest measurable unit. For example, only ±1 pulse
is measurable in any pulse output device.
Reynolds Number The ratio of inertia and viscous forces in a fluid defined by the
ρVl
formula Re = .
µ
Secondary Device Part of a flowmeter that receives a signal from the primary device
and displays, records, and/or transmits it as a measure of the flow
rate.
Slip A term commonly used to express leakage in positive-
displacement flowmeters.
Spurious Error Errors caused by instrument malfunction or human goof-ups.
Stagnation Pressure The pressure of a fluid one would obtain if one could bring a
flowing fluid to a standstill (to rest) isentropically (without any
energy loss).
Static Pressure The pressure of a fluid that is independent of the kinetic energy of
the fluid.
Static Weighing A method in which the net mass of liquid collected is deduced
from tare (empty tank) and gross (full tank) weighings respectively
made before the flow is diverted into the weighing tank and after it
is diverted to the by-pass.
Steady Flow A flow in which the flow rate in a measuring section does not vary
significantly with time.
Systematic Error That which cannot be reduced by increasing the number of
measurements if the equipment and conditions remain unchanged.
Total Pressure See stagnation pressure
Transitional Flow Flow between laminar and turbulent flow; generally between a
pipe Reynolds number 2000 and 7000.
True Mass Flow A measurement that is a direct measurement of mass and
independent of the properties and the state of the fluid.
Turbulent Flow Flow in which forces caused by inertia are more significant than
forces caused by viscosity and adjacent fluid particles are more or
less random in motion.
Uncertainty The interval within which the flow rate fluctuates randomly with
time and for which the mean value is not constant.

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Unsteady Flow A flow in which the flow rate fluctuates randomly with time and
for which the mean value is not constant.
Volume Flow Rate Calculated using the area of the full closed conduit and the average
velocity in the form Q = VxA, to arrive at the total quantity of
flow.
Working Pressure Or flowing pressure is the static pressure of the fluid immediately
upstream of a primary device.
Working Temperature The temperature of the fluid immediately upstream of a primary
device.

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