JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA

VATTEM, NAGARKURNOOL

.
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PROJECT NAME: “AND GATES”

R.SHIRISHA
CLASS XII
ROLL NO: 21
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I hereby acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude and

indebtedness to my physics teacher
Mr.MANUYOHANNAN.J (PGT PHYSICS) for
providing genius guidance, encouragement, necessary
suggestions, initiations enthusiasm and inspiration made
this work a master art and a joint enterprise. I would
like to thank my parents who have helped me with their
valuable suggestions and guidance has been helpful in
various phases of the completion of the project without
which I would unable to complete my project. Special
thanks of mine goes to my brother who helped me a lot
in this project and helping me to collect all the materials
required for this project and by giving interesting ideas,
thoughts, and made this project easy and accurate. Last
but not least i would like to thank my classmates who
have helped me a lot who appreciated me for my work
and motivated me and finally thank god who made all
the things possible.....
 INDEX

1) Introduction
2) Hypothesis
3) Materials used
4) Theory
5) Circuit diagram
6) Procedure
7) Observation
8) Conclusion
9) Reference
 INTRODUCTION
The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (published in 1705), influenced by the ancient I
Ching's binary system.[4][5] Leibniz established that, by using
the binary system, the principles of arithmetic and logic could
be combined.
In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how
logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching
circuits.[6] Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic
operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of
the Fleming valve can be used as a logic gate. Ludwig
Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as
proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of
the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in
physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in
1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical logic
gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935–38).
From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira
Nakashima introduced switching circuit theory in a series of
papers showing that two-valued Boolean algebra, which he
discovered independently, can describe the operation of
switching circuits.[7][8][9][10] His work was later cited by Claude
E. Shannon, who elaborated on the use of Boolean algebra in
the analysis and design of switching circuits in 1937.[9] Using
this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the
fundamental concept that underlies all electronic
digital computers. Switching circuit theory became the
foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely
known in the electrical engineering community during and
after World War II, with theoretical rigor superseding the ad
hoc methods that had prevailed previously.[10]
Active research is taking place in molecular logic gates.
Logic gates are the heart of digital electronics. A gate is an
electronic device which is used to compute a function on a
two valued signal. Logic gates are the basic building block of
digital circuits.

Basically, all logic gates have one output and two inputs.
Some logic gates like NOT gate or Inverter has only one input
and one output. The inputs of the logic gates are designed to
receive only binary data (only low 0 or high 1) by receiving
the voltage input.

The low logic level represents Zero volts and high logic level
represents 3 or 5 volts positive supply voltage.

We can connect any number of logic gates to design a

required digital circuit. Practically, we implement the large
number of logic gates in ICs, by which we can save the
physical space occur the AND gate is a basic digital logic
gate that implements logical conjunction - it behaves
according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1)
results only if all the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH (1). If
none or not all inputs to the AND gate are HIGH, a LOW
output results by the large number of logic gates. We can also
perform complicated operations at high speeds by using
integrated circuits (IC)

By combining logic gates, we can design many specific

circuits like flip flops, latches, multiplexers, shift registers etc.
HYPOTHESIS
 MATERIALS USED

 Two switches
 LED light
 9 volts battery
 Connector
 Conducting wires
 A card board
 Glue
 Resistor
 THEORY

Logic gates can also be used to store data. A storage element can be
constructed by connecting several gates in a "latch" circuit. More
complicated designs that use signals and that change only on a rising or
falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". Formally, a
flip-flop is called a biteable circuit, because it has two stable states which
it can maintain indefinitely. The combination of multiple flip-flops in
parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using
any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called
a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its
previous state(s), i.e. by the sequence of input states. In contrast, the
output from combinational logic is purely a combination of its present
inputs, unaffected by the previous input and output states.
These logic circuits are known as computer memory. They vary in
performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of
storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the
application.

AND Gate

The simple AND gate designed by resistor is shown in the below figure.
In this the circuit driving voltage V is connected to the two serially
connected through a resistor, R. Inputs are given to this circuit.

In this, the logic HIGH (1) is represented by +5 Volts and logic LOW (0)
is represented by 0 Volts or Ground. In the below circuit, the two inputs
are left unconnected, so the output is also 0 i.e. logic low.

If any one of the inputs is connected to +0 volts , then the LED stops
glowing which will not conduct and makes the output as LOW logic i.e. 0.

If the voltage of +5 V is connected to both the inputs, then the LED starts
glowing, this makes the output of AND circuit to set in HIGH logic.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1)when both switches are in ON condition

2) When both switches are in OFF condition

3) When switch A is in OFF and B is in ON condition

4) When switch A Is in ON and B is in OFF condition

 PROCEDURE
The AND gate is a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combines
the input A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression.
Y = A. B .The Boolean algebra, the multiplication symbol (. dot or x
Gross) is taken to mean AND. Y = A. B have Y is equal to A AND B.
The various possible combination of the input and outputs of the AND
gate can be easily found with the help of the electrical circuit. Here a
series combination of the switch A and B is connected to a battery and a
lump L.
The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of
electrical circuit:
a) If switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then LED will not glow. (y=0)
b) If switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then LED will not glow. (y=0)
c) If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then LED will not glow. (y=0)
d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then LED will glow. (y=1)

SYMBOL OF AND GATE

 OBSERVATION

Firstly when both the switches (A=0 & B=0) are in off
condition, then the LED will not glow(Y=0). As I ON one of
the switches say (A=1 & B=0), then the LED will not glow
(the output results Y=0) according to truth table of AND gate.
When I ON one of the switches (A=0&B=1), then also the
LED will not glow (the output results Y=0). Lastly as I ON
both the switches (A=1& B=1), the LED will glow (the output
results Y=1).
 CONCLUSION

Logical gates are used to developed many IC circuits or

microchips in today’s modern world. Logic gates or
circuits can be implemented by using electronic
components (diodes, transistors and resistors) and
verified by the helps of Boolean expressions, truth
tables, and logic diagrams.
Nand gate and nor gates are known as universal gates
because we can construct all the three basic gates using
NAND and NOR or gates.
Without logic gates, electronic world would be nearly
incomplete!
 REFERENCE

1) NCERT Textbook of class 12

2. www.google.com
3. Concept of Physics by H C Verma
4. www.wikipedia.com

5. www.youtube.com