Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Concept of Power Electronics

Power electronics is defined as control and conversion of power through solid state
electronics, or in other terms, the task of power electronics is to process and control the flow
of electric energy by supplying voltages and currents in the form that optimally suited for
user loads. Figure 1.1 shows a block diagram representation of a power electronics system.
power input to this processor is usually from electric an utility at a power frequency of
single phase or three phases. Phase angle between the input voltage and input current
depends on the topology and control of the power processor. The processed output (voltage,
current, frequency and number of phases) is as defined by the load. If the power processor’s
output can be regarded as voltage source, the output current and phase angle relationship
between output voltage and current depends on load characteristic. Normally, a feedback
controller compares the output of a power processor with a reference value and error
between two is minimized by the controller. Power flow through such systems can be
reversible, thus the role of input and output can be interchanged.

The controller in the block diagram of Fig.1.1 consists of a linear integrated circuits and/ or
digital signal processors. Advances in microelectronics method have led to development of
such controllers. Moreover these advances in semiconductor technology have made it
possible to significantly improve the voltage and current handling capabilities and switching
speed of the power semiconductor devices, which make up power processor unit of Fig.1.1.

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 Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a power electronics system

1.2 Applications of power electronics

The need for control of electric power motor drive systems and industrial control existed
for many years, and this led to early development of the ward lenord system to obtained a
variable dc voltage for control of dc motor drives. power electronics bring the revolution
of power control for power conversion and for control electric motor drives.

Power electronics system combine power, electronics, and control. Power deals static and
rotating power equipment for generation, transmission, and distribution of electric energy.
Control deals with steady-state and dynamic characteristics of closed loop systems Electronics
deals with solid state devices and circuits for signal processing to meet desired control
objectives. The relationship of Power electronics with power, electronics and control is shown in
Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 Relationship of power electronics to power, electronics, and control.

Power electronics are primarily baesd on switching of power semiconductor devices. With
the recent development of power semiconductor technology, the power handling capabilities
and the switching speed of power devices have improved tremendously. The early

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development of microprocessors and microcomputer technology has great impact on the
control strategy for the power semiconductor devices. Modern power electronics equipment
users (1) power semiconductors that can be regarded as the muscle, and (2) microelectronics
that have power and intelligent of a brain.

Power electronics have an important place in modern technology and are now used in great
variety of high products, including heat controls, light controls, motor control, power
supplies, vehicle propulsion systems and high voltage direct current (HVDC) systems. It is
difficult to draw the flexible ac transmissions (FACTs) boundaries for application of power
electronics, especially with present trends in the development of power devices and
microprocessors. Table 1.1 shows some application of power electronics

Table 1.1 Some application of power electronics

1.Aresospace:-
Space shuttle power supplies, satellite power supplies, and aircraft power systems.

2.Commerical:-
Advertising, heating, air conditioning, central refrigeration, computer and office equipment,
uninterruptible power supplies, elevators, light dimmers and flashers.

3.Industrial:-
Arc and industrial furnaces, blowers and fans, pumps and compressors, industrial lasers,
transformer tap changers, rolling mills, textile mills excavators, cement mills welding.

4.Resedential:-
Airconditioning,cooking, lighting, space heating,refrigerators electric-door openers,vaccum
cleaners, washing and sewing machines, light dimmers, food mixers, food warmers trays.

5. Telecommunication:-
Battery chargers, power supplies(DC and UPS).

6.transportation:-
Traction control of electric vehicle, electric locomotives. Street cars,trolly buses, subways,
automotive electronics.

7.Utility System:-
High voltage dc transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR compensation, static circuit
breakers, boiler feed pumps, supplementary energy systems (solar, wind).

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1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of power electronics systems

The advantages of power electronics system are as under:

(i) High efficiency due to low loss in power-semiconductor devices
(ii) High reliability of power electronics converter systems.
(iii) Long life and less maintence due to absence any moving parts.
(iv) Fast dynamic response of power electronic systems as compare to electromechanical
converter systems.
(v) Small size and less weight result in less floor space and therefore lower installation
cost.
(vi) Mass production of power-semiconductor devices has resulted in lower cost of the
converter equipment.

Power electronics systems suffer from following disadvantages

(i) Power electronic converter system circuits have a tendency generate harmonic in
the input supply as well as load circuit.

In the input supply system, the harmonic distort the voltage and current wave form
and seriously influence the performance of other equipment to same supply line. In
addition, the harmonic in supply line can also cause interference in audio and video
equipment(called radio interference). It is, therefore, necessary to insert a filter on
the input side of a converter.

In a load circuit, the performance of the load is affected, for example, a high
harmonic content in the load circuit causes commutation problem of power devices
in a dc machines, increased motor heating and more ac acoustical noise in both dc
and ac machines. So a measure has to be taken to filter out these harmonic from
output side of converter.
(ii) Ac to dc and ac to ac converters operate at low power factor under certain
conditions. In order to avoid low power factor, some special measures have to
adapted.
(iii) Power electronic controllers have low over load capacity. These converters must
have be rated for taking momentary over loads. As such, cost of power electronic
controller may increase
(iv) Regeneration of power is difficult in power converter systems.

The advantages possessed by power electronic far outweigh their disadvantages mentioned
above. As a consequences, semiconductor based converters are being extensively employed
in systems where power flow is regulated.

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1.4 Types of power electronic converters
For control of electric power or power conditioning, the conversion of electric power from
one form to another is necessary and switching characteristics of power devices permit these
conversions. The static power converters perform these function of power conversions. A
converter may be consider as a switching matrix. Power electronic converters(or circuits)
can be classified into six types.

1.Diode rectifier: A diode rectifier circuit converts ac input voltage into fixed dc voltage.
The input voltage to rectifier could be either single phase or three phase. Figure 1.3 shows a
single phase full wave diode rectifier.

Figure 1.3 Single phase rectifier circuit

2. Ac to dc converter: These converters convert constant ac voltage to variable dc

output voltage. These converters use line voltage for their commutation; as such these
converts also called line commutated or naturally commutated ac to dc converters, or
controlled rectifiers. Figure 1.4 shows a single phase converter with two natural commutated
thyristor.

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 Fig. 1.4 Single phase ac-dc converter
3. Ac to ac converters: These converters convert fixed ac input voltage into variable ac
output voltage. These are two types as under:
(a) AC voltage controllers: These converter circuits convert fixed ac voltage to
variable ac output voltage at same input frequency.Ac voltage controller employ a TRIAC or
two thyristor connected in anti-parallel. The output voltage is controlled by varying the
conduction time of a TRAIC or firing angle,α.Fig. 1.5 shows a single phase ac voltage
controller.

Fig.1.5 Single phase ac voltage controller

(b) Cycloconverters: This type of converters converts input power at one frequency
to output power at different frequency trough on stage conversion. Line commutation is
more common in cycloconverters, though load and forced commutation are also used.

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4. Dc to dc converters: A dc to dc converter is also known as a chopper or switching
regulator, Figure 1.6 shows elementary chopper circuit. The average output voltage is
controlled by varying the conduction time of switch SW. if T is the chopping period, then
t1=αT.α is called as duty cycle of the chopper.

Fig. 1.6(a) Elementary chopper circuit and(b) output voltage current waveform

5. Dc to ac converters: A dc to ac converter is also known as an inverter, A single

phase inverter shown in figure 1.7.The output may be variable voltage and variable .These
converters use line, load or forced commutation for turning off the power semiconductor
devices.

Fig. 1.7 Single phase ac-dc converter

6. Static switches: Since the Power devices can operated as static switches or contactor,
the supply to these switches could be either ac or dc and switches are called as static
switches or dc switches.
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1.5. Power semiconductor Devices
First thyristor was developed in 1957, there have have been tremendous advances in the field
of power semiconductor devices. Till, 1970, conventional thyristors had been used for power
control in industrial applications. Since 1970 various types of power semiconductor devices
were developed and became commercially available. Power semiconductors devices, which
are generally made of either silicon or silicon carbide. Silicon carbide device are, however,
under development. A majority of devices are made of silicon. These devices can be broadly
divided into three types: (1) power diode, (2) transistors, and (3) thyristors. Most of the
devices are below in table 1.2 along with their circuit, or devices, symbol and with
maximum rating.

Table 1.2 Rating of power semiconductor devices

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In the above table, the various abbreviations are; SCR (silicon controlled rectifier),
LASCR(light activated SCR), ASCR( asymmetric SCR),RCT(Reverse conducting

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 thyristor)GTO (gate turn-off thyristor), SITH ( static induction thyristor), MCT( MOS
controlled thyristor), BJT ( bipolar junction transistor), MTO ( MOS turn-off), ETO ( emitter
turn-off), IGBT( insulated gate bipolar transistor) and SIT( static induction thyristor).

1.6 Power semiconductor switches:

Power semiconductor switches broadly classified into three types:
(a) Uncontrolled switches: uncontrolled switches can be turn-on and turn-off by
circuit condition, e.g. in single phase diode rectifier circuit, diode will on for positive
cycle of source voltage and it remains in off state for negative half cycle of source
voltage. So, diode act as uncontrolled switch means we cannot turn it on at desired
instant.
(b) Semi controlled or half controlled switches: These have controlled turn-
on by gate (control terminal) signal and remain latched in on state due to internal
regeneration action and cannot be turned-off by gate terminal. These can be turnrd
off by the power circuit, e.g. thyristors.
(c) Controlled switches: These devices are turned-on control terminal. The device
which behave as controlled switches are BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIHT
and MCT.

1.7. Characteristics of switches

There are many types of power switching devices. Each switch have its own advantages and
disadvantages and suitable to particular applications. Motivation behind the development of any
device is to achieve the characteristics of a “super device”. Therefore characteristics of any real
device should be compared and evaluated with ideal characteristics of super device.

1.7.1 Ideal characteristics

The characteristics of an ideal device ( or switch) are as under:

1. When device( or switch) in on state, it must have(i)the capability to carry high forward
current, tending to infinity (ii) a low on state forward voltage drop, tending to zero;and (iii) a
low on state resistance which causes low on state power loss.
2. When switch in blocking state or off state, it must have (i) the capability to with stand a
forward or reverse voltage, tending to infinity; (ii) a low off-state leakage current tending to
zero; and (iii) a high off-state resistance tending to infinity. High off-state resistance causes
low off-state power loss.
3. During turn-on and turn-off process, it must be completely turn-on and off instantaneously
so that device can be operated at high frequency. Thus it must have (i) a low delay time td,
tending to zero; (ii) a low rise time tr, tending to zero; and (iv) a low fall time tf, tending to
zero.

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4. For turn-on and turn-off, it must require (i) a low gate drive power, tending to zero; (ii) a
low gate drive voltage, tending to zero; and (iii) a low gate drive current tending to zero.
5. Turn-on and turn off must be controllable. Thus it must turn –on with a gate (or control)
signal (e.g. positive) and must turn-off with anther gate signal (e.g. zero or negative).
6. For turning on and off, it requires a pulse signal only that is a small pulse with a very small
width, tending to zero.
7. It must have a high dv/dt and di/dt, tending to infinity, so that device must be capable of
handling rapid changes of voltage and current through it.
8. It requires very low thermal impedance tending to zero, so that it can dissipate heat easily.
9. The ability to withstand any fault current for long time; that is, it must have high value of i2t,
tending to infinity.
10. The device requires negative temperature coefficient for equal current sharing when device
are operated in parallel mode.positvie temperature coefficient may lead to break down of the
devices when they are operated in parallel.

1.7.2 Characteristics of practical devices (or switches)

During turn- on and turn off process, a practical switching devices, shown in fig 1.8
(a),requires a finite delay time(td), rise time (tr), storage time (ts), and fall time (tf). The device
current isw rise during turn-on, the voltage across the device vsw falls. As device current falls
during turn-off. The voltage across the device rises. The typical wave forms of device voltage vsw
and current isw are shown in fig 1.8 (b).The turn-on time (ton) of a device is the sum of delay time
and rise time, whereas the turn-off time (toff) of a device is sum of storage time and fall time.

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 Fig 1.8 Waveform of device voltage and current

In contrast to an ideal switch, a practical switching device dissipates some energy when
conducting and switching. Voltage drop across a conducting power device is at on order of 1V to
2V, but it can be up to several volts.

The average conduction power loss PON can be calculated as:

ton
1
PON 
T  pdt
0
(1.1)

Where T denotes conduction period and p is the instantaneous power loss (i.e. multiplication of
the voltage drop vsw across the switch and the conduction current isw). Power losses increases
during turn –on and turn –off of the switch because during transition time from one conducting

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state to another state both voltage and current have significant values. The net power loss Psw
during turn-on and turn-off periods is given by

1r 
t ts tf

Psw    pdt   pdt   pdt  (1.2)

T  0 0 0



Therefore the powerloss of switching devices is given by

PD  Pon  Psw  PG (1.3)

Where PG is the gate drive power loss.

1.8 Summary
Power semiconductor devices are the heart of power electronics system. The application
of power electronics increasing day by day. There are already so many devices that are
commercially available; so, power electronics engineer must understand the device for
efficient, reliable and cost effective design of power converters. The design of power
electronics circuits requires designing of power and control circuits. The harmonics that
are generated by power converters can be minimized with the proper control strategy.

1.9 Problems
1.1. What is Power electronics? Discuss the concept power electronics system.

1.2. What are the different applications of power electronics.

1.3. What is converter? Give the classification of converters.

1.4 Compare diode and thyristor.

1.5 Give the name of different application of power semiconductor devices with their
symbols and ratings.

1.6 What is switch ? Give the classification of different power semiconductor switch.

1.7 What is difference between thyristor and TRIAC?

1.8 What is difference between ac voltage controller and cycloconverter?

1.9 Write the characteristics of an ideal switch.

1.10 Explain the characteristics of practical devices (or switch).

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