Objectives,

Scope and
Methodologies

A multidisciplinary team
of international and Nigerian
experts conducted fieldwork
for the UNEP assessment
over a 14-month period
© Mazen Saggar
UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

6. Provide recommendations for sustainable

Objectives, Scope environmental management of Ogoniland
and Methodologies 7. Enhance local capacity for better environmental
management and promote awareness of sound
3.1 Objectives environmental management and sustainable
development
Based on the initial request from the Government 8. Be part of the peace dividend and promote
of Nigeria and the background work undertaken ongoing peace building efforts.
by UNEP, the following objectives were formulated
for the assessment: The full project document approved by the PIC
1. Undertake a comprehensive assessment of all is available online.
environmental issues associated with the oilfield
related activities in Ogoniland, including the 3.2 Scope of the investigation
quantification of impacts
2. Provide useful guidance data to undertake Geographical scope
remediation of contaminated soil and The geographical scope of the investigation
groundwater in Ogoniland concerned the areas in and around Ogoniland,
3. Provide specific recommendations regarding with a specific focus on the four Ogoniland
the scope, modalities and means of remediation local government areas (Eleme, Gokana, Khana
of soil and groundwater contamination and Tai). However, the precise location of the
boundaries between these LGAs and neighbouring
4. Technical evaluation of alternative technologies LGAs was not always evident on the ground. Nor
which could be employed to undertake such did official information necessarily correspond to
remediation local community understanding. Consequently,
5. Provide recommendations for responding to some of the assessment and sampling work
future environmental contamination from straddled the officially mapped boundaries of the
oilfield operations four LGAs.

UNEP technical assistant obtaining fish at a local market

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Bodo West is an area within the extensive network by measuring drinking water quality around spill
of deltaic creeks. Though uninhabited it includes sites and by a review of public health data obtained
a number of oil wells. The wells themselves are from medical centres in Ogoniland. To gain a better
submerged, while the associated production understanding of the data, a preliminary social
station (now decommissioned) is on land. Bodo survey of local communities was undertaken.
West is officially mapped as belonging to Ogu/
Bolo LGA but since there are no local settlements, In reviewing the institutional and legal structures
it has been regarded by both SPDC and the Ogoni related to the environment and the petroleum
people as part of the Ogoniland oil facilities. industry in the Niger Delta, UNEP looked at
Bodo West was therefore included in the scope the governmental institutions directly involved:
of UNEP’s work. the Federal Ministry of Environment, NOSDRA
and the DPR – an agency under the Ministry of
UNEP’s investigations of surface water, sediments Petroleum Resources which has a statutory role
and aquatic biota focused on two major water in environmental management.
systems, namely the Imo River in the east of
Ogoniland and the numerous creeks that extend SPDC has internal procedures dealing with a range
towards Ogoniland from the Bonny River. of issues that have environmental consequences.
UNEP’s review of SPDC practices and
In order to demonstrate that the environmental performance included company documentation
problems affecting Ogoniland are being felt in on responses to oil spills, clean-up of contaminated
neighbouring areas, limited investigations were sites and abandonment of sites. In addition, the
also carried out in the adjoining Andoni LGA. assessment also examined whether clean-up of oil
spills and contaminated sites in Ogoniland was
Technical scope of the assessment implemented in accordance with SPDC’s internal
procedures. The assessment also checked whether
The investigation into soil and groundwater environmental clean-up operations accorded with
contamination focused on the areas impacted by Nigerian national standards.
oilfield operations in Ogoniland. These included
the locations of all oil spills reported by SPDC Lastly, the assessment considered the impact of
or the local community, all oilfield infrastructure illegal operations. In addition to the licensed
(whether still in operation or abandoned) and operators undertaking legitimate oil production,
all the land area contaminated by floating oil in transport and refining activities in Ogoniland,
creeks. In a number of these locations SPDC a number of groups and individuals carry out
had reportedly initiated or completed clean-up unlicensed, and therefore illegal, oil-related
operations. activities which also have serious environmental
consequences.
Investigations into aquatic pollution were carried
out along the Imo River and the creeks, focusing
on surface water quality, sediment contamination 3.3 Structure of the study team
and contamination of fish. Since not all the fish
consumed by Ogoni communities come from local A major scientific study of this complexity, with
water bodies, fish sold at local markets were also extensive geographical and thematic scope, can
examined to establish whether contaminated food only be executed using a large team equipped
is reaching Ogoniland from external sources. with diverse skills and expertise. The task required
scientific teams to work side by side with support
Surveys of vegetation contaminants were also teams composed of community, logistics and
made of vegetation around spill sites and mangroves security personnel. This demanded a high level
impacted by oil pollution. of coordination and oversight. At the peak of its
work, the Ogoniland assessment team numbered
The impact of pollutants on public health over 100 people, with daily convoys into the field
was assessed in three ways: by taking air quality requiring up to 15 vehicles. The study team was
measurements in communities around spill sites, organized as follows.

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Project management
The study team was managed by an international
UNEP project coordinator in Port Harcourt. The
project was overseen by UNEP’s Post-Conflict and
Disaster Management Branch, based in Geneva,
in conjunction with the UNEP headquarters in
Nairobi.

Technical teams
Fieldwork was conducted simultaneously by
technical teams covering four thematic areas:
contaminated land, water, vegetation and public
health. Each team was composed of international
experts supported by national experts, employed by
UNEP as project staff, and by senior academics and
technicians primarily from Rivers State University
of Science and Technology (RSUST).

As the assessment of contaminated land was

the most critical part of the assessment, the
Contaminated Land Team contained the largest
number of international experts, primarily
contaminated site assessment professionals with Early morning field trip by members of the
extensive experience. aquatic team, Khana LGA, August 2010

© GODWIN OMOIGUI, THIS DAY

Professor Roselyn Konya, Bishop Matthew Kukah, Chairman of the Presidential Implementation
Committee, and HM King Gininwa attending a project briefing at State House, Abuja, August 2010

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

The Aquatic Team dealt with issues of surface RSUST to establish the level of local environmental
water, sediments and aquatic biota, and was led knowledge and to understand local concerns and
by experts from the World Maritime University perceptions of issues related to the oil sector. In
in Sweden. addition, a team of Nigerian nationals, led by an
international laboratory expert, ensured that all
The Vegetation Team was led by an international samples of water, soil, sediments and fish tissue
expert from Bern University in Switzerland and collected by the thematic teams reached the correct
the team’s studies covered agriculture, forestry and laboratories for analysis within the shortest possible
mangroves, all important aspects of the interface time, together with appropriate documentation
between environment and livelihoods. and in compliance with relevant international
protocols.
The Public Health Team looked primarily at air
quality as well as public health impacts associated
Support teams
with environmental conditions in Ogoniland.
The team was led by an international expert from A series of support teams provided specific services to
Boston University, USA and supported by an the thematic teams, helping to ensure timely completion
expert team of Nigerian nationals. of project assignments. These teams covered:

Cross-cutting teams t
Well-drilling. Assessment of contaminated

water, soil and sediment, as well as understanding
Working in parallel with the thematic teams were a the shallow geology of the Niger Delta, required
number of smaller teams whose role was to provide a large number of groundwater monitoring
data on cross-cutting issues. These involved remote wells to be drilled throughout the study area.
sensing (analysis of satellite imagery and provision Following an international bidding exercise,
of aerial photography); legal and institutional this work was assigned to Fugro International
reviews; and community surveys undertaken by (Nigeria).

Members of the UNEP project team with Rivers State University of Science and Technology
academic staff and students

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

UNEP team preparing to depart into the field

t
Topographical surveys. In order to obtain out in an area with serious challenges to public
information about groundwater flow directions health, road safety and personal security,
and quantitative information on subsurface with personnel arriving and departing via the
contamination, an accurate topographic international airport in nearby Port Harcourt.
survey of selected locations throughout the A project office comprising over 30 national
study area was necessary. This work was staff was established to assist the dozens of
undertaken by Universal Survey Services experts, national and international, who
(Nigeria). were constantly moving around the study
area, visiting multiple sites each day. A team
t
Data management. The survey generated large of safety and logistics experts was on hand
quantities of scientific data in various formats, throughout the fieldwork period. At the peak
varying from completed site checklists in paper of the project, up to 15 vehicles were in use for
format to video records of aerial surveys. A fieldwork, airport pick-ups and office runs.
team of national and international data experts
ensured that all data collected in the field were t
Security. UN Department of Safety and
backed up as quickly as possible on a local Security (UNDSS) guidelines were followed
server at Port Harcourt, with a secondary back- throughout the project and operational safety
up in Geneva. The Data Management Team was provided by the Nigerian Government.
also verified the completeness of information Through the cooperation of the Governor
provided on field data sheets and cross checked of Rivers State, a contingent of 16 Nigerian
the accuracy of the sample identification codes Mobile Police (MOPOL) officers provided
with corresponding GPS data. security cover during all field deployments,
as well as travel to and from the project
t
Health, safety and logistics. The work office, accommodation and the international
undertaken by the study teams was carried airport.

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

t
Land access. Facilitating access to specific

sites where UNEP specialists needed to collect
data was a major exercise and one that needed
to be handled delicately as ownership was
not always clear, with attendant potential
for local conflict. Multiple negotiations were
often required, involving traditional rulers,
local youth organizations and individual
landowners or occupiers. A Land Access Team,
provided by RSUST, working in conjunction
with UNEP’s Communications Team,
managed these challenging issues, explaining
precisely what the UNEP team would be
undertaking, where and at what times.

t
Community liaison and communication.

The environmental assessment of Ogoniland
was constantly in the public eye, such that
there was continual demand for information. A
dedicated Communications Team consisted of
UNEP communications staff and community
liaison staff who were familiar with the local
languages. The team was responsible for
A project team safety and logistics expert and explaining the purpose of the project and the
MOPOL superintendent discussing field trip plans specific activities to be carried out and for

UNEP distributed project information as part of its ongoing outreach to local communities

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

ensuring that entry of the scientific teams into with local institutions. In addition to helping
any community had the necessary approval to secure the success of the project, this would
from all sections of the local population (LGAs, enhance local capacity building and resource-
traditional rulers, youth, police, etc.). The team sharing opportunities. The participation of
provided regular project updates, for example local institutions was achieved in several ways.
online at the project’s dedicated website and via Firstly, 30 national staff were engaged in various
a monthly newsletter, and also sought ongoing capacities (technical, logistics, security, liaison,
community input. administrative) as part of the UNEP project
team in Port Harcourt. Secondly, UNEP formed
t
Administration. The Administrative Team partnerships with the four LGA secretariats,
included staff from UNEP and the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
and was based in three geographical locations:
a project office in Port Harcourt, with support
teams in Abuja and Geneva, which between
them covered critical functions such as finance,
travel, human resources and procurement.

t
Presidential Implementation Committee

(PIC). The PIC met periodically, typically
once every quarter, and was briefed by the
project coordinator on progress, challenges and
impediments, and future work programmes.

Use of local resources

The UNEP-Rivers State University of Science and
It was decided during the project planning Technology Project Collaboration Coordinator,
phase that the team of international experts Mrs Iyenemi Ibimina Kakulu, and the university’s
leading the assessment would work closely Vice Chancellor, Professor Barineme Beke Fakae

UNEP experts during a reconnaissance exercise at Ebubu Ejama, Tai LGA, in January 2010

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

through their respective chairmen, which enabled appropriate accreditation, in order to ensure quality
access to local community leaders and gave UNEP and independence. Two separate laboratories
a presence in each LGA, where its community were contracted: Al Control Geochem, United
liaison staff were allocated office space. Thirdly, Kingdom, an ISO/IEC 17025:2005-accredited
each of the international thematic teams was laboratory; and ALS Scandinavia AG, Sweden, a
paired with local experts and academics provided specialist in fish tissue analysis. NORM analyses
by RSUST, giving the teams ready access to local were done at the Spiez Laboratory in Switzerland,
knowledge and sites, while RSUST students were which is also accredited to ISO 17025.
brought in as technical assistants both in the field
and in the project office. In addition, support 3.4 Assessment methodologies
teams were recruited locally wherever possible to
undertake specific assessments. The wide scope of the environmental assessment of
Ogoniland, both geographically and thematically,
Laboratories is evident from Chapter 2 and sections 3.1 to 3.3
above. To overcome the challenges this presented
Another decision taken early in the planning stage and to achieve satisfactory outcomes for all
was that all analyses of samples collected during the parties involved, it was clear from the outset that
study would be carried out, wherever technically a combination of standard approaches as well as
feasible, by international laboratories with innovative methodologies would be needed.

A training session at Port Harcourt, October 2009, was part of UNEP’s commitment to capacity building

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

More than 4,000 people attended a town hall meeting at Bori, Khana LGA, in November 2009, at which
the UNEP assessment project was launched. Pictured (from left to right) at the event are Senior Special
Adviser to the President, Magnus Kpakol; MOSOP President, Ledum Mitee; HM King Gininwa; and HM
King Barnabas B. Paago Bagia, Gbenemene Gokana

The different disciplines conducted investigations aquatic life, vegetation, and public health),
within their individual specialisms, backed by backed by cross-cutting issues teams and
well-resourced support teams. While everything support teams, were deployed for the months
possible was done to enable interdisciplinary of intensive field and office work.
learning in terms of both approach and substance,
the various strands had to work in parallel to 3. Analysis and writing of the report. The
complete the assessment within a reasonable time teams were brought together to assess progress
frame. Completion of the project was achieved in and review the initial analytical results. Based
three phases: on this review, a final round of data gathering
and analyses was carried out, after which the
1. Scouting/reconnaissance exercises. A team thematic experts prepared the individual
of experts conducted a series of scouting contributions that form the basis for this
missions to the region, with two aims: (i) synthesis report.
to become familiar with the area and (ii)
to obtain community acceptance for the Phases 1 and 2 are described below in more detail.
assessment. This was followed by structured Phase 3 results are presented in chapters 4 and 5.
reconnaissance of the areas where information
about an oilfield facility or an oil spill incident UNEP opened its project office in Port Harcourt
already existed. The information documented in October 2009. In November 2009, senior
from questionnaires and photographs allowed UNEP staff met with key stakeholders in town
prioritization of a number of sites for follow- hall meetings in the four local government areas
up assessment. (Eleme, Gokana, Khana and Tai). The final
sampling visit was completed in January 2011.
2. Intensive fieldwork. Individual thematic The period of most intensive fieldwork ran from
teams (covering soil and groundwater, water/ April 2010 to December 2010.

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Community engagement 4ABLE 0UBLICMEETINGSHELDTOENGAGE

COMMUNITIESIN/GONILAND
In terms of stakeholder interest, the environmental
LGA Number of Number of people
assessment of Ogoniland was unlike any other
meetings held present
environmental assessment previously undertaken
Eleme 52 3,323
by UNEP. In particular, it warranted community
Gokana 87 5,552
involvement and updates at all stages. This almost
continuous engagement gave UNEP access to vital Khana 55 9,107
local knowledge concerning areas contaminated Tai 70 5,289
by oil, as well as consent for access to land and
waterways for study purposes.

Public meetings staged throughout Ogoniland

during each phase of the study helped to build
understanding and acceptance of the project and to
foster community participation. Between November
2009 and January 2011, more than 23,000 people
participated in 264 formal community meetings
(Table 6). Initially town hall meetings were held in
each LGA with over 15,000 people participating.
These meetings were then followed up with a series
of sensitization sessions, or secondary meetings, in
villages and community centres.

To provide an additional forum for open discussion

of issues surrounding the study, UNEP formed a
Community Consultation Committee composed
of representatives from a wide cross section of
project stakeholders. The committee met on UNEP project team members meeting with
average once every two months. community women leaders, November 2009

UNEP community liaison assistant addressing a public meeting, Gokana LGA, April 2010

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Eight schools in Ogoniland took part in the Scoping exercises were done in two stages: an
pilot phase of a schools programme called ‘Green aerial survey of the study area (Map 5), including
Frontiers’, initiated by UNEP to raise environmental SPDC facilities, followed by ground visits to
awareness among Ogoni children and youth and look at oilfield infrastructure, contaminated sites
to inspire practical action for conserving their and pollution-affected creeks. Where available,
environment. anecdotal information about environmental
damage in Ogoniland informed this work.
Great care had to be exercised in areas where internal
frictions surrounding the UNEP assessment were Once the scouting survey was completed, a desktop
apt to arise. In many cases this meant that even review was conducted of all available information
though permission was granted initially, the on oilfield infrastructure in Ogoniland and
project team had to withdraw as tempers became known associated environmental contamination.
frayed. UNEP’s community liaison staff were key Information on oil spills came from the SPDC
intermediaries between the project team, local oil spill database, air and ground observations
leaders and interest groups, helping to broker by the UNEP team, information provided by
agreement. While team members were never at local communities and information gathered
serious risk of physical attack, UNEP had to remain from satellite images. All accessible oil wells
vigilant that a project aimed at peace-building and pipelines were visited, even if there were no
should not engender division or violence. reported spills at these locations.

With all the initial information assimilated, a

3.5 Phase 1: Scouting exercises, three-step reconnaissance phase began:
desktop reviews and
reconnaissance 1. Town hall meetings with community leaders
(kings, chiefs, representatives of community
The initial part of the project involved visits to the elders, women and youth leaders) at which
study area by experts with a view to understanding UNEP community liaison staff gave background
the key issues, geographical scope and practical information about the study, the tasks to be
constraints – fundamental to designing the performed and the approach to be taken by
appropriate methodology for the assessment. the UNEP assessment teams

A UNEP technical team examines infrastructure during the reconnaissance phase

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

-AP 4YPICALHELICOPTERROUTINGFORAERIALOBSERVATION
°

OBIO/AKPOR

EGBERU
!

OYIGBO

KOROMA
TAI !

OGAN-AMA
!
YAA
ELEME ! BRALI
PORT OKRIKA-ISLAND
!
!

GBAM
HARCOURT !

OKRIKA !
AMAKIRIBOKO GOKANA
BORI
OGU/BOLO !

LEWE
!
BOMU
!

KIBANI
!

OWOKIRI
!

BONNY

BONNY RIVER

ANDONI RIVER
EBERI/ OMUMA Legend
IKWERRE ETCHE
LGA boundaries Helicopter flight - November 2010

OBIO/AKPOR
Oil Facilities
OYIGBO
ỳ Wells
Kilometres
ELEME
TAI
"
) Manifold
#
* FlowStation 0 5 10
OKRIKA KHANA
OGU/BOLO Pipeline Projection: UTM 32N
GOKANA
Datum: WGS84
NNPC Crude
DEGEMA
NNPC Refined product
BONNY
ANDONI T SPDC Oil Pipe in operation Sources:
Administrative: SPDC, River State.
Oil Facilities: SPDC Geomatic Dept. UNEP 2011

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

2. Verification of landowners by land access During the course of the second visit, locations for
staff who negotiated access to property and groundwater monitoring wells were delineated and
scheduled site visits the landowners involved were consulted about the
planned works.
3. Location of reported spill points identified
by an advance party comprised of national Inevitably, additional information gathered from on-
UNEP technical staff site observations and field testing made it necessary
to modify the work programmes at different sites,
With the preparatory work done, UNEP technical making site access and site characterization an
teams started to visit sites, equipped with standard iterative process. To achieve this, the teams on
questionnaires, GPS and GPS cameras. The basic site were required to have expertise in analytical
information collected about each site included chemistry, geology, geochemistry, hydrogeology
GPS coordinates, photographs, proximity to and risk analysis.
oilfield facilities, proximity to communities, any
other significant environmental features, and Assessment of soil contamination
matters of importance from a logistics and security
point of view. In all, 202 locations were visited and The objective of site-specific sampling was to
122 km of pipeline rights of way were surveyed. identify: (i) whether a site was contaminated and
(ii) if so, whether the contamination had migrated
3.6 Phase 2: Intensive fieldwork laterally and vertically. In many instances the
pollution was found to have spilled over into nearby
Once the data from the reconnaissance phase creeks and, in the case of older spills, vegetation
had been consolidated, a prioritized list of sites had started growing again. Thus it was not always
for follow-up assessment was drawn up, based on easy to identify the geographical extent of a spill.
the observed contamination, potential receptors Given the security conditions, access restrictions
and size of the impacted area. A total of 69 and the large number of sites to be investigated, the
contaminated land sites were shortlisted for further UNEP team could only stay at a specific site for a
investigation (Map 6 and see also section 4.4). Of limited duration, often just one day. Consequently,
these 67 sites were situated close to oil industry an adaptive sampling strategy was the norm for
facilities. Subsequent site visits to these locations the sites assessed, the priority being to identify the
were carried out after further negotiations with, and epicentres of pollution and the depth of penetration.
permissions from, the appropriate communities. A combination of deep sampling and surface

&IGURE !CONCEPTUALDESCRIPTIONOFTYPICALPOSITIONINGOFSOILSAMPLEBOREHOLES
sampling points

soil contamination spill

transects

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

-AP #ONTAMINATEDLANDSITESINVESTIGATEDBY5.%0

EBERI/ OMUMA
°
IKWERRE
ETCHE

OBIGBO
!

OBIO/AKPOR AYAMA
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KAA
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BONNY RIVER

ANDONI
ANDONI RIVER OPOBO/ NKORO
DEGEMA

Legend
DELTA IMO Umuahia
r
¬
!
Owerri
!
( LGA boundaries
(
r
¬ "
h UNEP- investigated
NNPC Crude contaminated land sites
ABIA
AKWA NNPC Refined product
IBOM
r
¬ SPDC Oil Pipe in operation
RIVERS
Port Harcourt
!
(
BAYELSA Kilometres

0 5 10
Sources:
Administrative: SPDC, River State. Projection: UTM 32N
Oil Facilities: SPDC Geomatic Dept. Datum: WGS84 UNEP 2011

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

sampling was undertaken. The approach was always

to identify the primary direction of spill migration
and carry out cross-sectional transects covering the
polluted area (Figure 3). However, this strategy often
had to be modified to adapt to the prevailing ground
situation and time constraints. Where the ground
situation had unusual features, such as a waste pit
or swamp, samples (often of sediment) were taken
from the most accessible part of the area.
Using hand augers operated by two trained assistants,
soil samples were taken out of the boreholes and
spread onto a polythene sheet. The soil was segregated
typically into intervals of 60 cm and samples were
collected from each interval for analysis. In the first
round of investigations, sampling was only carried
out to a depth of 2 metres. However, after review
of early results, the sampling depth was increased
to 5 metres. Where monitoring wells were drilled,
deeper soil samples were also collected.
In situations where extensive surface contami-
nation was observed, composite soil samples were
collected for analysis (Figure 4). In this situation,
special grass plot sampling equipment was used
to gather samples from a number of points. The
individual samples were then amalgamated to form
a composite sample. These samples are also referred
to as grass plot samples.
All soil samples were analysed for hydrocarbons
and non-hydrocarbon parameters. A soil sample is spread onto a polythene sheet

&IGURE 'RIDOFSOILSAMPLESFOR Assessment of groundwater

ACOMPOSITESAMPLE contamination
On larger and more heavily contaminated sites,
groundwater monitoring wells were installed by
Fugro. This process was based on an adaptive
sampling strategy. The primary intent was to verify
if there was indeed groundwater contamination
and if yes identify the farthest reach of the
pollutant plume (Figure 5). The wells drilled by a
contractor using hand-augering systems followed
standard monitoring well construction practices.
Wellheads were secured with lockable covers.

Subsequent to the initial phase of the assessment,

25 per cent of the wells were found to have been
vandalized, making samples from such wells
unreliable for inclusion in the final report. A
decision was therefore taken during the later phase

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

of the analyses to take water samples from boreholes To widen the monitoring of groundwater, a
on the same day that the boreholes were drilled. number of existing community wells (both
No wells were installed in these locations. dug wells and boreholes) were included in the
sampling. To ensure proper quality control,
each groundwater well was given a unique
identifier, marked inside the well cover. During
sampling, the well identifiers were noted in
the sampling protocol. An interface meter was
used to measure the depth to groundwater
in the wells and to verify the presence and
thickness of any floating hydrocarbon product
in the groundwater. Groundwater sampling
was carried out with bailers. Conductivity, pH,
temperature and oxygen were all documented,
along with the depth to the groundwater table.
When a floating free product was observed, the
groundwater underneath the floating layer was
not collected.

The equipment used to measure water levels was

properly decontaminated between samples to
avoid cross-contamination. For the same reason,
disposable bailers were used for each well. Where
used, the foot valve pump and hose were left
securely inside the well for return visits.

All water samples were analysed for a series of

hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon pollutants.
As with the soil and sediment samples collected,
Fugro staff installing a groundwater monitoring each sample was assigned a unique identification
well, April 2010 number and the exact location was registered.

&IGURE #ONTAMINANTPLUMEANDGROUNDWATERMONITORINGWELLCONlGURATION

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Assessment of naturally occurring be noticed even at very low concentrations.

radioactive materials Hydrocarbon layers were photographed using
a GPS camera, which automatically fixed the
An assessment of naturally occurring radioactive coordinates.
materials (NORM) in the study area was carried
out by an expert accredited under ISO/IEC In terms of field monitoring, a portable multi-
17025:2005 between late November and mid parameter analyser was used to collect information
December 2010. Wellheads, pumping stations on pH, temperature and conductivity, and the
and fresh and old spill sites were sampled. coordinates of sampling locations were logged.
Dose-rate measurements, including surface
contamination measurements, were performed at Surface water sampling
each location. In addition, freshly spilled crude oil
In order to determine contamination of surface
at one site, old crude oil from a closed pumping
water samples were taken from estuaries, rivers,
station at another site and crude oil-contaminated
streams and ponds (Map 7). Samples were collected
soil from an old spill site were also collected
as near to the middle of the water body as could be
[33]. For analytical purposes, a zero-reference
reached using wading gear and a 2-metre extendable
soil sample (an old termite mound) was taken
metal grab. Samples were collected against the flow
from a clearly uncontaminated location in the of the water, where any flow was discernible. The
assessment area. sampling bottles were submerged to a depth of
10-20 cm under the surface and rinsed once with
Assessment of surface water and the water at that depth before the water sample was
sediment contamination taken. If a boat was used, samples were collected at
50 cm depth by a Limnos water collector.
The study area was bounded on two sides by open
water bodies, the Imo River on one side and a
network of creeks on the other. The creeks wrapped
around the study area but also extended via small
side arms into inland areas. Neither the river nor
the creeks were confined to the study area; the Imo
originating beyond Ogoniland and flowing past it
before reaching the sea and the creeks extending
through and interconnecting with numerous other
branches in other areas of Ogoniland.

Surface water contamination was assessed by: (i)

aerial observations over the creeks, (ii) observation
of water bodies from boats, (iii) observation
of water bodies from land, (iv) water quality
monitoring and (v) monitoring of sediments. The
first three approaches were primarily based on visual
observations and documented by photography.
Water quality monitoring was conducted using a
combination of field kits and laboratory analysis of
samples taken. The monitoring of sediments was
done entirely by laboratory analysis of samples.

In terms of visual observation, the focus was

on identifying the presence of hydrocarbons on
the surface of water bodies and, where possible,
identifying the possible source of the contamination.
Hydrocarbons can form very thin layers in water UNEP technical assistant collecting surface
bodies and are therefore distinct enough to water sample

68 s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs
 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

-AP ,OCATIONOFSURFACEWATERSEDIMENTANDlSHSAMPLING

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Legend Aquatic team investigations

IMO Umuahia
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RIVERS
Port Harcourt
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0 5 10
Sources:
Administrative: SPDC, River State. Projection: UTM 32N
Oil Facilities: SPDC Geomatic Dept. Datum: WGS84 UNEP 2011

s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs 69
UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Sediment sampling Assessment of fish contamination

Areas of calm water where sedimentation occurs In order to determine the concentrations of
may accumulate pollutants which are later pollutants in the tissues of fish and shellfish,
released through re-suspension due to tidal samples were collected for analysis of petroleum
mixing or flooding after heavy rains or as a hydrocarbons, including PAHs.
result of biological processes. Suitable areas for
the collection of accumulated pollutants in the Fish and shellfish were collected from 28 sites
bottom sediment are therefore sites which consist (Map 7), usually where sampling of water and
of fine organogenic mud, sand and silt. sediment were carried out. In most cases, fish
were purchased directly from local fishermen
Sediment samples were collected at 37 locations either in the process of fishing or transporting fish
(Map 7). At each location, five sub-samples were they had just caught. A number of fish samples
collected in a plastic bucket and mixed before from unknown origins were also purchased from
being transferred to a glass sampling jar. In most local markets; although these samples could not
cases a piston sampler with a diameter of 6 cm be used to determine pollution at specific sites,
was used for sampling. Only the top 10 cm of their value lay in demonstrating health risks to
the sediment core were used for the samples and the community where fish were found to be
care was taken to avoid flushing away the surface contaminated.
floc on top of the more solid sediment. In some
locations deeper cores were taken to examine For analytical purposes, tissue samples from
whether pollution had penetrated further down. four to six different fish were pooled to form a
The samples were stored frozen until the analyses composite sample. Fish tissues were obtained by
were performed. cutting the dorsal muscle from the fish with a

Sediment samples were collected at 37 locations

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Assessment of impact of oil

contaminants on vegetation

Two types of impact can be distinguished: (i)

impacts related to physical disturbance, such as
the cutting of seismic lines and seismographic
survey, development of access infrastructure
(roads, dredging of channels in wetlands) and
drilling; and (ii) impacts related to oil spills and
fires and disposal of other hazardous materials.

From a livelihood point of view, no relevant

statistical data were available about the average
productivity of agricultural crops and forest trees
in Ogoniland and changes over time.
© J. PALSSON
Aerial and field observations were conducted as
part of the scouting surveys. Photographic records
were gathered along with reference coordinates so
A snapper (genus Lutjanus) is dissected for analysis. as to cross-reference them with observations from
Fish and shellfish were collected from 28 sites other study segments.

scalpel and transferring it to a glass jar. In most

cases about 50 g of tissue was collected for each
sample. All the samples were frozen and shipped
to the laboratory following standard quality-
control procedures.

Each sample was analysed for metals, extractable

hydrocarbons, PAHs and pesticides, following
internationally recognized analytical methods.
The samples were homogenized prior to analysis.
Preparation of samples (homogenization,
extraction and clean-up) was carried out in
a laboratory room used exclusively for biotic
samples. Specially pre-cleaned glassware was used
for organic analyses, and specially pre-cleaned
Teflon beakers were used for analysis of metal
samples. All preparation and analysis were carried
out in a clean room environment.

PAHs and chlorinated pesticides were analysed

by a process of chemical extraction, evaporation
and measurement through gas chromatograph
equiped with a mass spectroscopy (GC-MS).
Petroleum hydrocarbons were also solvent
extracted and analysed using a similar process,
through a gas chromatograph-flame ionization
detector (GC-FID). Samples were analysed for
metals using high-resolution inductively coupled
plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Swampland vegetation (Bara, Gokana LGA)

s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs 71
UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Assessment of damage to mangroves data from field sampling and a comparison made
between the highly exposed communities and
The scouting missions revealed extensive damage reference communities to identify any health
to the mangroves in the Ogoni study area and effects that might be related to oil spills.
it was clear that the geographical extent was so
wide that a combination of approaches would Preparatory work
be needed to assess the overall condition of
mangroves. This involved: Before gathering medical records or field samples,
the Public Health Team participated in focus group
t
aerial observations (from a helicopter) of the discussions and sensitization meetings and listened
extent of mangrove damage, documented by to community concerns about the effects of oil. This
aerial photography to show the progression information helped guide the selection of sampling
of damage from the edge of the water to locations and types of sample to be collected.
landward areas
In addition, and prior to the collection of medical
t
analyses of high-resolution satellite images to records, J.W. Igbara, working in cooperation with
delineate impacted areas and to estimate the RSUST, undertook a review of public health
total mangrove area impacted by oil issues associated with oil production in Ogoniland
[34]. This study, which included visits to health
t
observations made from both land and water institutions and interviews with health-care
to understand the specific nature of the
impacts, documented by photography workers, took into account community complaints
about fish kills, impacts on agricultural land,
t
sampling of soil on the substrata of mangrove odours, drinking water tasting of kerosene, and a
vegetation, with a view to correlating it with wide range of health effects from mild coughing
the stresses on the vegetation and eye irritation to death. Many people expressed
the view that environmental contamination from
t
sampling of hydrocarbons attached to the the oil industry had caused increased morbidity
mangrove vegetation and mortality. Oral interviews with health-care
workers and other key informants provided insights
Assessment of impacts on air into health-care provision and the prevalence of
pollution and public health disease and oil pollution issues in the study area.
Some medical personnel believed that industrial
The Public Health Team designed an exposure and activities were the cause of increased frequency
health questionnaire to ascertain how exposure to of respiratory disorders (e.g. broncho- and lobar
oil occurs and whether it is associated with adverse pneumonia, upper respiratory tract infections,
health effects. Students and faculty members asthma), skin conditions and gastroenteritis. Some
from RSUST administered the questionnaire also suggested that environmental contamination
systematically in 10 highly exposed communities might be adversely affecting immune systems, thus
across the four LGAs. Reference communities increasing susceptibility to infectious disease.
(i.e. one with no documented oil spills or
other significant known sources of petroleum Interviews and questionnaire
hydrocarbons) were also selected (Okwale in
Khana, Koroma in Tai and Intels camp in The Public Health Team supplemented Igbara’s
Eleme). work through interviews with pharmacists,
a traditional birth attendant and health-care
Medical records from four primary health-care professionals at facilities serving areas in each of
centres (one in each LGA) serving the same highly the four LGAs where larger oil spills had occurred
exposed communities and from one primary (Table 7). Interviewees were asked about the type
health-care centre serving the reference community and number of staff, dates of operation, medical
in each LGA were also collected and analysed. record-keeping protocols, the number of patients
seen daily, the number of beds, type of treatment
Information from the questionnaire survey and provided and catchment area. There appeared
review of medical records was combined with to be five categories of primary health care:

72 s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs
 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Women leaders at Kpean community, Khana LGA, raising their health concerns
during a sensitization meeting

government clinics, private clinics, pharmacists, some of the communities in which air sampling
traditional healers and the church. These are not and medical record collection were implemented.
mutually exclusive and the available options and The questions asked – based on meetings with
choices made are changing with time. Choices are community members, community leaders and
based, among other factors, on cost, accessibility, health-care providers – covered the respondent’s
availability of services when needed (e.g. night/day), demographic characteristics; pathways of exposure
effectiveness and tradition/cultural preferences. to petroleum from oil spills and other sources of
Prenatal (called antenatal care in Ogoniland) care petroleum hydrocarbons (e.g. cooking practices,
seems to be provided increasingly by government- smoking, local food consumption, drinking
funded health clinics. At least some government water source); and health information (e.g.
clinics provide free prenatal care and care for young health history and current symptoms, source and
children. However, it was not clear what fraction level of satisfaction with health-care services).
of the population chooses to give birth at health Respondents were not asked directly about oil
centres rather than at home and/or with traditional contamination.
birth attendants.
The questionnaire was reviewed by two individuals
Responses from community members and medical with detailed knowledge of the community being
professionals helped guide selection of both the studied, and pilot-tested by several Ogoniland
communities in which an exposure and health residents working in UNEP’s project office.
survey was conducted by questionnaire, and the RSUST students, who had been given advance
health-care facilities where medical records were training to ensure accuracy and consistency,
collected. conducted the questionnaire survey orally, with the
assistance of an interpreter where needed. Heads
The questionnaire was used in those communities of household were interviewed systematically until
expected to have incurred some of the highest approximately 20-25 per cent of the dwellings in
exposure to petroleum from oil spills, and included each community had been covered.

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

4ABLE 3UMMARYOFSAMPLESCOLLECTEDBYTHE0UBLIC(EALTH4EAM
Drinking Medical Health
LGA Community Village VOCs PM2.5 & PM10 Rainwater water records questionnaires
Agbi-Ogale x x
Agbonchia Okpee x x x
Akpajo Nsisioken x x x
Aleto x x
Alode Nkeleoken x x
Eleme Ebubu Ejamah x x x x x
Ebubu Obolo x x
Ebubu Oyaa-Ejamah x
Ebubu Egbalor x
Obajioken-Ogale x x
Ekporo x
Biara/Botem x x
Gio x x
Korokoro Aabue x x x x x
Koroma x x
Tai Kpite LGA Headquarters x x x
Kpite Muu Boogbara x x x
Sime Omunwannwan x
Sime Aabue
Norkpo 1 x x
K. Dere x x x
B. Dere x
Bera x
Bodo Debon x x x
Gokana Bodo Sugi-Sivibirigbara x x
Bodo Kegburuzo Junction x
Bodo-West x x
Kpor Orboo-Ooodukor x x
Kpor Kpalaade x x
Kwawa Wiikuekakoo x x x
Kaa x
Kpean WIIYAKARAGU x x x
Khana
Kpean Wiiborsi x x x x
Uewaagu x x
Okwale x x x x
RSUST-Nkpolu- x x
Port Harcourt Oroworukwo
Intels Camp x

Field sampling and analysis samples of soil, sediment, surface water, drinking
water, groundwater, fish and agricultural crops
All field sampling took place between July and collected by other UNEP scientists from the same
December 2010 in those communities where or nearby communities, shed light on human
bigger oil spills had occurred. Sampling locations exposure to oil-related contamination. Together
were selected according to information gathered these samples allowed for assessment of cumulative
from community members, community leaders and exposure across different media including soil and
health-care providers, as well as from environmental drinking water.
monitoring data and historical information that
indicated the location and extent of oil spills. The Rainwater and drinking water
sampling programme is summarized in Table 7.
Sampling of drinking water was warranted given
The Public Health Team’s environmental that UNEP detected petroleum hydrocarbons
monitoring programme included collection of in surface water and groundwater samples. In
drinking water and rainwater used for domestic response, the Public Health (PH) Team collected
purposes and measurements of outdoor air from drinking water samples in addition to those
both highly exposed communities and reference already collected by the Contaminated Land
communities. These samples, combined with (CL) Team.

74 s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs
 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Some community members expressed concern from a catchment system and/or aerial deposition
about rainwater quality, reporting that they onto uncovered rainwater storage vessels.
historically used rainwater for drinking and other
purposes, but that it is now contaminated and can Drinking water and rainwater sampling locations
no longer be used for this purpose. In response included places where the community had
to this concern, UNEP collected 35 rainwater complained about rainwater quality; this applied
samples from rainwater collection vessels and three also to the reference community. Drinking water
rainwater samples directly from the atmosphere. and rainwater from collection vessels were sampled
and analysed using the same methods employed
Rainwater from collection vessels represents actual by the Contaminated Land Team. Rainwater
exposure because people are using it for washing, was sampled from the atmosphere using stainless
bathing, cleaning food and drinking. These steel containers placed on a stool 1 metre off
samples reflect any contamination that originates of the ground in an open area without trees or
in the rainwater, from the rainwater catchment other elevated vegetation or structures. The time
system, and, if the collected rainwater is uncovered between onset of direct collection of rainwater and
for any period of time, from contamination that storage of the rainwater in a freezer ranged from
deposits from the air (e.g. bird droppings). Most a matter of minutes to six hours, depending on
often, the catchment system collected rainwater how long it took to collect a sample of sufficient
from a roof into a metal or plastic collection quantity and transport it to the freezer.
vessel. Samples of rainwater collected directly
from the atmosphere reflect contamination found Rainwater and drinking water samples were not
in rainwater in the absence of any contribution filtered before laboratory analysis.

UNEP expert consulting health-care centre staff

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Outdoor air communities. Nearly all the samples were collected

during the dry season, which lasts from March to
Oil spills can influence air quality. Ubong (2010) November. However, two sampling locations were
reviewed air quality data available for Ogoniland, re-sampled in December to allow for comparison
some of which reflected conditions near oil spills, between wet season and dry season air quality.
including some measurements of total VOCs [35].
UNEP’s air sampling programme expanded on On each sampling day, air samples were collected
this work by collecting air samples from spill areas from the oil spill area and from the community
where the highest concentrations of petroleum area nearest the oil spill. Samples from the oil
hydrocarbons were expected in air, based on results spill location provided a ‘fingerprint’ of VOC
from UNEP’s investigation of soil and surface release from the worst oil spills in each LGA.
water. Priority was given to locations where UNEP Samples taken from the closest community
detected and/or observed the highest concentrations location provided measures of exposure to these
of oil contamination on or near the ground surface worst spills, combined with background exposure
or sheens on surface water. In addition, air samples from other sources of petroleum hydrocarbons,
were analysed for individual VOCs rather than total such as vehicle exhausts. Air samples were also
VOCs because the toxicity of total VOCs depends collected from the reference community in
on the composition of the mixture. Okwale; these samples represented conditions in
Ogoniland with limited land development and
The outdoor air sampling programme is no known petroleum-related operations, both
summarized in Table 7 and Map 8. It included of which can influence the concentration of
22 VOC samples from oil spill areas, 20 VOC petroleum hydrocarbons in air. Air samples were
samples from nearby communities, 2 VOC also collected from two urban reference locations
samples from reference locations and 23 respirable just outside Ogoniland, at the Intels Camp and
particulate samples from oil spill areas and nearby RSUST Campus in Port Harcourt.

A Thermo Scientific Particulate Monitor DataRAM 4 is used to measure air quality, Bodo West

76 s5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs5NITED.ATIONS%NVIRONMENT0ROGRAMMEs
 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

-AP ,OCATIONOFAIRQUALITYANDPUBLICHEALTHSTUDIES

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AKWA NNPC Refined product h

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r
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T SPDC Oil Pipe in operation
RIVERS
Port Harcourt
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0 5 10
Sources:
Administrative: SPDC, River State. Projection: UTM 32N
Oil Facilities: SPDC Geomatic Dept. Datum: WGS84 UNEP 2011

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Samples were collected and analysed for selected client records. Some general hospitals and primary
VOCs using USEPA Method TO-17, which health-care centres held records for as long as 10
involves sampling with thermal desorption tubes years, some even longer, while others only had
and laboratory analysis with gas chromatography/ records for the previous six months. Medical records
mass spectroscopy. Thermal desorption sampling available at primary health-care centres and general
tubes were manufactured by Markes International hospitals generally included the patient’s name, age,
(Markes Part No: CI-AAXX-5017 Stainless Steel sex, community and LGA names, complaint or
TD sampling tube (industrial standard 3 1/2 “x1/4”; diagnosis, and treatment. Some included additional
prepacked with Carbopack [Mesh 60/80]) and information such as body weight and occupation.
conditioned and capped with brass long-term caps. Diagnoses are not confirmed by testing at primary
Air was drawn through the thermal desorption tube health-care centres.
at a flow rate of approximately 50 ml per minute
using an SKC AirCheck 2000 pump. The sampling All records reviewed by the Public Health Team
train was affixed to ladders to elevate sample tubes to were maintained in handwritten log books and
about 1.5 metres (i.e. approximate breathing height). summarized on forms provided by the Rivers
The pump calibration was checked in the field at the State Ministry of Health. The primary health-care
beginning and end of each sampling period. A dual centres were selected for collection of medical
tube sampler was set up at each sampling location, records because, unlike general hospitals, they serve
with one tube sampled for approximately one hour localized areas that could be matched to oil spill
and the other tube sampled for approximately locations. In addition, a general hospital that served
four hours from mid-morning to mid-afternoon. the reference community could not be identified.
Security constraints prevented longer deployment
of air samplers, though desired laboratory detection The team selected one primary health-care centre
limits were still achieved. One field blank tube was from each LGA that serves communities where
collected on each sampling day. large oil spills had occurred and a fifth primary
health-care centre in the reference community.
Air concentrations of respirable particulate Medical records for the previous year (i.e. 1
matter (PM2.5 μm and PM10 μm) were measured September 2009 to 31 August 2010) were collected
at each community sample location on each air using a portable scanner so that data analysis could
sampling day using a DataRam4 (Thermo Electron be performed using original records. As noted
Corporation, DR-4000 Model). PM2.5 and PM10 earlier, some medical facilities maintain records for
concentrations were each measured for a ½-hour as long as 10 years, but many do not. Therefore, the
to 1-hour period with the instrument elevated to one-year period was selected because most primary
an approximate breathing height of 1.5 metres. health-care centres keep records for this length of
time, allowing for comparison among them.
Particulate sampling locations largely overlapped
VOC air sampling locations and included areas
with varying amounts of nearby vehicle traffic, waste
burning and garri (cassava) processing, all of which
can contribute to particulate concentrations in air.
In all locations the DataRam4 was placed in open,
outdoor areas. The ground surface varied widely
among sites, from sand to dense vegetation.
Medical records
The Public Health Team considered that medical
records could be helpful in identifying unusual
symptoms or disease patterns associated with living
near oil spills. Many community members reported
that they sought health care from pharmacists
and traditional healers, but the team did not find UNEP expert examining medical records
evidence that these providers maintained patient or in a handwritten log book

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

4ABLE ,OCATIONANDNUMBEROFHEALTH Remote sensing

RECORDSCOLLECTED
The components of the environmental assessment
Primary Number of medical
of Ogoniland in which remote sensing (Table 9)
health-care centre records analysed
played a key role were: land-use study, for example
Agbonchia 1,196
tracking changes in land cover; vegetation surveys,
K’Dere 1,581
including impacts of oil on mangroves; assessing
Kpite 543
pollution of creeks and other water bodies; and
Kwawa 1,421 research into the artisanal refining of crude oil in
Okwale 268 primitive stills (see ‘Artisanal refining’, page 102).

Unlike all other components of UNEP’s study for

After agreeing to participate and indicating that which it was only possible to obtain a snapshot at
records were available for the previous year, the the time of the assessment, for those issues studied
primary health-care centre in Agbonchia, Eleme through remote sensing analyses of changes over
could not provide records prior to February time were achievable. However, since satellites did
2010, despite repeated attempts to obtain earlier not exist when oil industry operations commenced
records from current and retired staff. There in Ogoniland in the 1950s, a baseline comparison
was insufficient time within the study schedule dating back to this period was not possible.
to select and collect records from an alternative
centre. While these missing data are important In addition, satellite images were used intensively
from a temporal perspective, their exclusion did as a primary source of information for daily
not adversely affect the number of records relative operations in the field. These included:
to other primary care centres. The total number t
navigation, from scouting exercises through
of records analysed for each primary health- to full site assessments
care centre is given in Table 8, with differences
attributable to the relative number of records t
land-cover mapping
available from each centre. t
change-detection analysis – images acquired
on different dates were available for most
Original medical records were transcribed onto a of the sites, showing changes over time in
single database (in Microsoft Excel) and a subset vegetation, new houses, fire, etc.
of records from each primary health-care centre t
oil-spill detection – radar images were used to
was reviewed to ensure accurate data entry. detect oil spills outside Ogoniland

4ABLE 3UMMARYOFALLSATELLITEAERIALIMAGESUSEDDURINGTHEREMOTESENSINGANALYSES
Satellite Spatial resolution Acquisition New acquisition / Primary use Source
dates Archive
WorldView 2 50 cm 02/01/2011 New acquisition Detailed mapping; Change detection DigitalGlobe
Ikonos 1m 2006-2007 Archive Detailed mapping; Change detection GeoEye
SPOT 5 2.5 m 17/01/2007 Archive Detailed mapping; Change detection SPOT IMAGE
Aster 15 m 19/01/2007 Archive Land-cover mapping ERSDAC
03/01/2007
Landsat TM 30 m 08/01/2003 Archive Land-cover mapping GLOVIS
17/12/2000
19/12/1986
Landsat 80 m 15/05/1976 Archive Land-cover mapping GLOVIS
MSS
SPOT 4-5 1 km 1998-2010 Archive NDVI trend VITO
VEGETATION 10-day synthesis
ENVISAT 90 m 26/09/2010 Archive Oil spill detection ESA
SRTM 90 m 2000 Archive Digital elevation model CGIAR
Helicopter 10 cm November 2011 New acquisition On site verification

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

4ABLE 3OFTWAREPROGRAMSUSEDIN')3 carried out, for instance on shifts in land cover,

MAPPINGOF/GONILAND changes to land-cover classification and areas of
Software Use land impacted by contaminated sites. In addition,
ESRI ArcGIS Cartography; geocoding; digitization groundwater modelling was carried out to generate
ESRI SpatialAnalyst Spatial analysis contaminant-plume contours and to depict
ErMapper Satellite image compression groundwater flow direction.
ErMapper Satellite image compression
GoogleEarth / Data visualization; real time tracking Land cover classification methodology
GoogleEarth PRO
Erdas Ortho-rectification; image mosaics
The Landsat archive contains a number of images
Idrisi Image classification of Ogoniland dating back as far as 1976. The best
Surfer Contour modelling early image, from 1986, was used to develop a
Strater Borehole log production classification for that year. The best readily available
MapWindow Garmin waypoints and tracks recent imagery came from Advanced Spaceborne
management software Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
(ASTER) images from 2007. Initially, it was thought
that 2007 was sufficiently recent to provide a good
GIS/cartography indication of the current status of land cover in
Ogoniland. This may have been true for some parts
GIS mapping/cartography was used extensively in of the terrestrial area but further research showed
the Ogoniland assessment (Table 10), with more that major changes have taken place since January
than 200 maps generated at a scale of 1:5,000. A 2009 in the mangroves adjoining Ogoniland.
1:50,000 cartographic atlas was also produced,
giving all those working in the field access to the Since no recent images were available, UNEP
same information. The atlas was frequently updated requested that the very high-resolution
as new data arrived from the field. WorldView-2 satellite be programmed for
acquisition in the study area. Due to the high
Spatial analyses included proximity analysis, which cost of this acquisition, only a portion of the
recorded the distances between contaminated sites entire Ogoniland region could be captured. The
and community wells and settlements, as well as image was taken on 7 January 2011 to provide an
contaminant dispersion. Statistical analyses were example of the current status in a selected area.

Example of an area classified as an industrial zone

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

The classification method adopted for the project The output of this stage was a first estimate of
was a two-stage hybrid procedure which used both land cover in Ogoniland.
spectral measurement from satellite images and
stratification of the area into broad zones; the latter Different land-cover types generally have different
was used to make sure that within each zone the visual characteristics – but only to a certain extent.
assignment of classes was appropriate. For example, Some land-cover types may appear spectrally similar;
pixels classified as mangrove should only occur in for example areas of freshwater swamp forest may
the mangrove zone, and pixels classified as urban appear very similar to mangroves but are different
should only occur in the urban zone. land-cover classes. Similarly, some urban areas may
appear very similar to bare soil in rural areas. To
First, the satellite-derived spectral information in ensure consistency of the land cover classification, a
the visible, near infrared and short-wave infrared set of zones or strata were defined and each processed
regions of the spectrum were clustered by an to ensure internal consistency according to a set of
unsupervised algorithm into spectrally similar simple rules. The following zones were defined:
clusters based solely on their spectral properties
(colours). How these clusters related to land-cover t
Terrestrial zone
classes was not known at this stage. It was assumed t
Mangrove zone
that different land-cover types in the landscape t
Freshwater riparian vegetation zone
could be distinguished by their spectral properties. t
Forest zone (non-riparian)
This is generally true of a range of landscape features t
Coastal zone
– water, urban areas, vegetation and bare soil all t
Urban / industrial zone
have rather different visual characteristics. t
Rural village zone
To fully capture the range of diversity in the
t
Bare areas (areas with no vegetation)
images, it was found that approximately 60 A series of GIS procedures was developed to
clusters had to be identified. The next step was apply a set of generic principles in each zone;
to assign land-cover class names to each of the for example, mangroves can only occur in the
spectral clusters. This was done by a manual mangrove zone. If mangrove pixels were found in
process of image interpretation, referring to any other zones, they were reassigned to an appropriate
ancillary information that was available, including land-cover class in the relevant zone.
ground photographs and GoogleEarth images.
Sample management
The field component of the UNEP study was a
massive undertaking. Over 4,500 samples were
collected and submitted to two international
laboratories, both accredited to meet the
international standard (ISO 17025) for testing
and calibration laboratories. Thus, a robust sample
management programme was an absolute necessity,
the main objective being to safeguard the integrity
and quality of the samples sent to the laboratories
for analysis – essential if the laboratories were to
generate a quality result. Samples collected in the
field were kept in a cool box and were brought
to the project office where they were stored in a
freezer while chain of custody and customs forms
were completed. Within 24 hours of collecting
the samples, they were sent to the appropriate
laboratories, again in cool boxes with sufficient ice
Each sample was assigned a unique identification packs. Figure 6 depicts the sample management
number and the exact location was registered flowchart used in this project.

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

&IGURE &LOWCHARTDEPICTINGTHEMANAGEMENTOFSAMPLESCOLLECTEDFORLABORATORYANALYSIS

Pre sampling Calibration, sample containers, trip blanks, freezing elements,

and planning cooling boxes

Sample
Documentation, labeling, preservation
collection

Sample
In situ analysis and logging
transportation

QA / QC Sample condition, breakage, categorization of samples

inspection (soil/water/tissue/air/microbiology)

Data and record Database preparation, parameter selection, analysis request, chain
management of custody

Preparation for Documentation, packaging sample bottles in cooling box with freezing
transport & packaging elements, bubble wrap

Shipment to
laboratory
Labeling, proper sealing, signing shipment documents

Quality control samples sample preservation, packing, shipping and

storage
A majority of the errors in environmental analysis
can be attributed to improper sampling, cross t
Field blank – an analyte-free sample that
contamination and improper sample storage and is collected in a sample bottle and sent to a
preservation. Quality control samples are a way laboratory for final analysis
to measure precision, accuracy, representativeness,
comparability and completeness. Essentially, two Field blanks and trip blanks were collected for
types of quality control samples were considered only a subset of the water samples. When sample
during the scientific investigation period of the concentrations were close to concentrations
Ogoniland project, namely: detected in blanks, they were qualified accordingly.
Detected concentrations less than two times the
t
Trip blank – a sample that originates from field blank were negated (qualifier ‘U’) and
analyte-free water taken from the laboratory detected concentrations between two and five
to the sampling site and returned unopened times the field blank were qualified as estimated
to the laboratory with the VOC samples. with potential high bias (qualifier ‘J+’). This
One trip blank accompanies each cooling approach is consistent with the United States
box containing samples submitted for VOC Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA)
analysis. The trip blanks are used to assess the National Functional Guidelines for Organics and
quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) of Inorganics.

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Field measurements alpha-beta-gamma probe 6150 AD-17 (0.1-

10000 cps) surface contamination probe.
The various on-site measurements were performed
with standard, calibrated equipment which
Analytical measurements
differed from one parameter to another.
Though contaminated site assessment is an estab-
A Hatch Multimeter was used for monitoring lished industry, there is still no consistency in setting
basic parameters such as pH, conductivity and standards on measurement of hydrocarbons.
temperature.
The main issue is that crude oil, or petroleum
To monitor fine particulate matter in outdoor hydrocarbon, is a mix of thousands of individual
air, with different fractions such as the inhalable hydrocarbons. Individually identifying each of them
fraction PM 10, respirable fraction PM 2.5 and and setting standards presents a very complex –
ultrafine fraction PM1 (particles measuring less and expensive – challenge. Simply lumping all the
than 1 micron), a portable Thermo Scientific hydrocarbons together to create a single standard
Particulate Monitor DataRAM 4 (DR-4000) would prevent differentiation between a hydrocarbon
was used. The same instrument was also used to that is very toxic and another which is not.
measure air temperature and humidity.
The Nigerian legislation, EGASPIN, is based on
To determine naturally occurring radioactive a parameter referred to as mineral oil, though no
materials, an Automess 6150 AD 6/H calibrated specific analytical methods or carbon range are
dose-rate meter was used along with an Automess
specified.

The Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria

Working Group (TPHCWG) in the United States
developed a methodological approach that takes
into account the carbon chain length, solubility
and toxicological effects of hydrocarbons in
the mixture. TPHCWG divided petroleum
hydrocarbons into two main groups: aromatic
and aliphatic compounds.

As leaching factors and volatilization factors

span many orders of magnitude, the TPHCWG
classified aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons
into a number of fractions with leaching
factors and volatilization factors that lie in the
same order of magnitude. With these so-called
transport fractions, their transport and fate in the
environmental compartments can be modelled
more appropriately than with a single TPH value.
For this reason, UNEP used the TPHCWG
method of carbon banding (Table 11).

Since relevant Nigerian legislation is based on a

single parameter, for the purpose of this report the
broadest possible range of hydrocarbons analysed
(C5-C44 for soil and C5-C35 for water) was used
for comparison with mineral oil and reported as
TPH. Where appropriate, individual parameters
(e.g. benzene) or groups (e.g. BTEX or TPH) are
Over 4,500 samples were collected for analysis reported and explained.

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

4ABLE "ANDINGFORHYDROCARBONSIN40( map the road network and accessibility for the
#RITERIA7ORKING'ROUPANALYSES purposes of planning daily transportation to and
Hydrocarbon banding from sampling sites.
Samples
Aliphatics Aromatics
Using GPS cameras (Caplio 500SE GPS embedded
>C5-C6 >EC6-EC7
>C6-C8 >EC7-EC8
model), more than 10,000 geo-referenced
>C8-C10 >EC8-EC10 photographs were taken in Ogoniland during
>C10-C12 >EC10-EC12 the course of the study. The photographs were
Soil used extensively during the scouting exercise,
>C12-C16 >EC12-EC16
>C16-C21 >EC16-EC21 reconnaissance, boat trips and helicopter flights,
>C21-C35 >EC21-EC35 allowing for geo-traceability of the information
>C35-C44 >EC35-EC44 photographed in the field. The photographs were
>C5-C6 >EC6-EC7 also used as ground truthing for the land-cover
>C6-C8 >EC7-EC8 mapping work, which served to improve the
>C8-C10 >EC8-EC10 accuracy of the land-cover classification.
Water >C10-C12 >EC10-EC12
>C12-C16 >EC12-EC16 GPS-embedded, rugged laptop computers were
>C16-C21 >EC16-EC21 used in the field to verify any spill reported by
>C21-C35 >EC21-EC35
SPDC, record new spills reported by Ogoni
communities or spills discovered by the UNEP
team during fieldwork.
Laboratory analyses of NORM

Gamma spectrometry for the determination of

natural radioactivity in collected samples was
performed in Switzerland at the Spiez Laboratory’s
ISO/EN 17025-accredited testing laboratory for
the determination of radionuclide concentration
(accreditation number STS 028). Gamma
spectrometry was performed with high-purity
Germanium (HPGe) CANBERRA detectors with
high relative efficiencies.

The same testing laboratory was used to carry out

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) of the collected samples. This process
is able to determine the existence of medium-
and long-living radioisotopes, as well as non-
radioactive elements. For this analysis, a Finnigan
Element XR high-resolution (sector field) mass
spectrometer was used.

The procedures applied and measurements taken

for both analyses fulfilled the international norm.

Field data collection for

remote sensing
A large number of GPS (Model GPS 60 TM)
instruments were used to record geographic
coordinates of pollution on the ground and the
points from which samples were collected by the UNEP technical assistant using a GSP instrument
different thematic teams. GPS was also used to during a reconnaissance exercise, January 2010

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

Review of institutional issues pollutant against which a judgement is made as

to whether or not it is acceptable. Criteria need to
National legislation and institutions be differentiated from standards and guidelines.
UNEP’s review attempted to cover the whole Standards are specifications set by a statutory body,
range of institutions dealing with legislation often national, and are therefore legally enforceable.
related to environmental management and oil Guidelines on any given issue, on the other
and gas production in Nigeria, touching also on hand, whether made by government, industry
cross-cutting issues such as community-company- organizations or international organizations,
government interaction, transparency, fiscal issues present ideals that are considered desirable but
and law enforcement. The assessment was carried which are not legally enforceable. From a technical
out by a thorough review of available documentation point of view, criteria, guidelines or standards are
(published reports, legislation, research papers, etc.). almost always derived from the same scientific basis
In addition, many institutions, both at federal and and could often be the same.
state level, were contacted and interviewed, though
not all those contacted were available. Community Contamination assessment criteria – a numerical
members were interviewed to the extent possible value above which a site could be deemed to be
given the challenges of accessibility and security. contaminated – are of importance from several
angles. Firstly, the degree to which observed values
SPDC procedures vary from the assessment criteria is an indication
of the degree of contamination, and therefore
The Shell Petroleum Development Corporation the degree of risk to which the environment is
has a set of documents which form the operational subjected. Secondly, assessment criteria determine
basis for handling oilfield assets and emergencies. the degree of environmental clean-up and
A review of these procedures was undertaken restoration required at a site. This in turn dictates
for the purpose of this assessment, based on the the policy and technological approaches to be used,
following documents: both of which have a direct bearing on the cost of
t
SPDC Corporate Oil Spill Response, Clean- the clean-up operations.
up and Remediation Manual, SPDC 2005-
00572, April 2005 A chemical substance is considered a pollutant
when its concentration is above a harmful threshold.
t
Overview of Process and Standards for Oil Such thresholds can have different connotations in
Spill Clean-up and Remediation, SPDC different contexts. A chemical substance could be
Document, April 2006 harmful to people directly; it could be harmful to
the quality of air or water, which may in turn harm
In addition, three specific advisories issued by people; or it could be harmful to other biota, for
Shell Global Solutions and which form the basis of example animals, but may or may not harm people.
SPDC internal procedures were also reviewed: However, it is fair to say that in most situations
t
Framework for Risk Management of harm is ultimately defined from an anthropocentric
Historically Contaminated Land for SPDC perspective. Table 12 shows the comparison of risk-
Operations in Niger Delta, OG.02.47028 based screening levels for some of the frequently
regulated hydrocarbon pollutants [65]. It can be
t
Framework for Risk Management of seen that the screening levels for the same parameter
Historically Contaminated Land for SPDC
can vary, and vary substantially, between countries.
Operations in the Niger Delta: Mangroves
There are scientific and policy reasons, such as a
and other Swamp Areas, OG.03.47062
society’s risk tolerance, as to why different countries
t
Remediation Management System, 2010 may have different values for contamination criteria
for the same pollutant.
3.7 Contamination assessment
criteria Though the international community has more
than 30 years of experience in different parts of
Contamination criteria, in the context of this the world on systematic assessment and clean-up
report, are specifications of concentration of a of oilfield contamination, there is not yet an

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

4ABLE #OMPARISONOFCOUNTRYSPECIlCRISK BASEDSCREENINGLEVELS

FORHYDROCARBON RELATEDCOMPONENTSINSOIL
Country
Parameter
Canada China Netherlands Thailand UK
Benzene 0.0068 0.2 1 6.5 0.33
Toluene 0.08 26 130 520 610
Ethyl Benzene 0.018 10 50 230 350
Xylenes 2.4 5 25 210 230
All values are in mg/kg

clarification, it has been done. Until such revisions

or clarifications are made, however, the existing
legislation will have to be complied with.

Standards for soil

The Nigerian legislation dealing with soil and
water contamination from oil operations is
handled by the Federal Government’s Department
of Petroleum Resources. The Environmental
Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum
Industries in Nigeria (EGASPIN), issued in
1992, set out the standards which are currently
the minimum operating requirement for the oil
industry in Nigeria [7].

EGASPIN proposes two possible options for

pollution incidents: (i) application of the Standard
Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action Applied at
Petroleum Sites, prepared by the American Society
for Testing of Materials (E1739-95, reapproved
2010); or (ii) an approach based on ‘intervention
Soil caked into a crust of dried crude oil
values and target values’. Even though the EGASPIN
document itself was reissued in 2002, no further
guidance has been produced in the last 20 years, such
internationally accepted guideline on what level that the approaches suggested in 1992 still form the
of hydrocarbons constitutes contamination. It operational basis for the oil industry in Nigeria.
is against this background that the Ogoniland
assessment team had to review the available EGASPIN defines intervention values as those that
criteria and make its recommendations. “indicate the quality for which the functionality
of the soil for human, animal and plant life are,
It must be stated that defining the level of or threatened with being seriously impaired.
environmental clean-up is ultimately a policy Concentrations in excess of the intervention
decision for the Federal Government of Nigeria, and values correspond to serious contamination”.
wherever national legislation exists with regard to a Target values are defined as those which “indicate
particular issue, it is recommend that the legislation the soil quality required for sustainability or
be followed, except in cases where there are sound expressed in terms of remedial policy, the soil
scientific reasons to adopt a more stringent line quality required for the full restoration of the
to protect public health and welfare. In addition, soil’s functionality for human, animal and plant
when it is felt appropriate to point out instances life. The target values therefore indicate the soil
where particular legislation may need revision or quality levels ultimately aimed for”.

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

In reviewing site contamination, UNEP has Standards for drinking water

used the EGASPIN standards for soil (Table 13),
WHO guidelines on drinking water
which demonstrate the presence of higher levels
of hydrocarbons and reveal continuing legislative The World Health Organization (WHO) has
non-compliance. However, this report makes developed and issued guidelines on drinking water
recommendations for review of the EGASPIN quality for over 60 years. These guidelines – based
(see Chapter 5). It is therefore expected that on best available information on the risks associated
before the final clean-up is undertaken, a new set with the consumption of water – have become the
of standards will be introduced. universal benchmark for setting drinking water
standards. The risks associated with drinking
Standards for groundwater water are constantly evaluated by WHO and the
guidelines updated accordingly [36].
The safety limits for groundwater pollution
are also set out in the EGASPIN as both Nigerian national drinking water standards
intervention and target values. Since some The Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) 554:2207
Ogoniland communities (those within the study deals with standards for drinking water quality
area at least) use groundwater for drinking, without nationally [37]. The standard was developed by the
any treatment or monitoring, it is important that Ministry of Health, working through a technical
contamination levels of groundwater are compared committee of key stakeholders. Table 14 provides a
against the criteria for drinking water quality. comparison of the maximum levels of contaminants
EGASPIN standards for groundwater are also permissible according to Nigeria’s drinking water
presented in Table 13. standard and the corresponding WHO guideline.

4ABLE %'!30).TARGETANDINTERVENTIONVALUESFORSOILANDGROUNDWATER
Soil/sediment # Groundwater
Substance
Target value Intervention value Target value Intervention value
A. Aromatic compounds (mg/kg dry material) (μg/l)
Benzene 0.05 1 0.2 30
Ethyl benzene 0.05 50 0.2 150
Phenol 0.05 40 0.2 2,000
Toluene 0.05 130 0.2 1,000
Xylene 0.05 25 0.2 70
B. Metals
Barium 200 625 50 625
E. Other pollutants
Mineral oil 50 5,000 50 600
# The values given for soil are for 20 % soil organic matter with a forumula given for calibrating for other soil organic matter concentrations

4ABLE #OMPARATIVEENVIRONMENTALSTANDARDSFORDRINKINGWATER
Contaminant Nigerian drinking water standard (μg/l) WHO guideline (μg/l)
Benzene No standards set 10
Toluene No standards set 700
Ethyl benzene No standards set 300
PAHs 7 No standards set
Arsenic 10 10
Barium 700 70
Mercury 1 6
Mineral oil 3 No standard set

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

4ABLE 7(/AIRQUALITYGUIDELINES 3.8 Limitations, challenges

Standard PM2.5 PM10 and constraints
Annual mean 10 μg/m3 20 μg/m3
In carrying out a project of this scope, some
24-hour mean 25 μg/m3 n 50 μg/m3 constraints are inevitable. While every effort was
made by the UNEP assessment team to limit
the impact of these constraints on the scientific
Air quality standards integrity of the study, the issues encountered are
summarized here so that those who read this report
No local air quality standards currently exist in may understand the context in which the work was
Nigeria. In 2006, the WHO published guidelines undertaken.
for respirable particulate matter [38], as shown in
Table 15. Scientific constraints
In the absence of local standards, the WHO There is no baseline information available on
guidelines are used as a reference. either the nature of the environment or socio-
economic status of the community prior to the
There are certain chemicals which were analysed in the initiation of oil exploration. In fact, useful, recent
assessment but for which no internationally recognized and robust information covering Ogoniland is
guidelines exist. In such cases, reference to any available also not available. This includes a lack of reliable
standard is provided, primarily to give the observed data about the quantity of oil spilled in the region.
values some context. No specific recommendations Consequently the observed situation has to be
are made by UNEP on such standards. compared with a presumed baseline condition.

Despite many challenges, there was generally a strong spirit of cooperation

between UNEP and Ogoniland communities

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

-AP ,OCATIONOFVANDALISEDMONITORINGWELLS

EBERI/ OMUMA
°
IKWERRE
ETCHE

OBIGBO
!

OBIO/AKPOR !
AYAMA

AKPAJO
!

OYIGBO

EBUBU
ABAM !
!
TEKA-SOGHO
TAI !

SIME JOR-SOGHO

PORT ELEME !
!

KOROKORO
!KPITE

GG
FG
HARCOURT
F F !
OGU !

KPORGHOR DEKEN
!

G
F
! OPUOKO
GIO !
! LUEGBO-BEERI
!
WAKAMA
!
GOKANA BORI KHANA
OKRIKA BOLO !

F
G
! BERA
OGU/BOLO
F
G
G
F
F
GF
G G
F !

ZAAKPON
!
BERE
!

KIBANI
F
G KAPNOR
!
!

G F
F FG
G F
G
GGF
KAA
F IMO RIVER
BONNY !

OLOMA
!

BONNY RIVER

ANDONI
ANDONI RIVER OPOBO/ NKORO
DEGEMA

Legend
DELTA IMO Umuahia
r
¬
!
Owerri
!
( LGA boundaries
(
r
¬ F
G Vandalized wells
NNPC Crude
ABIA
AKWA NNPC Refined product

r
¬
IBOM
T SPDC Oil Pipe in operation
RIVERS
Port Harcourt
!
(
BAYELSA Kilometres

0 5 10
Sources:
Administrative: SPDC, River State. Projection: UTM 32N
Oil Facilities: SPDC Geomatic Dept. Datum: WGS84 UNEP 2011

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

The Nigerian Navy provided support during some field visits (note the navy vessel in the background)

In a number of sectors, the report lacks statistical standards or other international guidelines. The
coverage. For example, monitoring of drinking findings based on this could be used as a basis for
water was done on an opportunistic basis around initiating public health protection measures on a
contaminated sites. There are thousands of drinking preventive basis. This could also be used as a legally
water wells in Ogoniland (and there is no record acceptable basis for site clean up. However, a more
of how many or where). This study did not seek resource efficient approach will be to undertake site-
to identify all possible locations of drinking water specific risk assessments followed by consultations
wells and then undertake a statistically appropriate between the operator, regulator and community to
sampling approach. establish clean-up levels for each site.

As the time available at individual sites was Security constraints

always restricted and the possibility of returning
to a site was never known in advance, the study United Nations Department of Safety and Security
focused on collecting the minimum number of (UNDSS) specifications are contractually binding
samples needed to form a reasonable picture of the and non-negotiable. In the UNDSS classification,
contamination. The study could not, therefore, Port Harcourt is a Phase III duty station, meaning that
involve collecting duplicate samples. special security precautions must be observed. This
was an aspect that the UNEP team working on the
This assessment compares the measured value of environmental assessment of Ogoniland had to keep
pollutants on the ground with established legal in mind at all times, especially when in the field.

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

While the UNEP project team was rarely under (Map 9, page 89) and could no longer be used
any threat and maximum security was provided by for sampling.
the local government authorities, there were times
when UNDSS advised the UNEP team to refrain Access restrictions
from fieldwork. This obviously had an effect on
the pace of on-the-ground surveys. Traditional practices in Ogoniland are such
that an elaborate procedure of consultation is
Of the 180 groundwater monitoring wells mandatory prior to visiting a specific site. Two
drilled by the project team, 38 were vandalized teams, a Community Liaison Team and a Land

The number of samples taken at each location was influenced by safety and access considerations

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UNEP
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF OGONILAND

Access Team, were deployed to facilitate access to Ogoniland that may be contaminated but which
sites of interest. A considerable amount of time UNEP was unable to assess.
was invested in this essential activity, but however
well the advance planning was carried out, there Information constraints
were repeated occasions when the project team
was prevented from entering specific sites. In It was the intention of the UNEP team to identify
every instance the UNEP team complied with the all possible locations in Ogoniland that have
wishes of the community, although the underlying been contaminated by oil industry operations.
reasons for denial of access often remained UNEP solicited, and received, information from
unclear. A policy was adopted whereby once a all stakeholders, both the Ogoni community
team had twice been prevented from visiting a and SPDC, regarding such sites. Whenever such
site, the site was documented as ‘inaccessible’. information was received, reconnaissance visits
As a consequence, there are still some sites in were arranged, subject to the security constraints

Samples were transported from field locations to laboratories in the shortest possible time

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 3 OBJECTIVES, SCOPE & METHODOLOGIES

mentioned above. The project team also visited Ill-defined boundaries

oilfield infrastructure even when there was no
specific information on contamination. While it was agreed that the geographic scope of the
environmental assessment be limited to Ogoniland,
One of the observations made by UNEP during there is no clearly agreed official definition of what
the course of the study was that vegetation had constitutes Ogoniland. Boundaries, even between
continued to grow and cover contaminated areas local government areas in Ogoniland, are not well
even though remediation measures had not been defined and always disputed. Consequently, the
carried out. This was partly because some vegetation UNEP study may have captured some information
types can vigorously survive hydrocarbon pollution from outside Ogoniland while inadvertently leaving
and partly because many vegetation types need out areas that may be perceived by some as part of
only limited, comparatively clean amounts of Ogoniland. At all times, the project team tried to
topsoil to re-establish. Thus, even in cases where err on the side of caution. Whenever there were
severe contamination had penetrated deeply, people living in an area, their opinion on whether
superficial vegetation cover gave the site a healthy or not the area lay within Ogoniland was taken
appearance. Given that the oil industry has been as correct. Greater difficulty was experienced in
operating in Ogoniland for more than 50 years while areas where oil industry operations were apparent
contamination records only go back 25 years, there but there was no community presence, such as at
could easily be other locations where contamination Bodo West.
still exists below the surface but is obscured by
vegetation. Vertical delineation of contamination
Unfortunately, UNEP received insufficient While the horizontal delineation of contamination
information to enable it to undertake comprehensive was challenging (no visible signs on the surface),
assessments of oil operations in Ogoniland by vertical delineation was even more difficult given
companies other than SPDC. This included Port the wide fluctuations in groundwater levels. On
Harcourt Refinery Company and Pipelines and reaching groundwater, any contamination can
Products Marketing Company. Consequently, penetrate to considerable depths. The UNEP
only spills that were apparent on the surface, and/ survey used only shallow augers for groundwater
or reported by the Ogoni community in the case analysis, with a maximum sampling depth of
of non-SPDC properties, were assessed by the 5 metres. At a number of locations, chemical
UNEP team. The implication is that there may still analyses revealed that contamination may have
be contaminated areas in Ogoniland about which gone deeper.
there is currently no intelligence available to UNEP
on which to base further surveys. Time frame

Sample management constraints The assessment of contaminated sites always calls

for decisions on the number of samples to be
As previously described, analysis of all the samples taken at a particular location. In general, this is
collected in Ogoniland was undertaken in primarily driven by the cost of subsequent analysis
appropriately accredited laboratories in Europe. of the samples. However, in Ogoniland there
Many of the analytical parameters (e.g. VOCs) was an additional variable to be dealt with: the
are sensitive to the temperature at which they amount of time available to the UNEP team to
are preserved. While all efforts were taken to work safely at a site, with the added consideration
maintain temperatures at the required levels that a second visit, while highly desirable, might
during transportation of sample materials, and to not prove feasible. Consequently, the sampling
get samples to laboratories in the shortest possible approach had to be tailored to capture the breadth,
time, some degree of loss of contaminants is to depth and intensity of contamination from the
be expected in the analytical results. Therefore, lowest feasible number of samples. However,
the reported results could be lower than the whenever access was more freely available, the
actual concentration in the sample when it was opportunity was always taken to supplement
collected. initial sampling.

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