Overview

• HW 2 Posted – Due next Wednesday

• Review
– Power Triangle
• Fundamentals
– Power Factor Correction
– Network Equations

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 Complex Power / Power Triangle
• Power Triangle
Phasor rms value

• Complex Power conjugant

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 Review - Complex Power
• Real and imaginary part
Not the same

𝑆 = P + 𝑗Q Volt Amps (VA)

• The magnitude of the Complex Power (S ) is Apparent Power (S)

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 Review - Power System Analysis
• Triangle that describes impedance has the same dimensions as
power triangle

P 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝. 𝑓. = =
S 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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 Review - Complex Power

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 Example 2
For the single phase circuit below compute (a) the voltage across the load
terminals, (b) the average power absorbed by the load, (c) the power factor of the
load, (d) the reactive power absorbed by the load. (e) What is the apparent power
absorbed by the load?

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 Power System Driver
• What determines the amount of average power flowing
through the system? The connected load
• How does it affect the system?
To serve the load, the system’s reactive components must
be satisfied
• Is the system inductive or capacitive? The system can be both
• What are key operating parameters that must be maintained
as load changes?
-Power factor
-Voltage
-Frequency (Stability)
7
 Example 2.1
Power in a system conserved (power in must equal power out) (f) Does the
complex power absorbed by the load match the output of the voltage source?

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 Power Factor Correction
• Power factor is a means to measure efficiency of a power delivery
• Real Power is what performs work
• Apparent Power is what supplied to ensure that the Real Power requirements
are met

P 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝. 𝑓. = =
S 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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 Power Factor Correction
• The p.f. of power systems (industrial, distribution, and transmission) naturally
lags (current angle follows voltage angle)
• This occurs because of the inductive properties of wires and magnetic material
utilized in electrical devices (motors and transformers)
• Therefore, capacitor are added in parallel to compensate for the system’s
inductive properties
• What are the impedance values for inductors and capacitors?

P 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝. 𝑓. = =
S 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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 Power Factor Correction
• The p.f. of power systems (industrial, distribution, and transmission) naturally
lags (current angle follows voltage angle)
• This occurs because of the inductive properties of wires and magnetic material
utilized in electrical devices (motors and transformers)
• Therefore, capacitor are added in parallel to compensate for the system’s
inductive properties
• What are the impedance values for inductors and capacitors?
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿∠90˚

1
𝑍𝐶 = = 𝜔𝐿∠ − 90˚
𝑗𝜔𝐶

P 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝. 𝑓. = =
S 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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 Power Factor Correction
• NOT Power System Capacitors?

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 Power Factor Correction
Power system capacitors typical come Industrial Capacitor Banks
in “capacitor banks”, which are a set
of individual capacitors connected
together into a single cell.

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 Power Factor Correction

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 Capacitors

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 Example 2.2
A single-phase source delivers 100 kW to a load operating at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Calculate the reactive power to be delivered by a capacitor connected in
parallel with the load in order to raise the source power factor to 0.95 lagging. (b)
Draw the power triangle for the source and load. Assume that the source voltage
is constant, and neglect the line impedance between the source and load. (c)
What’s the difference in apparent power?

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 Example 2.2
• First thing we need is define the existing system and the power triangle
• Second, we identify the impedance angle for the desired var compensation
• Third, determine the var requirement to satisfy new impedance angle
• Fourth, determine var needed to “cancel” portions from the existing Q

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 Example 2.2
• What’s really going on?
• Current is flowing from the source into all of the devices
• Recall, the impedance of device is what changes the nature (magnitude and
angle) of the current flowing through it
• Therefore, wherever the capacitor or inductor are located, current is flowing
through them

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 Example 2.3
An industrial plant consisting primarily of induction motor loads absorbs 500 kW
at 0.6 power factor lagging. (a) Compute the required kVA rating of shunt
capacitor to improve the power factor to 0.9 lagging. (b) Calculate the resulting
power factor if a synchronous motor rated 500 hp with 90% efficiency operating at
rated load and at unity power factor is added to the plant instead of the capacitor.

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 Example 2.3
How do we solve? Identify the current VARS

p.f. angle

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 Example 2.3
b) Identify the added load

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 PowerWorld
• A software designed for assisting engineers in performing “Power System
Simulations”
• An electric grid is too large to build a laboratory model to examine how
fluctuations in load and generation will affect the power system
• Power engineers rely upon simulation tools to
– Design upgrades
– Evaluate system voltage (ANSI Standard C84.1 – voltage limits)
– Evaluate system stability
– Recreate failure events
• Software example

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 Network Equations
• Circuit operating in sinusoidal-steady –
state, Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law
still apply to phasors
• Many times a network (grid) is analyzed as
complete system, instead of analyzing a
single quantity
• Transmission systems can consists of
hundreds of nodes, which limits simple
solutions
• A system is modelled by connection to
buses (or nodes)
4 Bus Example

23
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 Node Analysis Review

Node v1

𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

Node v2
𝑖3 = 𝑖4 + 𝑖5
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Node v1
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

10v − 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
= +
1Ω 4Ω 3Ω

1.58𝑣1 − 0.33𝑣2 = 10
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 −0.33𝑣1 + 1.03𝑣2 = 2.5

1.58𝑣1 − 0.33𝑣2 = 10

𝑣1 = 7.33v

𝑣2 = 4.77v

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 Network Equations

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 Network Equations
• For system with over hundreds of nodes, computer simulations are formulated
from nodal equations, which are systematically applied to circuits
• Assumptions
– Sinusoidal
– Source voltages  represented by phasors
– Circuit impedances are measured in Ohms

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 Network Equations
• Step 1: For a circuit with (N+1) nodes
(also called buses), select on bus as the
reference bus and define the voltages at
the remaining buses with respect to the
reference bus
– The sample circuit has 4 buses, or N
=3.
– The ground bus (bus 0) is selected as
the reference bus
– Voltages are V10, V20, and V30 are
defined with respect to Bus 0

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 Network Equations
• Step 2: Transform each voltage
source in series with an impedance
to an equivalent current source
(Norton equivalent) in parallel with
that impedance. Also, show
admittance values instead of
impedance values on the circuit
diagram

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 Network Equations
• Step 3: Write nodal
equations in matrix form as
follows:
Recall: Admittance is inverse of
impedance

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 Network Equations
• Step 3: Write nodal
equations in matrix form as
follows:
Recall: Admittance is inverse of
impedance
Ohm’s Law
1
𝒀= (𝑆)
𝒁

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 Network Equations

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 Network Equations

Self-admittance

Mutual admittance

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Network Equations

35
 Network Equations
• Advantages of method
– Computer can generate the admittance matrix Y
– Y matrix can be utilized as system model to input into other programs
– Computers/programs can solve for unknown voltages by solving system of
linear equations

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 Example 2.4
Determine the 4 x 4 bus admittance matrix and write the nodal
equations in matrix format for the circuit shown below.

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