ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Introduction to Engineering
Material and their Applications

Session 2012-2016

Submitted to

Engr. Bilal Ahmad Awan

Prepared by

Ahmad Mukhtar 12-Chem-48

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research
Faisalabad Pakistan
Affiliated with
University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The topic of study report relates to“Introduction to

Engineering Material and their
Applications”. There was no dearth of the reference
material, to an extent that it become difficult to decide what
all to refer and what to discard. The wide nature of the
subject and the size restriction left many areas to be touched
very briefly, however an effort has been made to cover
significant fact of the topic.
During the research process, we are definitely guided
and fostered by numerous teachers and colleagues. We
extend our profound gratification to them. We are also
equally thankful to all those writers who have had a wisdom
and foresight to write about this vital subject. Their analysis
gave our research work the much needed substance.

We are extremely indebted and obliged to Engr.

Bilal Ahmad Awanfor guiding us on the process of
research methodology and for correcting us where we went
astray from research principles. In the end, we are grateful to
the NFC library for helping us in compiling material for our
project.

Authors

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PREAMBLE
In the name of ALLAH, the most compassionate,
the most merciful;

“Read in the name of your lord, who

creates a man from a clot of blood, read,
your lord is most Gracious, who teaches
by means of a pen, teaches man what he
does not know…”

Al-Quran

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DEDICATION
This study report is dedicated to our beloved

parents, mother (late) and uncle who guided us

from the childhood and encouraged us in all

walks of life.

In addition, we would also like to dedicate this

study report to our honorable and respected

teachers who helped us in compiling this study

report.

Authors

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Content List
Sec. Chap. Topic Page
No.
1 Engineering Material 11
1 Introduction 12
Classification 12
Properties of Materials 13
2 Metallic Materials 14
2 Ferrous Metals 15
Introduction 16
Occurrence of Iron 16
Types of Iron Ores 16
Types of Ferrous Metals 16
Pig Iron 17
Cast Iron 17
Wrought Iron 18
Steel 19
Types 19
Carbon Steel 20
Cast Steel 20
Stainless Steel 20
Alloy Steel 21
Medium Carbon Steel 21
High Carbon Steel 21
Loading 22
Types 22
Tensile 22
Compression 23
Shear 23
Torsion 24
Elastic and Plastic Deformation 25
Inelastic Deformation 25
Creep 25
Stress 25

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Strain 26
Hooke’s Law 26
Young’s Modulus 28
Mechanical Properties of Metals 28
3 Non Ferrous Metals 34
Introduction 34
Aluminum 34
Copper 35
Tin 36
Zinc 37
3 Alloys 38
4 Ferrous Alloys 39
Introduction 39
Ferrous Alloys 40
Types 40
Nickel 40
Vanadium 41
Tungsten 41
Manganese 42
Stainless Steel 42
Types 43
Austenitic Stainless Steel 43
Ferritic Stainless Steel 43
Martensitic Stainless Steel 44
Duplex Stainless Steel 45
Perception Hardening 46
5 Non Ferrous Alloys 47
Introduction 47
Brass 48
Bronze 48
Duralumin 49
German Silver 49
Corrosion 50
Types 50
Uniform General Attack Corrosion 51

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Galvanic Corrosion 51
Pitting Corrosion 52
Crevice Corrosion 53
Intergranular Corrosion 53
Erosion Corrosion 54
Cavitation Corrosion 54
Fretting Corrosion 54
Selective Leaching 55
4 Non Metallic Materials 56
6 Non Metallic Materials 57
Introduction 57
Ceramics 57
Types 58
Traditional Ceramics 58
Advanced Ceramics 58
Clay 59
Types 59
Kaolin 59
Ten. Ball Clay 59
Key Ball Clay 59
Processing of Ceramics Materials 61
Material Preparation 62
Casting 62
Pressing 63
Dry Pressing 63
Isostatic Pressing 63
Hot Pressing 63
Slip Casting 64
Extrusion 64
Cold Extrusion 65
Hot Extrusion 65
Thermal Treatment 65
Composite Material 65
Types 66
Natural Composite Material 66

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Synthetic Composite Material 66

Glass Fiber 66
Carbon Fiber 67
Resources of Carbon Fiber 67
Stabilization 67
Carbonization 67
Graphitization 67
Aramid Fiber 68
Types 68
Kevlar 29 68
Kevlar 49 68
Polymeric Materials 69
Method of Polymerization 69
Continuous Method 69
Batch Method 70
Bulk 70
Suspension 70
Emulsion 71
Plastic 71
Types 71
Thermo Plastic 71
Thermosetting Plastic 71
Processing of Thermo Plastic 72
Injection Molding 72
Extrusion 73
Blow Molding 73
Processing of Thermosetting Plastic 73
Compression Molding 73
Transfer Molding 74
Polyethylene 75
Production of Low Density Polyethylene 75
Polyvinylchloride 77
Plasticizers 77
Heat Stabilizers 77
Lubricants 77

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Fillers 78
Pigments 78
Polypropylene 78
Teflon 78
5 Special Materials 79
7 Special Materials 80
Introduction 81
Refractory 81
Types 82
Acidic Refractory 82
Basic Refractory 83
Neutral Refractory 83
Fire Clay Refractories 83
Silica Bricks 84
Magnesite Refractories 84
Oxide Refractories 84
Zirconia Refractories 85
Amonolithic Refractories 85
Glass 86
Types 87
Fused Silica Glass 88
Soda Lime Glass 88
Boro Silicate Glass 88
High Lead Glass 89
Glass Manufacturing Process 89
Shaping of Glass 90
Casting 90
Glass Blowing 90
Pressing 91
Drying 91
Rolling 91
6 LASER 92
8 LASER 93
Introduction 93
Types 94

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Crystal LASER 94
Gas LASER 94
Excimers 95
Dye LASER 95
Semi-conductor LASER 95
Classification of LASER 95
Class I LASER 96
Class II LASER 96
Class IIIA LASER 96
Class IIIB LASER 96
Class IV LASER 97
Properties of LASER 97
Working With LASER Devices 98
Applications of LASER 99
Bibliography 101

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Section: A

Engineering Material

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1
Engineering Material

Introduction:
Engineering material plays an important role in the construction
and manufacturing of equipments/tools. Selection of material to
the economy working and the life of machinery. An engineer must
be conversant/awarded with the properties, uses, availability and
the cost of material used for the construction/fabrication to an able
him to perform his function confidently. The subject of engineering
material has been designed to overcome the above aspects.
Engineering material can be defined as
“Engineering material is a subject which deals with the
manufacturing, properties and uses of material used in applied
engineering.”
The range of engineering material varies from light weight to heavy
materials. Forexample Alloys for air craft, Semi-conductor chips for
pc, Photovoltaic for energy storage, Semi-conductor, Semi-
conductor scanners.

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Classifications of Engineering Materials on the

basis of Atomic Bonding Forces:
Metallic materials
 Ferrous metals
 Iron
 Stainless steel
 Carbon steel
 Steel
 Non ferrous metals
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Titanium
 Tungsten
 Zinc
Non metallic materials
 Composite
 Ceramic
 Polymeric
 electronics
Alloys
 Ferrous
 Stainless steel
 Nickel steel
 Vanadium steel
 Manganese steel
 Tungsten steel
 Non ferrous
 German
 Silver
 Duralumin
 Bronze
 Brass

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Special Materials:
Glass, super conductive materials, refractories (furnaces).

Properties of Materials:
 Mechanical properties
 Young’s modulus
 Tensile stress
 Shear stress
 Strength
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Physical properties
 Conductance
 Magnetic properties
 Optical properties
 Chemical properties
 Corrosion
 Oxidation
 Reduction
 Catalysis

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Section: B

Metallic Materials

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2
Ferrous Materials
Introduction:
Metallic materials are inorganic substances which are composed
one or more metallic elements and also contain some non metallic
elements. Metals are usually found in the form of ores which are
raw or crude form impurities includes oxides, sulphides, nitrites,
sulphates and traces elements like inert gasses. Ferrous materials
are usually refers to the materials that have a high content of iron
in them. Iron is the one of the most common element in earth crust
making 5% of earth crust. Ferrous compounds are usually
garnished in color.

Occurrence of Iron:
Iron is never available in pure form it is available in the form of
different ores the most common ore is hematite various form of
iron and steel are obtained by purifying and adjusting the
composition of pig iron by suitable methods.

Types of Iron Ores (on the basis of Iron

Content):
 Magnetite (72%-75%) Fe3O4
 Hematite (70%) Fe2O3
 Iron pyrite (47%) FeS
 Siderite (40%) Fe2Co3

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The reduction of hematite is easy so we prefer it. Iron is extracted

from hematite or the separation of iron by reduction with carbon is
very reactive. This process takes place in a blast furnace at 2000c0.

Types of Ferrous Metals:

 Pig iron
 Cast iron
 Wrought iron
 steel

Pig Iron:
It is most impure and crudest form of iron. To remove the
impurities from the ores some treatments are necessary. Pig iron
contains (4%-5%) carbon content. Carbon is added by melting it
the product obtained is called pig iron.

Properties of Pig Iron:

 It is neither ductile nor malleable.
 It melts easily.
 It is difficult to bend.
 Its fusion temperature is 1200c0.
 It can be hardened but cannot be tempered.
 It cannot be magnetized.
 It does not rust easily.
 It cannot be welded.
 It has very high compression strength but very small in
tension and shear.
 It is low in cost.

Uses of Pig Iron:

 It is use in the manufacturing of cast iron.
 It is use in the manufacturing of wrought iron.
 It is use in the manufacturing of different forms of steels.
 It is use to make wheels.

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 Because of its high compression strength it is use in column

boxes and plates.

Cast Iron:
When we melt the pig iron in the presence of coke and calcium
carbonate the product obtained is called cast iron. It has gray white
color its gray color is due to the presence of graphite and white due
to the presence of carbon (carbides).It can be transferred into
different molds of desired shapes and size. It contains (2%-3.5%)
carbon content and a small amount of manganese.

Properties of Cast Iron:

 It is available in two colors gray and white.
 Its structure is crystalline and fibers.
 It is brittle in nature.
 It cannot wit stand shocks and impacts.
 It cannot be welded.
 It cannot be magnetized.
 It is not ductile.
 It is not malleable.
 It cannot be crust easily.
 Its melting point is (1175%-1290%)CO.
 It can be hardened and tempered.
 Its specific gravity is 7.5
 It becomes soft in salt solutions.
 It is weak in shear and tension.
 It is strong in compression.

Uses of Cast Iron:

 It is used for making grain water pipes.
 It is used for making columns.
 It is used for making storage tanks.
 It is used to support for heavy machinery.

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 It is used for making wheel and railway tracks.

 It is used for making wrought iron.

Wrought Iron:
It is the purest form of iron. It contains 99.5% iron and 0.5%
impurity. In wrought iron corrosion will be large. It is the most
common type of iron used in engineering.

Properties of Wrought Iron:

 Its structure is fibers.
 It is ductile and malleable.
 It can be welded
 It is tough.
 It can withstand shocks and impacts.
 Its melting point is 1500co.
 It is softening at 900co.
 It can rust easily.
 It is unaffected from any salt solution.
 It can be magnetized.
 It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Uses of Wrought Iron:

 It is used for making sheets due to its malleability.
 It is used for making rods.
 It is used for making gas pipes.
 It is used for making boiler tubes.
 It is used for making window frames.

Steel:
Steels are the large family of metals which consists mostly of iron
and other elements usually carbon ranging (0.2%-2.1%) depending
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upon the grades carbon is the most common alloying material for
iron but various other alloying metals may also be used such as
manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium etc…Difference
between cast iron and steel is due to its carbon contents. Steel goes
harder and tougher with a n increase in carbon content up to
1.5%.this carbon will not combine with iron and will be present as
a free graphite.

Types:
 Carbon steel
 Stainless steel
 Alloy steel

Carbon Steel:
Steel containing (0.2%-1.5%) carbon content is called carbon steel
it is further classified into 3 types.
 Low carbon steel (dead mild steel)
 Medium carbon steel (mild carbon steel)
 High carbon steel
The comparison of carbon content and uses of these three types of
carbon steel is given in table as:
Types Carbon content Use in making
Low carbon steel 0.2% Sheets, wires,
pipes
Medium carbon (0.3%-0.7%) Wheels, axels,
steel boilers, blades
High carbon steel (0.7%-1.5%) Surgical
instruments,
blades, sprigs,
cuttlry

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Cast Steel:
If carbon content is greater than 1% then
steel is called as cast steel.
Stainless Steel:
It contains (14%-18%) chromium and (7%-9%) nickel.

Alloy Steel:
It has also three types
 Manganese steel (10%-18% manganese)
 Silicon steel (1%-5% silicon)
 Nickel steel (2%-04% nickel)

Properties of Medium Carbon Steel:

 Its structure is fibers.
 It has dark blue color.
 It is ductile and malleable.
 It is more tuff and elastic.
 Its corrosion rate is high.
 It can be magnetized permanently.
 It can with stand with shocks and impacts.
 It can with stand shear.
 It can be welded.
 It is difficult to harden and tempered.
 Its specific gravity is 7.8

Uses of Medium Carbon Steel:

 It is extensively used to reinforce the concrete structures.
 It is used in construction works. Like angle iron, rods, e-
sections etc…
 It is used in the manufacturing of various tools. Like machine
parts and railway tracks etc…

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Properties of High Carbon Steel:

 It has granules structure.
 It is more tuff and elastic then medium carbon steel.
 It is easy to harden and tempered.
 It is more difficult to weld.
 It can be magnetized easily.
 It can withstand shocks and impacts.

Uses of High Carbon Steel:

 It is used in surgical instruments.
 It is used in cutlery.
 It is used in making springs.
 It is used in tools for drilling.
 It is used in making blades.
 It is used in machine parts with good hardness, toughness
and durability.

Loading:
Any engineering materials are subjected to force both during
processing/fabrication and in services. When a force is subjected to
an engineering material it may result in translation, rotation and
deformation of that material. Aspects of translation and rotation of
materials are deled by engineering dynamics. We restrict our cells
here to the subject of materials under deformation forces.
Deformation constitutes both changes in shape called distortion
and change in size/volume called dilatation.

Types of Loading:
 Tension or Tensile
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion

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Tension or Tensile:
Tension or tensile is developed when a material is subjected to
pulling a load. For example when using a rope to lift a load.

MATERIAL
Compression:
Compression is developed within a material when forces compress
or crush the materials. For example a column that supports an
overhead beam is in compression.

MATERIAL
Shear:
Shear occurs within a material when external forces are applied in
parallel lines but in opposite directions. Shear force can separate
the materials by sliding part of it in one direction and rest of part is
in opposite direction.

MATERIAL

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After applying shear force

MATERIAL

Torsion:
Torsion is the variation of pure shear. Shear stress in this case is
the function of applied torque. Shear strain is related to the angle of
twist. In short torsion is twisting any object due to an applied
torque.

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Elastic and Plastic Deformation:

Material deformation can be permanent or temporary. Permanent
deformation is irreversible and stays even after the removal of
applied forces such a deformation is called as plastic deformation
while the temporary deformation is reversible and disappears after
the removal of applied forces such a deformation is called as elastic
deformation. So elastic deformation is recoverable. Both kinds of
deformation can be a function of time or independent of time.

Inelastic Deformation:
Time dependent recoverable deformation under load
is called as inelastic deformation.
Creep:
Time dependent progressive permanent
deformation under constant load is called creep.

Stress:
When a material is subjected to an external force it will either
totally comply with that force and be pushed away or it will set up
the internal forces to oppose that forces. Solid materials are
generally act wither like a spring when stressed or compressed the
internal forces come into play as it is easily seen when spring is
released. A material is subjected to an external force that tends to
stretch it is called as tension. Whereas forces which squeeze the
material are put in compression. The term stress represented by
(σ) is used for force per unit area and has units of Pascal’s.

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Strain:
The material in tension or compression change its length and
change in length compared to the original length is refers to as
strain. The strain is represented by a symbol called epsilon (€).
Since strain is the ratio of two lengths so it has no units and it
frequently expressed as percentage.

Hooke’s Law:
Hooke’s law states that the tension of spring is direct proportion
with the load added to it as long as this load does not exceed the
elastic limit. Materials obeying the Hooke’s law are known as linear
elastic or Hookean materials. If a spring is gradually stretched the
force needed to increase but the material spring that to its original
shape when the force is increased. Materials that obey Hooke’s law
exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain. This linear
relationship between stress and strain can be shown in the form of
a graph as this graph shows that as we increase or decrease the
stress the strain also increase or decrease with same proportion
respectively. So both are directly proportional to each other.

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Many materials following Hooke’s law until a certain level of stress

has been applied after which the material will distort more
severely. The point at which the straight line behavior ceases is
called limit of proportionality. Beyond this the material will not
spring back to its original shape and said to exhibit some plastic
behavior. This stress at which the material starts to exhibits
permanent deformation is called elastic limit or yield point. If
stress is increased beyond yield point the sample will eventually
break. The term UTS ultimate tensile stress is used for the
maximum value of tensile stress that a material can withstand
without breaking and it is calculated as…

UTS=

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Where EL= elastic region, YP= yield point, LOP= limit of

proportionality, PR= plastic region, UTS= ultimate tensile strength.

Young’s Modulus:
It is the description of an object or substance’s tendency to deform
elastically when the force is applied to it. Young’s modulus of an
object is defined as, the slope of its stress and strain curve in the
elastic deformation region. The slope of stress over strain graph
varies with stress so we gradually take the slope of initial straight
line portion. The units of young’s modulus are those of stress since
strain has no units.

Mechanical Properties of Metals:

The some important mechanical properties of metals are given
below as…

 Contraction and Expansion

 Density
 Strength
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Ductility
 Malleability
 Brittleness
 Fusibility
 Creep

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 Contraction and Expansion:

When metals are heated or cooled they are either expand or
contract. It is the one of the important property of metals. When
metals are heated they expand and become larger while cooling the
metals causes them to contract or shrink in size. It is very
important for metals that are used in process industry to consider
temperature changes and how they affect the metals.
 Density:
Density is the physical and mechanical property of the metals
which may be defined as mass per unit volume metals have high
density then the non metals this is because of the tiny packed
crystals in the metal structures. Metal density is very important
factor in different structures i.e. vehicles machines etc…

 Strength:
Strength is the property of metals that enables the metals to resist
deformation under load there are three types of strength as…

 Tensile Strength
 Fatigue Strength
 Impact Strength
 Tensile Strength:
It is the measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when
placed in a tension load.
 Fatigue Strength:
It is the ability of metals to resist the rapidly
changing in stresses for a specified number of cycles.

 Impact Strength:
It is the ability of metals to resist suddenly applied
loads and measured in foot pound of force.
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 Hardness:
It is the resistance to deformation, penetration, abrasion and
distortion etc… there are many methods to measure the hardness
of a metal the hardness of a material is always specified in the
terms of a particular test that is used to measure this property
Rockwell Brinell Bickers are some of the methods of testing these
tests Rockwell is the most frequently used method for measuring
the hardness of a material the basic principle used in the Rockwell
test is the harder material can penetrate a softer one. We measure
the amount of penetration and then compare it with the standard
scale for ferrous metals which are usually harder than the non
ferrous metals a diamond strip is used which is indicated by a
Rockwell number represented by C. non ferrous metals that are
softer then the ferrous metals metal balls are used and hardness
indicated by the Rockwell number B. to get an idea of the property
of the hardness compare lead and steel lead can be scratched with
a pointer wooden tip but steel cannot because it is harder than
lead.

 Toughness:
Toughness is the ability of metals not to break in pressure applied
such as tearing, shearing, stretching, bending and deforming.
Toughness of metal should be able to absorb energy up to fracture.
It enables materials with stand shocks and to be deformed without
rupturing when a rod is bend its outer surface is stretches and the
inside radius of the rod is compresses the more a material is bends
the more outer surface is stretches an inner radius is contracts a
tough material is one that gives relatively small changes in length
when subjected to tension and compression in the other words the
small value of stress over strain. Tough materials are desirables to
vehicles, machines and large structures.
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 Elasticity:
Physical or mechanical property of metals which makes it to able
to return in to its original shape after it has been deformed.
Elasticity is the ability of the materials to return in to its original
shape after the load is removed theoretically the elastic limit of a
material is the limit to which material is loaded and still recovers
its original shape after the load is removed.

 Plasticity:
It is the ability of the material to deform permanently without
breaking or rupture by carefully alloying of metals then combine
the combination of plasticity and strength is used to manufacture
the large structures.

 Ductility:
It is the physical and mechanical property of metals that allows the
metals to deform, drawn, bends or twists in to different shapes by
applying the tensile forces without fracture or breaking. Ductile
metals are vitals in creating wires or tubes because of its easy of
forming. For example platinum, copper and steel etc…

 Malleability:
It is the property of the materials that enables the materials to
be deformed by compressive forces without developing the defects
like breaking cracking etc… malleable material is one of that stress
hammer forget rolls into thin sheets. The sheets of metals are then
used to form shapes for structures mechanically need for example
gold, manganese and copper etc…

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 Brittleness:
Brittle metals are one that breaks shatters before it deformed.
While cast iron and cast aluminum very hard steel and glass is the
one of the best example of the brittle materials. Generally a brittle
metal are very high in the compression strength and in tensile
strength. Brittle metals are not suitable for the heavy loads as they
could break easily and can cause the damage.

 Fusibility:
It is the mechanical property of the metals to be liquefied by
heating this process is called welding. Here metals are liquefied
and then joined together when it becomes harden it becomes one
piece. Steel liquefy at 2500oF while aluminum alloy at 1110oF.

 Creep:
Creep is the tendency of metal to moves slowly or deform
permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as the result
of the long term exposure to a high level of stress that are below
the yield point of the material. Creep is more swear in materials
that are subjected to heat for the long periods and near the melting
points. Creep is always increases with the temperature the rate of
this deformation is a function of materials properties exposure
times’ exposure temperature and applied structural loads. Creep
deformation is the time dependent deformation. The temperature
ranges in which the creep deformation may occur is different in
various metals. As a rule of thumb the effects of the creep
deformation generally becomes more noticeable at approximately
30% of melting points of the metals and 40%-50% of the melting
points of ceramics.

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3
Non Ferrous Materials

Introduction:
Ferrous materials are usually refers to the materials that have a
low content of iron in them.

Some important non ferrous metals are aluminum, copper, lead, tin
and zinc.

Aluminum:
Aluminum found its maximum use in every field of engineering due
to its particular properties softness, lightweight it has become very
useful metal in all over the world. Modified metallurgical processes
have improved strength and durability of different metals to such
an extent that it has made maximum use of aluminum in
engineering processes.

Properties:
 It is highly ductile.
 It is malleable.
 It is light in weight.
 It can withstand corrosion.
 It is the good conductor of heat and electricity.
 It is very soft in nature.
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 It can be melted easily.

 Its melting point is 6600C.
 Its specific gravity is 2.7
 It has good strength and durability.

Uses:
 It is use in making door and windows.
 It is use in making pipes.
 It is use in making electrical cables.
 It is use in making panels.
 It is use in making air craft’s.
 It is use in making automobile parts.
 It is use in making alloys.

Copper:
Copper is one of the most widely used metal but due to its high
price we use it with some limitations in engineering work.

Properties:
 It is crystalline in nature.
 It has reddish brown color.
 It is highly ductile.
 It is highly malleable.
 It can be welded when red hot.
 It is the excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
 Its corrosion rate is low.
 It is soft and flexible.
 It is light in weight.
 It turns to the greenish color when expose to atmosphere.

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Uses:
 It is use as base in paint.
 It is used in lead batteries.
 It is used in lead joints in sanitary fittings.
 It is used for cable covering.
 It is used in lead alloying bullets.
 It is used in lining the instruments in metallurgical
instruments.

Tin:
Tin is very common metal in the family of non ferrous metals. It is
mostly use as a protection layer for the protection of different
metals.

Properties:
 It has silver white color.
 It is ductile.
 It is malleable.
 It is the good conductor of heat.
 Its melting point is 2300C.
 Its specific gravity is 7.3
 It can withstand with corrosion in a better way.
 It becomes brittle at 2000C.

Uses:
 It is use to give coating to iron and steel sheets.
 It is used in making different alloys.
 It is extensively in electroplating.

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Zinc:
Zinc is commonly use as a protective metal or in making alloys.

Properties:
 It has blue color.
 It is crystalline in nature.
 It is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes
malleable and ductile between 10C-1500C above the 2100C it
becomes brittle again.
 It is very good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Its melting point is 4200C.
 Its specific gravity is 7.

Uses:
 It forms important alloys like brass and German silver etc…
 It is use in making fertilizers.
 It is use in making printing blocks in textile industry.
 It is use in making alloys making.
 It is use as a base in paints.
 It is use in making pipes.
 It is use in making nuclear weapons.

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Section: C

Alloys

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4
Ferrous Alloys
Introduction:
Alloys are usually the combination of metallic alloys is a metallic
solution composed of two or more materials alloying you to add
one metal into other one or more metals or non metals in molten
state and then allow freezing. An alloy is generally prepared to
increase strength, hardness, toughness, resistance to corrosion,
thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, tensile strength, shear
strength and young’s modulus.

For examples

Sr. Name Composition

no.
1 Brass Cu+Zn
2 Bronze Cu+Zn+Sn
3 Stainless steel Fe+Cr+Ni
4 Steel Fe+other elements usually
carbon and traces of other
elements

Ferrous Alloys:
Ferrous alloys has iron as major component chromium, vanadium,
nickel, tungsten, molybdenum and manganese are metals that
forms ferrous alloys with iron.

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Types:
 Nickel Steel
 Vanadium Steel
 Tungsten Steel
 Manganese Steel
 Stainless Steel

 Nickel Steel:
A steel containing up to 60% nickel sometimes with other metals
added to assist hardening during their formation is called nickel
steel. The nickel increases the strength and the elastic limit of the
alloys usually nickel steel contains 0.5%-1% of carbon 3.5% of
nickel and 93%-95% of iron and a small amount of chromium. If
the percentage of nickel present in the steel is increased through to
30%-40% then such steel is called as special steel which has very
low thermal expansion.

Properties:
 Presence of nickel in this steel improves the hardness, toughness
and strength of alloys.
 Presence of nickel in this steel reduces the corrosion rate.

Uses:
 It is use in the manufacturing of the automobile parts.
 Special steel is used for making dilatate sophisticated items
like aero plane parts.

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 Vanadium Steel:
It contains 0.1%-0.2% of vanadium with small amounts of
impurities.

Properties:
 It is strong and ductile.
 Capable of resisting shocks.
 Its elasticity is very high.

Uses:
 It is used in making different rods.
 It is use in making surgical instruments.
 Tungsten Steel:
It contains 14%-20% tungsten, 3%-8% chromium and very small
quantities of carbon and molybdenum. It is sometimes called high
speed steel.

Properties:
 It is very hard at high temperatures and ability to retain
temperature.
 It has resistant to corrosion.

Uses:
 It is use in making drilling machines.
 It is used for making high speed cutting tools.

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 Manganese Steel:
It contains 14%-15% manganese addition of manganese in the
steel makes it very hard and non magnetic.

Properties:
 It is very hard.
 It is non magnetic.

Uses:
 It is use in making different machine parts.
 It is use in making railway tracks.

 Stainless Steel:
Stainless steel is the name given to the group of alloys that contains
minimum of 10.5% chromium. Chromium has high affinity for
oxygen and forms stable oxides films on the surface of the stainless
steel the film is called the passive oxide layer and form
instantaneously in ordinary atmosphere this films is self healing
and rebuilds when it has been removed this film that gives the
stainless steel corrosion resistance in metallurgy stainless steel is
also called inox steel or simply inox.

Types:
The large group can be classified as…

 Austenitic Stainless Steel

 Ferritic Stainless Steel
 Martensitic Stainless Steel

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 Duplex Stainless Steel

 Perception Hardening
Austenitic Stainless Steel:
This group of stainless steel contains 0.15% carbon 17%-25%
chromium 8%-20% nickel with other additional elements to
achieve the required properties corrosion resistance can be
enhanced by adding chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. The
most widely useful austenitic steel is 304 grade or A2 SS.

Properties:
 Standard A2SS are resistive to stress corrosion cracking.
 Higher nickel austenitic steel has increase resistance to stress
corrosion cracking.
 It is normally non magnetic but exhibit some magnetic
response depending up [on the composition and the
hardening of the steel.
Ferritic Stainless Steel:
They are usually contains 10.5%-27% chromium 0.08%-2% carbon
and a very small amount of the nickel in any types but some types
may contain lead also most composition includes molybdenum,
aluminum and titanium. Increases the chromium a parts increases
the resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures. Ferritic steel
have better engineering properties then austenitic steel. Series 400
includes many Ferritic steels.

Properties:
 It is usually limited in use to relatively thin sections due to
lack of toughness in welds.
 They cannot be hardened by heat treatment.

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 Ferritic steel are also chosen for their resistance to stress

corrosion cracking
 They are not as formable as austenitic steels are.
 They are magnetic in nature.

Martensitic Stainless Steel:

This group contains 12%-14% chromium 0.2%-1% molybdenum
less than 2% nickel and about 0.2%-1% carbon. These steels are
not corrosion resistance as austenitic steel and Ferritic steels but
are extremely strong and tough. The high carbon content of this
steel allows them to response well to the heat treatment to gives
various mechanical strength such as hardness. 400 series includes
many Martensitic steels.

Properties:
 These are extremely strong and tough.
 These are highly machined able.
 They cannot be hardened by the heat treatment.
 They have generally low welding and forming ability.
 They are magnetic in nature.

 Duplex Stainless Steel:

They are characterized by the high chromium content 19%-32%
molybdenum contents and small amount of nickel contents then
austenitic stainless steel. They have mixed microstructure of the
both austenitic stainless steel and Ferritic stainless steel. The aim is
usually to produce 50/50 mix although in commercially alloy
duplex stainless steel has roughly 2 times strength compare to
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austenitic steel. Lean duplex stainless steel is formulated to have

comparable corrosion resistance to the standard austenitic
stainless steel but enhanced strength and resistance to stress
corrosion cracking. Super duplex stainless steel have enhanced
strength and resistance to other forms of corrosion compared to
the austenitic stainless steel. S32750 is a super duplex stainless
steel desire to resistance to pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion.
For resistance to stress corrosion cracking and for very high
strength application include oil and gas industry, offshore,
petrochemical plants, desalination plants and mechanical and
structural components demanding high strength combine with
high corrosion resistance.

Properties:
 They are weldable but need care in the section of welding.
 It has moderate form ability.
 They are magnetic in nature but not so much as ferritic
stainless steel and austenitic stainless steel.
 They have resistance to the stress corrosion cracking, pitting
corrosion and crevice corrosion.

Perception Hardening:
These steels can develop very high strength by adding elements
such as copper and aluminum etc… with suitable heat treatment
very fine particles from the matrix of steel which imparts strength.
The most common (17-4) perception hardening contains 17%
chromium and 4% nickel.

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Properties:
 They have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic
stainless steel.
 They have highest strength then other Martensitic grades.
 These steels can be machines to quit delicate shapes.

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5
Non Ferrous Alloys

Introduction:
Non iron alloys over 90% ferrous alloys are based on metals
manganese, copper, nickel, aluminum, manganese and titanium
etc… these elements are more expensive then iron but each
element has specific applications due to its unique properties.

There are 4 types of non ferrous alloys as follows…

 Brass
 Bronze
 Duralumin
 German Silver

Brass:
It is an alloy containing about 30%-40% zinc and 60%-70%
copper. The hardness of this alloy depends upon the amount of zinc
present.

Properties:
 It is ductile.
 It is malleable.
 It has good corrosion resistance.

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Uses:
 It is used in household utensils.
 It is used in making water pumps.
 It is used in making machine parts.

Bronze:
These alloys contain 90% copper and 10% tin and some quantity of
zinc and silicon.

Properties:
 It has good corrosion resistance.
 It has good thermal resistance

Uses:
 It is used in household utensils.
 It is used for making coins.
 It is used for making the radio signal antenna.
 It is used for making certain other instruments.

Duralumin:
It is alloys that contain 94% aluminum 4% copper 2% manganese
and sometimes manganese and silicon.

Properties:
 It has resistant to corrosion due to the presence of aluminum.

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 It is the good conductor of heat and electricity.

Uses:
 It is used for making surgical instruments.
 It is used for making aero plane and automobile parts.

German Silver:
It is an alloy containing 20%-35% zinc and 40%-60% copper and a
small amount of nickel.

Properties:
 It is good in corrosion resistance.
 It has very high tensile strength.

Uses:
 It is used in household utensils.
 It is used for making valves.
 It is used for making parts of typewriter.
 It is used for making musical instruments.
 It is used for making automobile parts.

Corrosion:
Corrosion is the disintegration of a material into its constituent’s
atoms due to chemical reaction on it by its surroundings. In the
most common use of the world this means electrochemical
oxidation of the metals with an oxidant such as oxygen formation of
oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms it is a well known
example of electrochemical corrosion commonly known as rusting.

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This type of damage typically produces oxides salts of organic

metals corrosion can also refer to other materials than metals such
as ceramics and polymers etc… but usually the term degradation is
used.

Types:
 Uniform General Attack Corrosion
 Galvanic Corrosion
 Pitting Corrosion
 Crevice Corrosion
 Intergranular Corrosion
 Stress Corrosion
 Erosion Corrosion
 Cavitations Damage
 Fretting Corrosion
 Selective Leaching
 Uniform General Attack Corrosion:
Uniform general attack corrosion is characterized by corrosive
attack proceeding evenly over the entire surface area of a large
surface area of the total area. It is simply oxidation and reduction
occurring uniformly over the surface it results from the direct
chemical attack and involve majorly the metal surface in natural
environment. Oxygen is the primary cause of the uniform general
attack corrosion of steel and other metal alloys general thinning
takes place until failure. It is the most important form of the
corrosion however the uniform general attack corrosion is
relatively easily measured.

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Prevention:
Corrosion occurs uniformly over the entire surface of the metal
component. It can be practically controlled by the cathode
protection use for coating or paints.

 Galvanic Corrosion:
It is also known as dissimilar metal corrosion or wrongly
electrolysis. Galvanic corrosion is refer to the corrosion damage
include when two dissimilar metals are coupled in a corrosive
electrolyte. When a galvanic couple is forms one of the metals in a
couple become anode and corrodes faster than it would by itself
while other becomes the cathode slower than it would alone.

For galvanic corrosion to occur three conditions must be present…

 Electrochemically dissimilar metals.

 These metals must be in the electrical contact.
 The metal must be exposed to the electrolyte.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by insulating the metals keeping metals dry or
sheelted from ionic compounds coating, electroplating and
choosing metal of similar potential.

 Pitting Corrosion:
It is the form of extremely localized corrosion that leads to creation
of the small cavities in metal. The driving path or pitting corrosion
is due the presence of oxygen around a small area. It can occur in
any metal but its most common metals that form the protective
oxide film such as aluminum and magnesium alloys. It is first
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noticeable as a white or gray powder deposit. Similar to the dust

which blotches surface. When the deposited is clean away tinny
holes and split can be seen on the surface. Pitting corrosion is
considered dearer then the uniform general attack corrosion
damage because it is more difficult to detect predicts design against
corrosion product often cover the Pitts. A small narrow Pitt can
lead to the failure of engineering systems.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by controlling the alloys environment proper
selection of materials with known resistance to environment.
Acathodic or anodic protection service using higher alloys for
increased resistance.

 Crevice Corrosion:
It is a localize form of the corrosion usually associated with a
stagnant solution on a micro environmental level. Crevice
corrosion is a corrosion occurring in species to which the access of
working fluid from the environment is limited. These species are
generally called as crevices and a concentration cell is takes place
there it results from relative lack of oxygen in a crevice with the
metal in a crevice becomes anodic to metal outside stagnant micro
environmental tends to occurs in crevices such as those form under
gas kits, washer, insulating material surface deposits, threads, lap
joints and clamps.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by the liquid removal increasing contents by
controlling alloys environmental design vessel from which
complete drainage of the liquid may be possible. Used weld joints

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instead of nuts and bolts. Use known absorbent gas kit such as
Teflon.

Intergranular Corrosion:
It occurs between the grains that form when a metal is solidified.
To composition of the ores between the grains differ from the
grains themselves. The grain boundary and the grain centre react
with each other as an anode and cathode when in contact with an
electrolyte. It is difficult to detect the Intergranular corrosion in its
early stages when the overall lose of thickness remains minimum.
It is localized corrosion attack at the adjacent to a grain boundary
of an alloy it is typically associated with welding or heat treating
problems.

Prevention:
It can be controlled by using high temperature solution after
heating and welding and also using lower carbon contents to
0.03%.

 Stress Corrosion:
Stress corrosion cracking is a sudden failure of normally ductile
metals due to the corrosion.

It is caused by the simultaneous effect of tensile stress and

corrosive environment.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by the proper selection of material, remove
corrosive environment and use carrion inhibitators.

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 Erosion Corrosion:
It is also called as fatigue corrosion. It is a combination of
mechanical erosion with chemical or electrochemical reaction.
Erosion corrosion is acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in
the metal due the relative motion corrosive fluid and metal surface.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by using the appropriate lubricant.

 Cavitation Damage:
It is caused by the formation and collapse of air bubbles filled
cavities near the metal surfaces.
When a liquid is subjected to rapidly changes pressure causing the
formation of cavities in low pressure region of liquid.
This phenomenon is very common in pump impellers.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by controlling turbulence and using corrosion
inhibitators.

 Fretting Corrosion:
It occurs between two highly loaded surfaces which may not be
supposed to move against each other.

It is associated with the welding and heat treatment problems.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by using high temperature solutions after
welding and heat treatment and by using corrosion inhibitators.

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 Selective Leaching:
This type of corrosion is usually caused in alloys by the galvanic
mechanism of the removal of one metal component from the alloy.

Prevention:
It can be prevented by de-zincification of such as brass (Zn+Cu).

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Section: D

Non Metallic Materials

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Sr Name Formula M.P C0

6 No.

Non Metallic Materials

Introduction:
The term ceramics comes from a Greek word “keramikos” which
means burnt stuff indicating desirable properties of these materials
are normally achieved through a high temperature heat treatment
this process is called as firing.

Ceramics can be defined as…

Solid compound that are formed by the application of
heat and sometimes by heat and pressure comparing at least two
elements provided one of them is a non-metal and other is a metal
or non-metallic elemental solid in other words what is neither a
metal, semi-conductor or a polymer is a ceramic in simple ceramics
materials are inorganic material that may be a crystalline or
partially crystalline they are formed by the action of heat and
subsequent cooling-ceramics are usually associated with mixed
bonding a combination of ionic, covalent and sometimes metallic
bond. Some melting points of ceramics compounds are given in the
table given below…

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1 Hafnium Carbide HfC 4150

2 Titanium Carbide TiC 3120
3 Tungsten Carbide WC 2850
4 Magnesium Oxide MgO 2798
5 Silicon Carbide SiC 2500
6 Boron Carbide B4C3 2450
7 Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 2050
8 Silicon Dioxide SiO2 1715
9 Silicon Nitride Si3N4 1900
10 Titanium Dioxide TiO2 1605

Types:
 Traditional Ceramics
 Advanced Ceramics

Traditional Ceramics:
Traditional ceramics includes high volume atoms bricks tiles toilet
bowls and pottery. Traditional ceramics usually based on clay and
silica there is sometime tendency to equate traditional ceramics
with low technology however advanced manufacturing techniques
are used.

Examples are clay, Al2O3.2SiO3.2H2O, silica SiO2, feldspar

K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2

Advanced Ceramics:
Advanced ceramics are often referred to as special
ceramics, technical ceramics and engineering ceramics. They
exhibit superior mechanical properties like corrosion,
oxidation, resistance, electrical, optical and magnetic
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properties. Advanced ceramics includes newer materials such

as LASER host materials piezo electric ceramics ceramic for
dynamic RAM.
Examples Al2O3, SiC and Si3N4.

Clay:
Clay is a major and basic component of ceramic materials. Clay
consists mainly of hydrated aluminum silicates with small
amounts of other oxides such as iron oxide, MgO, CaO, Na2O,
K2O, titanium oxide Ti2O.

Types:
 Kaolin
 Tenn. Ball Clay
 Key Ball Clay

Ceramic Melting Point % Covalent % Ionic

Compound ° character character
Magnesium Oxide 2798° 27% 73%
Aluminum Oxide 2050° 37% 63%
Silicon Dioxide 1715° 49% 51%
Silicon Nitride 1900° 70% 30%
Silicon Carbide 2500° 89% 11%

 Kaolin:
Eachtype of clay is used to make ceramics by controlling
composition some structural products such as sewerage pipes,
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building bricks, roof tiles and floor tiles etc. are made of clay white
wear products such as porcelain dinner china and sanitary wears
are made from components of clay alumina silica and feldspar
ceramics are very high melting point materials the melting point of
some ceramics are given as follows…

This table shows that ceramics are difficult to process in the

ceramics compounds the bonding is the mixture of ionic and
covalent bonding. The percentage of ionic and covalent character
can be obtained by considering electro negativity difference
between different types of these compounds. The composition of
types of clay by weight is given in the table given below…

Sr Name % by weight
No.
1 Al2O3 30.9
2 SiO2 45.5
3 Fe2O3 1.68
4 TiO2 1.3
5 CaO 0.004
6 MgO 0.03
7 Na2O 0.011
8 K 2O 0.005
9 H2 O 13.9

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Sr Name % by weight
No.
1 Al2O3 30.9
2 SiO2 54.0
3 Fe2O3 0.74
4 TiO2 1.5
5 CaO 0.14
6 MgO 0.20
7 Na2O 0.45
8 K 2O 0.72
9 Ignitions 11.4
Loss

Sr Name % by weight
No.
1 Al2O3 32.0
2 SiO2 51.7
3 Fe2O3 0.9
4 TiO2 1.52
5 CaO 0.21
6 MgO 0.19
7 Na2O 0.38
8 K 2O 0.89
9 Ignitions 12.3
Loss

Processing of the Ceramics Materials:

The most technical and traditional ceramics products are
manufactured by compacting powder or particles into shapes
which are subsequently heated to a high enough temperature to
bounds the particles together.

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Basic steps in the preparation of ceramics by agglomeration of

particles are…

Material preparation
Casting
 Pressing
 Dry pressing
 Isostatic pressing
 Hot pressing
 Slip casting
 Extrusion
 Hot extrusion
 Cold extrusion
Thermal treatment

Material Preparation:
Most ceramics products are made from
the agglomeration of particles the raw materials vary depending
upon the required properties of finished ceramics product particles
and their ingredients such as binders and lubricants may be
blended wet or dry for ceramics products which do not have
critical properties the blended of ingredients with water is a
common factor to produce one type of high alumina insulator the
particular raw material are filled with water along with wax
winder to form a slurry which is subsequently spray dried to form
small special pallets.

Casting:
Ceramics products are made by agglomerating particles may be
found by the variety of methods it is usually done in wet or dry

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conditions cold forming process are predominant in the ceramic

industry but hot forming process are also used.

Casting may be done in three ways pressing, slip casting and

extrusion.

Pressing:
Raw materials can be pressed in wet or dry conditions into die to
form shapes pressing may be done by three different methods dry
pressing, isostatic pressing and hot pressing.

 Dry Pressing:
This method is commonly used for products such as structural
refractories and electronic ceramics components dry pressing may
be defined as simultaneous uni axial compaction and shaping of
granular products along with small amount of water and organic
binders in a die.

 Isostatic Pressing:
In this process ceramics powder is loaded into a flexible air type
container that is inside the chamber of hydraulic fluid to which
constant pressure is applied the force of the force of applied
pressure compacts the powder uniformly in all direction after cold
isostatic pressing the part must be fired to achieve the required
properties and micro structure ceramics parts manufactured by
isostatic pressing includes certain carbide tools, crucibles and
Barings.

 Hot Pressing:
In this process the ceramics parts of high density and
improved mechanical properties are used by combining
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pressing and firing operations both uniaxial and isostatic

method are used.

Slip Casting:
Ceramics shapes can be cast by unique process called slip casting
are…

 Preparation of powder ceramics material and liquid in a

stable suspension called slip.
 Pouring in a porous mold which is usually made of plaster of
paris and allowing the liquid portion of slip to be partially
absorbed by the mold.
 As the liquid is removed from the slip a layer of semi hard
material is formed against the mold when sufficient wall
thickness have been achieved the casting process is
interrupted and excess slip is poured out of the cavity this is
known as drain casting.
 The material in the mold is allowed to dry to provide
adequate strength for hardening this will improve the
properties of materials. Thermal treatment is done and the
ceramic product is formed which is used according to the
requirement.

Extrusion:
Extrusion is a process by which different ceramics parts of the
required shapes can be produced extrusion is done by squeezing
the material in a closed cavity through a tool called die using either
a mechanical or hydraulic press.

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 Cold Extrusion:
It is the process done at the room temperature or slightly elevated
temperature this process can be used for most materials subjected
to designing strength enough tooling that can with stand stress
created by extrusion. The advantages of cold extrusion are good
mechanical properties due to cold working and good surface
finish with a use of proper lubricants.

 Hot Extrusion:
It is done fairly at high temperature approximately 50% to 75% of
the melting point of the ceramic material pressure can range from
35-700 mega Pascal due to high temperature and pressure and its
determinal effects on the die life as well as other components good
lubrication is necessary oil and graphite work at low temperature
whereas at high temperature glass powder is used.

Thermal Treatment:
Product obtained after casting is subjected to high temperature to
improve its properties and micro structure.

Composite Materials:
It is a material composed of the mixture or combination of the two
or more constituents that differ in the form and chemical
composition which are essentially insoluble with each other i.e.
remains separate and distinct at microscopic and macroscopic
scale with in a finished structure. The engineering importance of
the composite materials is that two or more distinctly different
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materials are combined together to form a composite material

which posses the properties that are superior to the properties of
the individual components some of the composite materials are
concrete, bath tubes and wood etc…

Types:
 Natural Composite Material
 Synthetic Composite Material
 Natural Composite Material:
The examples of natural composite materials are wood, teeth, plant
leaves, bones, silk and bird finger.

 Synthetic Composite Material:

Most of the composite materials are synthetic plastic composite
materials they are further sub divided in to three main types…

 Fiber Glass
 Carbon Fiber
 Aramid Fiber

 Fiber Glass:
Fiber glass are produced by monofilaments of glass from a furnace
containing molten glass a large number of these filaments are
fluidized and greater to form a rope these ropes are also called as
strands. They use to make glass fiber your may be to held together
by various binders at last this yarn is send to market for sale.

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 Carbon Fiber:
Carbon fiber is a composite material made by using the carbon
fibers for reinforced plastic resins such as epoxy resins are
characterized by having a combination of light weight and increase
the properties of the materials for example the adhesive property;
very high strength and elasticity. These properties make use of the
carbon fiber composite material especially attractive for aerospace.
The relative high cost of the carbon fiber restricts its use in auto
industry.

Resources of Carbon Fiber:

Carbon fibers are mainly produces from two sources as follows…

 PAN (poly acrylo nitrile)

 Pitch

Carbon Fiber Process Stages:

 Stabilization
 Carbonization
 Graphitization
 Stabilization:
In the stabilization state PAN fibers are first stretched to align
hence the fiber network within the each fiber parallel to each other
is formed then they are oxidized in air at 200oC-220oC which are
held in tension.

 Carbonization:
In the second stage of carbonization the high strength carbon fibers
are achieved in this process the stabilize PAN fibers are heated

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until they will come transform in carbon fiber with the elimination
of the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Carbonization treatment is
usually carried out in an inert atmosphere 1000oC-1500oC most of
the carbon fibers are completed in the second stage.

 Graphitization:
It is used if an increase in the properties such as elasticity is desire.
It is done in the carbon fibers at expense of the high tensile
strength. Graphitization is usually done above 18000C in an inert
atmosphere of a gas such as argon after the graphitization carbon
fiber is produced and sends to the market for sale.

 Aramid Fiber:
It is a generic name for the poly amide fibers Aramid fibers are
available under the trade name of Kevlar and that present time
there are two commercial types of the Kevlar are available…

 Kevlar 29
 Kevlar 49

Properties of Kevlar 29:

It is a low density high strength Aramid fiber which is design for
applications such as ballistic missiles ropes cables etc…

Properties of Kevlar 49:

It makes its fibers useful as reinforcement for plastic and
aerospace, automobile and other industrial applications. In general
words Kevlar is used as a high performance composite material
application where light weight, high strength, high stiffness,
damage resistance, fatigue resistance and stress rupture are
important. Kevlar 49 is mostly used in the industrial equipments.
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Comparison between Glass Fiber/Carbon

FiberandAramid Fiber:
 Carbon fiber provides the best combination of high strength,
high stiffness, low density and low elongation.
 Aramid fiber is the best combination of high strength, high
stiffness, low density and high elongation.
 Glass fiber has low strength and elasticity then Aramid fiber
but they are very cheap therefore more widely used in the
engineering applications.

Polymeric Materials:
The word polymer means the many units polymeric solid material
may be consider to be one of that contain many chemical bonds or
units which themselves are bounded together to form a solid the
chemical reaction in which high molecular mass molecules are
formed from monomers is called as polymerization.

 Addition Polymerization
 Condensation Polymerization

Methods of Polymerization:
 Continuous Method
 Batch Method

 Continuous Method:
In this process the monomers and the activators are continuously
fed in to the reactor from where the catalyst is present and the
continuous product is received at the other end.

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 Batch Method:
There are 4 types of batch method as follows…

 Bulk
 Suspension
 Emulsion

 Bulk:
Monomers and the activators are mixed in a reactor which is
heated and then cooled as required this process is used
experimentally for condensation polymerization. Where one
monomer may be charged in to the reactor and the other added
slowly. The bulk can be used for the many reactions due to its low
heat of reaction. The monomers is dissolved in a non reactive
solvent which contains a catalyst the heat released by the reaction
is absorbed by the solvent and so the reaction rate is slow.

 Suspension:
The monomers are mixed with a catalyst and then dispersed as a
suspension in to the water in this process the heat release by the
reaction is absorbed by the water after the polymerization the
polymeric product is separated and dried.

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 Emulsion:
This phenomenon is similar to the suspension but we have to add
an emulsifier to disappear the monomers into many small particles.

Plastics:
A plastic material is any of the wide range of synthetic or the semi
synthetic solid used in the manufacturing of the industrial
products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass
and may contain other substances to improve the performance.

Types:
 Thermo Plastic
 Thermosetting Plastic
 Thermo Plastic:
These materials can be reheated and
reformed in to new shapes for a number of times without
significant changes in their properties most of the thermo plastic
consists of the long chains mainly of carbon atoms covalently
bonded together and sometimes nitrogen, oxygen and sulpher are
also found in long chains with carbon atoms are also covalently
bonded together to make chain PVC, polyethylene and Teflon are
the well known examples of thermo plastics.

 Thermosetting Plastic:
Thermosetting plastic are formed in to permanent shapes and reset
by chemical reaction they cannot be remelted reformed in to
another shape but decompose upon heating to a high temperature
they cannot be recycled the best examples of thermosetting plastics
are Bakelite, epoxy resins and urea formaldehyde.

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Processing of Thermo Plastic Materials:

 Injection Molding
 Extrusion
 Blow molding
 Injection Molding:
It is the one of the most important
method used for the thermo plastic materials the modern injection
molding machines utilize a reciprocating method for melting of the
plastic and injecting in to the mold one of the main advantage of the
reciprocating screw method over the plunger time is that a screw
leaves a homogeneous material of injection in the injection molding
process plastic granular from a happer are fed through an opening
in the injection cylinder onto the surface of rotating screw rotating
screw derives and carries the materials forward towards the
molds.

Advantages:
 High quality parts.
 High production rate.
 Low labor cost.
 Good surface finish.
 Process is highly automatic.

Disadvantages:
 High cost
 Process must be closely control.

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 Extrusion:
It is another important processing method used
for the thermoplastic materials some of the product is
manufactured by the extrusion process are pipes, rods, sheets and
many other kinds of shapes extrusion machine is also used for
making compounds plastic materials for the production of the raw
shapes such as pallets in the extrusion process the thermo plastic
material is fed in to a heated cylinder and the melted plastic is
formed y a rotating screw through an opening in to a mold to get a
final shape after ejecting from a die the extruded part must be
cooled the cooling is usually done in the presence of air or water.

 Blow Molding:
In blow molding a cylinder or tube of the heated plastic is paste
between the jaws of mold and compresses where is blown which
forces he plastic against the walls of the mold.

Processing of Thermosetting Plastic Materials:

 Compression Molding
 Transfer Molding
 Compression Molding:
Many thermosetting materials
such as phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are formed in
to the solid parts by the compression molding process in the
compression molding process the plastic material which may be
preheated is loaded in to a hot mold containing one or more
cavities the upper part of the mold is forced down on the plastic
material and applied pressure and heat mold the material and force
the liquefied plastic to fill the cavities continuous heating is

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required to complete the cross linkage of the thermosetting

materials then the part is ejected from the mold the excessive
material may be trimmed from the part.

Advantages:
 Simple process.
 Initial mold process cost is low.
 Production of large parts is feasible.
 Expand gases from the reaction are able to escape.

Disadvantages:
 Complicated pats are difficult to make/ must be treated from
the molted parts.
 Transfer Molding:
It is also used for the molding of thermosetting plastic such as urea
formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde. Transfer molding differs
from the compression molding in that in compression molding the
material is introduced directly in to the mold cavities but in the
transfer molding the plastic material is not fed directly in to the
mold cavities but fed in to the chamber of outside mold in the
transfer molding when the mold is closed a plunger forces the
plastic materials from the outside chamber through a system of
runners and gates in to the mold cavities.

Advantages:
 No flash formed during the molding.
 Many parts can be made at the same time.
 Transfer molding is specially used for making small parts
which are difficult to make from compression molding.

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Polyethylene:
The structural formula of polyethylene is [-CH2-CH2]n.
Polyethylene is clear to whitish thermoplastic material and it is
often fabricated in to thin film and has a waxy appearance with the
use of proper color agent a wide variety of color product is
obtained.

It has two types…

 Low Density Polyethylene

 High Density Polyethylene

Low density polyethylene has a branched chain structure and high

density polyethylene has a straight structure.

Production of Low Density Polyethylene:

Unipole process for the production of the low density polyethylene
is one of the important methods. In this process ethylene
monomers with some co monomers are fed continuously in to a
fluidized bed reactor in fluidized bed reactor a special catalyst is
also added the advantages for this process is the low temperature
for the polymerization i.e. 1000C and 100 Psi low pressure. From
the top of the reactor the polyethylene gas is passed through a
compressor and through a cooler where nitrogen is passing to cool
down the product and granular polyethylene is received after the
cooling process.

Properties:
 Polyethylene is extensively used as a plastic material and
accounts 32% of the total plastic produced in the world.
 The main reason for its prime production is that it is low in
cost and has many industrially important properties such
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as high toughness at room temperature sufficient strength

and flexibility over a wide range of temperatures down to -
730C.
 Other properties include excellent corrosion resistance
and insulating properties.

Uses:
 It is used for the electrical insulation.
 It is used in chemical tubing.
 It is used in house wears.
 It is used in blow molding bottles.
 It is used in film and film packing.

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Polyvinylchloride:
Its structural formula is [-CH2-CHCl-]n. Polyvinylchloride is widely
used synthetic plastic that has second largest sale in the world and
wide spread use of polyvinylchloride is due to its high chemical
resistance and unique activities to produce a large number of
compounds with a wide range of physical and chemical properties.
Polyvinylchloride can be used for a few applications without the
addition of the number of compounds which can be added in
polyvinylchloride to makes its application versatile are plasticizer,
heat stabilizers, lubricants, fillers and pigments.

 Plasticizer:
Plasticizers are additives that increase the fluidity and plasticity of
the materials to which they are added. These are high molecular
compounds which are selected to be completely miscible and
compatible with the basic material for example phthalate esters are
commonly used plasticizers. Dioctile phthalate (DOP) is the main
plasticizer for polyvinylchloride.

 Heat Stabilizers:
Heat stabilizer are added to previously to prevent the thermal
degradation during processing and also help to extend the life of
the finished product typical heat stabilizer used are organic and
inorganic metallic compounds based on tin, lead, calcium and zinc.

 Lubricants:
Lubricants help the polyvinylchloride to flow during processing
and prevent addition to met6al surface waxes fatty esters and
metal soaps are commonly used as lubricants.
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 Fillers:
For polyvinylchloride calcium carbonate is the main filler to reduce
the cost of finished product.

 Pigments:
Organic and inorganic pigments are used give color and weather
ability to polyvinylchloride compounds.

 Uses of Rigid Polyvinylchloride:

 Polyvinylchloride alone can be used for some applications but is
difficult to process rigid polyvinylchloride is used for pipes,
window frames and electrical conduits.
 Uses of Plasticizer Polyvinylchloride:
 The addition of plasticizer to polyvinylchloride produces
softness flexibility and extensibility. Plasticizer
polyvinylchloride is used for furniture, auto industry, shoes,
luggage, transportation, electrical insulation, floor tiles,
refrigerator and house wears.

Polypropylene:
Its structural formula is [-CH2-CH-CH3]n . is the third largest plastic
from the production point of view. It is one of the low cost plastic
materials. Because it is produce from the low cost petrochemical
materials. It has a good resistant to moisture chemical and heat it
has low density and good surface hardness. The major applications
are house wears, electrical appliances, bags, rugs, mats,

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packing’s;laboratory wears bottles of various types and

transportation of delicate items.

Teflon:
It has structural formula [-CF2 – CF2-]. Teflon is completed
fluorinated polymer formed by the free radical chain
polymerization of Teflon gas to produce linear chain polymer of
CF2 the original discovery of the polymerization of
tetrafuoroethylene in to Teflon is made by R.J Plunbelt Teflon is a
crystalline polymer with a melting point of 3270C. it has high
density and exceptional resistance to chemical it is insoluble to all
organic compounds. Teflon is slippery and waxy to touch and has
low friction it is used for low chemical resistant pipes high
temperature applications, cable insulation, laboratory wears and
insulating tapes etc… it is also used in packing seals, gear and other
composite materials.

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Section:E

Special Materials

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7
Special Materials

Introduction:
Refractory:
A refractory material is one that retains its strength at high
temperature. It is defined as the non metallic materials having
those physical and chemical properties that make them applicable
for structures or as a component of a system that are exposed to
environment about 10000F. a material can be described as a
refractory if it can with stand the action of abrasive or corrosive
solids, liquids and gases at high temperatures. Refractory materials
are used in the lining of the kiln, furnaces, incinerators and
reactors. They are also used to made crucibles. Refractory
materials are made in varying combinations and shapes depending
on their applications.

General Properties:
 They can withstand high temperature.
 It can withstand sudden change in temperature.
 It can withstand sudden action of molten metal slag like glass
and hot gases etc…
 It can withstand load at severe conditions.
 It can withstand abrasive forces.
 It can conserve heat.
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 They have low coefficient of thermal expansion.

 They should not contaminate the material with which it
comes in to contact.

Types:
On the basis of Chemical Composition
 Acidic Refractories
 Basic Refractories
 Neutral Refractories
 Special Refractories
On the basis of End Use
 Casting Pit
 Blast Furnace
On the basis of Methods of Manufacturing
 Dry Press Process
 Fused Cast
 Hand Molding
 Fired Chemically Bonded
 Formed Normal
 Unformed
On the basis of Chemical Composition:

 Acidic Refractories:
Acidic refractories are used in the area where slag and atmosphere
states are acidic. They are stables to acids but attack by alkalies.
The main raw materials belong to RO2 is silica, Zirconia, semi
silicate and alumina silicate.

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 BasicRefractories:
Basic refractories are used in the area
where slag and atmosphere states are basic. They are stables to
basic but attack by alkalies. The main raw materials belong to RO
like magnesia; chrome Magnesite, Magnesite, Magnesitechromites
and dolomite.

 Neutral Refractories:
Neutral refractories are used in the area where slag and
atmosphere states are either acidic or basic. The main raw
materials belong to but not confined to R2O3 like alumina,
chromium oxide, fire clay bricks, chrome and pure alumina.

Examples ofSome Important Refractories:

 Fire clay refractories (neutral refractory)
 Silica bricks (acidic refractory)
 Magnesite refractories (basic refractories)
 Oxide refractory (neutral refractory)
 Zirconia refractory (special refractory)
 Amonolithic refractory ( by method of manufacturing)
 Fire Clay Refractories (neutral refractory):
Fire clay is the most common form of the refractory material it is
used extensively in iron and steel industry non ferrous metallurgy
glass industry pottery kilns cement industry and many other
industries fie clay refractories consist of aluminum silicate with
varying silica contents up to 78% and alumina contents up to 44%
this material is often used in furnaces and kilns because these
materials are widely available and relatively inexpensive.

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 Silica Bricks (acidic refractory):

Silica brick is also called as dinas it is a refractory that contain at
least a 93% silica various grades of silica bricks have found
extensive use in iron and steel melting furnaces and glass industry
in addition to high fusion points other important properties are
high resistance to spalling resistance (thermal shock resistance)
and their high refractoriness the outstanding property of silica
bricks is that it does not begin to soften under high loads until its
fusion point is approached this behavior contrasts with many of
other refractories for example alumina silicate materials which
began to fuse and creep considerably low then their fusion points
other advantages of silica bricks are flux and slap resistance
volume stability and spalling resistance (thermal shock resistance).

 Magnesite Refractory (basic refractory):

Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials containing at
least 85% of magnesium oxide they are made from naturally
occurring magnesium carbonate the properties of Magnesite
refractory depends upon the concentration of the silicate bonds at
an operating temperatures good quality Magnesite usually results
from CaO-SiO2 of less than two with minimum ferrite concentration
particularly in the furnaces lined with the refractory operating in
the oxidation and reducing conditions the slap resistance is very
high particularly to lime and iron bridge slages.

 Oxide Refractory (neutral refractory):

Alumina refractory material that consist of aluminum oxide with
little craces impurities are known as pure alumina is one of the
most stable oxide known it is mechanically very strong insoluble in
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water super heated steam and most of the inorganic acids and
alkalies it has a high resistance in oxidizing and reducing
atmosphere alumina is extensively used in heat processing
industry high pours alumina is used for lining furnaces operating
up to 1850co.

 Zirconia Refractory (special refractory):

Zirconia is a polymorphic material it is essential to stabilize in
before application as a refractory which is achieved by in co-
operating small quantities of calcium magnesium and cerium oxide
etches… Zirconia refractory has a very high strength at the room
temperature which is maintained up to the temperatures as high as
1500co therefore they are useful as a high temperature
constructing materials in furnaces and kilns thermal conductivity
of zirconium dioxide is much lower than the most of other
refractories and the materials is therefore used as high
temperature insulating refractory zirconium Zirconia exhibit very
low thermal losses and does not react rapidly with liquid metals
and it is particularly used for making refractories crucibles and
other vessels for metallurgical purposes glass furnaces used
Zirconia because it is not easily wet by metal glass and does not
easily react with glass.

 Amonolithic Refractories (by method of

manufacturing):
Amonolithic refractories are single piece casts in the shape of the
equipments such as a ladle they are rapidly replacing the
conventional type fired refractories in many application including
industrial furnaces.

The main advantages of Amonolithic refractories are

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 Illumination of joints which are inherent weaker.

 Faster application methods.
 Special skills for installation are not required.
 Easy of transportation and handling.
 Better scope to reduce down time for repairs heat sawing.
 Greater volume stability.

GLASS:
Glass is a form of ceramics. It is distinct from other ceramics
materials in that of its constituents are heated to fusion and then
cooled to rigid states without crystallization chemically.

Glass can be defined as…

The combination of silicates and various oxides. It is an inorganic

fusion which is cooled to rigid conditions without crystallization
glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent it is
mainly compose of sand and an alkali these materials at high
temperature fused together then they cooled rapidly to form rigid
structure the composition of glass and grade of cooling depends
upon the final use and application of glass.

GENEREL COMPOSITION:
The most common component of glass is sodium per oxide silicates
boron oxide alumina and others.

PROPERTIES:
 Glass is a solid and hard material.
 Glass has a disordered and amorphous structure.
 Glass is fragile and easy breakable.
 Glass is transparent to visible light.
 Glass is corrosion and strain resistance.
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USES:
 It is used for making utensils.
 It is used for making windows.
 It is used for making furniture.
 It is used for making optics.
 It is used for making various decorating objects
 It is used for illuminations.
 It is used for electrical transmission.
 It is used for making instruments for scientific research.
 It is used for laboratory wears due to high resistance.
 It is used for making reaction vessels.
 It is used in chemical industry due to corrosion resistance.

TYPES:
There are basically 11 types of glass as follows…

 Fused silica glass

 96% silica glass
 Soda lime glass
 Lead silicate glass
 High lead glass
 Boro-silicate glass
 Low electrical glass
 Alumina boro-silicate glass
 Low alkali glass
 Alumina silica glass
 Glass ceramics

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Fused silica glass:

It is also called as 99.5% silica glass it is most important single
component glass it has high spectral transmission and it is not
subjected to radiation damage therefore it is an ideal glass for
space technology and for optical system in spectrometric devices
silica glass is difficult to process therefore it is very expensive.

Soda lime glass:

It is the most commonly used glass which
accounts for almost 90% of the all glasses produced in the world in
these glass basic constituents are…

Sr name percentage%
no.
1 SiO2 71%-73%
2 Na2O 12%-14%
3 CaO 10%-12%

Sodium per oxide and calcium oxide decrease the softening point of
the glass from 1600% to 730% so that soda lime glass is easier to
form and addition of 7.4% of magnesium oxide in soda lime glass is
to prevent it from cracks and then an addition of 0.5% to 1.5% of
alumina can increase the durability of this glass this will improves
the properties of soda lime glass it is easily fabricated and used
where chemical durability and heat resistant are not needed. It is
used for glass containers pipes lightening products.

Boro silicate glass:

Replacement of alkali oxides by boron oxides in the silica network
produces a low expansion glass when boron oxide enter in the
silica network it weaken its structure and considerably lower its
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softening points however addition of this oxide also improves the

chemical resistivity of these glass boro silicate glass also called as
pyrex glass and due to its chemical stability it is extensively used in
lab equipments and Owen wears due to its low expansion, good
thermal shock resistance and chemical stability.

High lead glass:

It is also called as 58% lead glass this is formally called lead glass
it is a very common type of glass lead oxide is usually used as
modifier in silica network which changes and improves its
properties lead glass with lead oxide contents lowers the melting
points of glass it can be easily fabricated lead oxide increase the
strength and durability of the glass lead glass has found its
maximum use as decorating glass it is also used in radiation
windows flouresent lamps and TV bulbs.

GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

Glass product are formed
by heating the glass to a high temperature to produce a viscous
liquid and then molding and drying to desired shapes there are two
methods which are commonly used for the glass processing…

 Sheet forming method

 Fload glass method

About 85% of that glass is produced by the Fload glass method in

this process a ribbon of molten glass is moves out of the melting
furnace and floats on the surface of the tin bath this glass ribbon is
then cooled by moving across the tin bath under chemically
controlled atmosphere when its surface is sufficiently hard the
glass sheet is removed from the furnace and passed through a long
annealing furnace which is called as “lehr”.

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SHAPING OF THE GLASS:

When working with a glass in its plastic state (easily moldable,
flexible structure or state) five basic steps are applied to produce
almost limitless variety of shapes these five methods are given as
follows…

 Casting
 Glass blowing
 Pressing
 Drawing
 Rolling

 Casting:
In this process molten glass is simply poured in to a mold and allow
to cool and solidify in molten time centrifugal casting process have
been developed in which glass is forced against the sides of rapidly
rotating molds this is capable of forming precise light weight
shaping such as TV tubes furnishes etc…

 Glass blowing:
This is one of the important technique used in glass shaping in
glass blowing process a hollow iron pipe about 4 feet long with a
mouth piece at one end is used the glass blow commonly known as
jaffer connects a small amounts of molten glass commonly known
as gather on the other end of blow pipe the jaffer then blows into
the pipe causing bubbles in the gather by blowing air jaffer controls
its forms and thickness different types of molds are used now a
days to make this gather useful products for furnished word and
polishing of glass the gather is transferred to solid iron mold since
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1903 a fully automated blow machine has been invented which is

extensively used in now a days.

 Pressing:
Pressing is the technique used for shaping the glass people used
simple hand pressing for this process in ancient days but now a
day’s modern glass are used for this purpose in this process a
gather of glass is dropped into a ,old and plunger then squeeze the
glass between itself and outer mold and forms the final shape.

 Drawing:
Molten glass can be drawn directly from the furnace to
make sheets fibers and different rods.

 Rolling:
Sheet glass in particular walls are originally produced
by pouring molten glass in a flat surface by a roller which smoothes
it between in the two surfaces.

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Section: F
LASER

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8
LASER
Introduction:
LASER is a device that controls the ways that energized the atoms
release photons. LASER is an acronym of light amplification by the
stimulated emission of radiation which describe very clearly how a
LASER works there are many types of LASERS all have certain
essential features in a LASER the lasing medium is pump to get the
atoms in to an excited state typically very intense flashes of light or
electrical discharges pump the lasing medium and create a large
collection of atoms in the excited state for the LASER to work
efficiently. In general the atoms are excited to a level that are above
the two are three levels from the ground state this increase the
degree of population inversion. The population inversion is the
number of atoms in the excited state vs. the number of atoms in
ground state. Once the lasing medium is pumped it contains a
collection of atoms with some electrons in excited level. The
excited electrons have energies greater than then the more relaxed
electrons just as the electron absorb the same amount of energy to
reach the excited level it can also release energy the electron can
simply relax and intern rid itself of some energy. This emitted
energy comes in the form of photons the photon emitted has very
specific wavelength that depends upon the state of electron energy
when the photon is released. Two identical atoms with electrons in
identical states will release photons with the identical wavelengths.

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Types:
 According to the Source
 Gas LASER
 Liquid LASER
 Crystal LASER
 Semi ConductorLASER
 According to the Nature of Emission
 Continuous Wave LASER
 Pulsed LASER
 According to the Wavelength
 Visible Region
 Infrared Region
 Ultraviolet Region
 Microwave Region
 X-Ray Region

 Crystal LASER:
Crystal LASER are also called as solid state LASERS they have lasing
material distributed in the solid matrix such as Ruby and
Neodymium or yttrium aluminum Garmet (YAG) it emittes infrared
light at 1064nm.

 Gas LASER:
GasesLASERS (helium and helium neon HeNe) are the most
common gas LASERS have a primary output of visible and red light
carbon dioxide emittes energy in far infrared region and used for
cutting hard materials.

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 Excimers:
It is the example of gases LASERS its name comes from the term
excited and dimmer use the reactive gas fluorine and chlorine
mixed with inert gases such as argon, krypton and xenon etc…
 Dye LASERS:
It is the examples of liquid LASERS are using complex organic dyes
such as phodamine 6G in liquid solutions or suspension as a lasing
medium.

 Semi ConductorLASERS:
These are also called diode LASERS is formed from a PN junction
powered by the ejected electric current these electronic devices are
generally very small and use low power and may be built into
larger arrays such as the writing source in some LASER printer and
CD players its examples are gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide
and gallium nitride etc…

Classification of LASER:
There are 4 classes of LASERS are

 Class I LASER
 Class II LASER
 Class IIIA LASER
 Class IIIB LASER
 Class IV LASER

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 Class I LASER:
They have no powered devices and considered to be safe from all
potential hazards.
Its examples are LASER printers, CD players, CD ROM devices,
geological survey equipments and laboratory analytical
equipments.
Low individual regardless exposure conditions to the eyes or the
skin would be expected to be injured by this class I LASER no safety
equipments are needed to use the class I LASER.

 Class II LASER:
Low powered (less than 1mw) visible light LASER that could
possibly cause damage to a person eyes.
Its examples are LASER printers and range finding equipments.
If class II LASER is directly viewed for a long period of time
(greater than 15min) damage to the eyes could result.

 Class IIIA LASER:

They have intermediate power (1mw-5mw) devices.
Some examples are LASER printers and LASER scanners.
Direct viewing of class IIIA LASER beam could be hazards to the
eyes.

 Class IIIB LASER:

Intermediate power (continuous wave 5mw-500mw or pulsed
10J/cm2) devices.
Some examples are spectrometry and entertainment light shows.

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Direct viewing of class IIIB LASER is hazards to the eyes and

diffuses the reflections of beam can also be hazards to the eyes.

 Class IV LASER:
High powered devices (continuous wave 7500mw or pulsed
>10J/cm2).
Some examples are surgery, research, drilling, cutting, welding and
micro machining.
The direct viewing and diffuses reflection of the class IV LASERare
hazards to the eyes and skin.
They can also be a fire hazards depending upon the reaction of
target when struck much greater control are required to ensure the
safe operation of these class LASER devices.
Properties of LASERS:
This light is very different from the normal light. It has following
properties…
 The light release is the monochromatic. It contains one specific
wavelength of light. The wavelength of light is determined by the
amount of energy released to an electron drops to a lower orbit.
 The light released is coherent. It is organized each photon moves in
steps with others.
 This light is very directional. A LASER light has a very tight beam
which is very strong and concentrated.

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Working of LASER Devices:

Principle components of LASER devices are…

 Gain Medium or Lasing Medium

 LASER Pumping Energy
 High Reflector
 Output Coupler
 LASER Beam

A LASER consist of a gain medium inside a highly reflector optical

cavity as well as a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The
gain medium is a material with the properties that allow it to
amplify light by the stimulated emission in its simplest form a
cavity consist of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back
and forth each time passing through the gain medium typically one
of the two mirror, the output coupler is partially transparent the
output LASER beam is emitted through this mirror.

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Light of the specific wavelength that passes through the gain

medium is amplified the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of
the light makes many passes through the gain medium being
amplified repeatedly part of light that is between the mirror passes
through the partially transparent mirrors and escape as a beam of
light.

The process of supplying energy required for the amplification is

called as pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electric
current or as a light of different wavelength such a light may be
provided by a flash lamp or perhaps another LASER most practical
LASERS contain additional elements that effect properties such as
the wavelength of emitted light and the shape of the beam.

Applications of LASERS:
 Scientific Applications
 Spectroscopy
 Lunar LASER Ranging
 Photochemistry
 Nuclear Fission
 Military Applications
 Death Ray
 Defensive Application
 LASER Sight
 Illuminators
 Range Finders
 Target Designators
 Medical Applications
 Eye Surgery
 Cosmetic Surgery
 Other Complex Surgeries
 Industrial & Commercial Applications
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 Cutting
 Welding
 Marking
 CD Players
 DVD Players
 LASER Printer
 LASER Pointers
 LASER Light Display

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Bibliography
 Engineering material and their application, 4th edition
by flinn and Trojan.
 Principles of material science and engineering, 3rd edition
by William f.smith.
 Corrosion by Prof.Dr.Ijaz khan
 Engineering material-I and introduction to properties
application and design by Michaelf.ashloy and
Davidr.h.jones

“Now this is the not end.

It is not even the beginning of the end.
But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.”

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