Resistor definition and symbol

A resistor is a passive electrical component with the primary function to limit the flow of
electric current.
The international IEC symbol is a rectangular shape. In the USA the ANSI standard is
very common, this is a zigzag line.

Resistor symbol according to the old ANSI standard

Resistor symbol according to the IEC standard

Resistors can be divided in construction type as well as resistance material. The following
breakdown for the type can be made:
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors, such as the:
o Potentiometer
o Rheostat
o Trimpot
 Resistance dependent on a physical quantity:
o Thermistors (NTC and PTC) as a result of temperature change
o Photo resistor (LDR) as a result of a changing light level
o Varistor (VDR) as a result of a changing voltage
o Magneto resistor (MDR) as a result of a changing magnetic field
o Strain Gauges as a result of mechanical load

For each of these types a standard symbol exists. Another breakdown based on the
material and manufacturing process can be made:
 Carbon composition
 Carbon film
 Metal film
 Metal oxide film
 Wirewound
 Foil

The choice of material technology is a specific to the purpose. Often it is a trade-off

between costs, precision and other requirements. For example, carbon composition is a
very old technique with a low precision, but is still used for specific applications where
high energy pulses occur. Carbon composition resistors have a body of a mixture of fine
carbon particles and a non-conductive ceramic. The carbon film technique has a better
tolerance. These are made of a non-conductive rod with a thin carbon film layer around it.
This layer is treated with a spiral cut to increase and control the resistance value. Metal and
metal oxide film are widely used nowadays, and have better properties for stability and
tolerance. Furthermore, they are less influenced by temperature variations. They are just as
carbon film resistors constructed with a resistive film around a cylindrical body. Metal
oxide film is generally more durable. Wirewound resistors are probably the oldest type and
can be used for both high precision as well as high power applications. They are constructed
by winding a special metal alloy wire, such as nickel chrome, around a non-conductive
core. They are durable, accurate and can have very low resistance value. A disadvantage is
that they suffer from parasitic reactance at high frequencies. For the highest requirements
on precision and stability, metal foil resistors are used. They are constructed by cementing
a special alloy cold rolled film onto a ceramic substrate.

1
What is a fixed resistor?

Fixed value resistors have a defined ohmic resistance and are not
adjustable. Fixed resistors are the most commonly used resistors and in
general one of the most used electronic components. Fixed
resistors are available in axial leaded and surface mount
packages as well as more customized packages depending on their
application. While axial leaded resistors used to be the most used
resistors, nowadays the advantages of surface mount devices make the SMD resistors the
most popular.

In an ideal world a perfect resistor would have a constant ohmic resistance under all
circumstances. This resistance would be independent of for example frequency, voltage or
temperature. In practice no resistor is perfect and all resistors have a certain stray
capacitance and inductance, resulting in an impedance value different from the nominal
resistance value. The resistor materials have a certain temperature coefficient, resulting in
a temperature dependency of the resistor value. The different resistor
types and materials determine the dependency of the resistance value on these external
factors. Depending on e.g. the required accuracy, power dissipation and noise
requirements, the type and material of resistor are selected.

What is a variable resistor?

A variable resistor is a resistor of which the electric resistance value can be adjusted. A
variable resistor is in essence an electro-mechanical transducer and normally works by
sliding a contact (wiper) over a resistive element. When a variable resistor is used as a
potential divider by using 3 terminals it is called a potentiometer. When only two
terminals are used, it functions as a variable resistance and is called a rheostat.
Electronically controlled variable resistors exist, which can be controlled electronically
instead of by mechanical action. These resistors are called digital potentiometers.

2
Types of variable resistor s

Potentiometer
The potentiometer is the most common variable resistor. It functions
as a potential divider and is used to generate a voltage signal
depending on the position of the potentiometer. This signal can be
used for a very wide variety of applications including: Amplifier
gain control(audio volume), measurement of distance or angles,
tuning of circuits and much more. When variable resistors are used
to tune or calibrate a circuit or application, trimmer potentiometers or trimpots are used,
this are mostly small potentiometers mounted on the circuit board, which can be adjusted
using a screwdriver.

Rheostat
Rheostats are very similar in construction to potentiometers, but are
not used as a potential divider, but as a variable resistance. They use
only 2 terminals instead of the 3 terminals potentiometers use. One
connection is made at one end of the resistive element, the other at
the wiper of the variable resistor. In the past rheostats were used as
power control devices in series with the load, such as a light bulb.
Nowadays rheostats are not used as power control anymore as this is an inefficient
method. For power control, rheostats are replaced by more efficient switching
electronics. Preset variable resistors, wired as rheostats are used in circuits to perform
tuning or calibration.

Digital resistor
A digital variable resistor is a type of variable resistor where the
change of resistance is not performed by mechanical movement but by
electronic signals. They can change resistance in discrete steps and are
often controlled by digital protocols such as I2C or by simple up/down
signals.

What is a trimpot?

A trimpot or trimmer potentiometer is a small potentiometer which is used for adjustment,

tuning and calibration in circuits. When they are used as a variable resistance (wired as a
rheostat) they are called preset resistors. Trimpots or presets are normally mounted on
printed circuit boards and adjusted by using a screwdriver. The material they use as a
resistive track is varying, but the most common is either carbon composition or cermet.
Trimpots are designed for occasional adjustment and can often achieve a high resolution
when using multi-turn setting screws. When trimmer potentiometers are used as a
replacement for normal potentiometers, care should be taken as their designed lifespan is
often only 200 cycles.

Types of trimpots

Several different versions of trimpots are available, using different mounting methods
(through hole, smd) and adjusting orientations (top, side) as well as single and multi-turn
variations.

Single turn
Single turn trimmers/presets are very common and used where a resolution of one turn is
sufficient. They are the most cost effective variable resistors available.

3
Multi turn
For higher adjustment resolutions, multi-turn trimpots are used. The amount of turns
varies between roughly 5-25, but 5, 12 or 25 turns are quite common. They are often
constructed using a worm-gear (rotary track) or leadscrew (linear track) mechanism to
achieve the high resolution. Because of their more complex construction and
manufacturing, they are more costly than single turn preset resistors. The lead screw
packages can have a higher power rating because of their increased surface area.

What is a thermistor?

A thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor, they are often

used as a temperature sensor. The term thermistor is a
contraction of the words “thermal” and “resistor”. All
resistors have some dependency on temperature, which is
described by their temperature coefficient. In most cases for
(fixed or variable) resistors the temperature coefficient is
minimized, but in the case of thermistors a high coefficient is
achieved. Unlike most other resistors, thermistors usually
have negative temperature coefficients (NTC) which means
the resistance decreases as the temperature increases. These types are called NTC
thermistors. Thermal resistors with a positive temperature coefficient are called PTC
thermistors (Positive Temperature Coefficient).

What is a varistor?

A varistor is a voltage dependent resistor (VDR). The

resistance of a varistor is variable and depends on the voltage
applied. The word is composed of parts of the words “variable
resistor”. Their resistance decreases when the voltage
increases. In case of excessive voltage increases, their
resistance drops dramatically. This behavior makes them
suitable to protect circuits during voltage surges. Causes of a
surge can include lightning strikes and electrostatic
discharges. The most common type of VDR is the metal oxide varistor or MOV.

Applications
The nonlinear characteristic of the varistor make them ideal for use as surge protector
devices. Sources of high voltage transients can for example be lightning strikes,

4
 electrostatic discharges or inductive discharge from motors or transformers. They are for
example often used in surge protector power strips. Special types with a low capacitance
protect communication lines. These VDRs are useful for a wide variety of applications
that can include:

 Telephone and other communication line protection

 Radio communication equipment transient suppression
 Surge protector power strips
 Cable TV system surge protectors
 Power supply protection
 Microprocessor protection
 Electronics equipment protection
 Low voltage board level protection
 Transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS)
 Car electronics protection
 Industrial high energy AC protection

An introduction to carbon composition resistor s

Carbon composition resistors (CCR) are fixed form resistors. They are made out of fine
carbon particles mixed with a binder (for example clay). After baking it has a solid form.
Although carbon composition resistors are widely applied in circuits, the majority of
resistors are nowadays made by deposition of a metal or carbon film over a ceramic carrier.

Applications

Carbon composition resistors are suitable to withstand high energy pulses, while having a
relatively small size. For this reason the carbon composition resistor is still used in many
applications today. Applications include the protection of circuits (surge or discharge
protection), current limiting, high voltage power supplies, high power or strobe
lighting, and welding.

What is a carbon film resistor ?

Carbon film resistors are a fixed form type resistor. They are constructed out of a ceramic
carrier with a thin pure carbon film around it, that functions as resistive material.

5
Carbon film resistor applications

Typical use for carbon film resistors is in high voltage and temperature applications.
Operating temperatures are up to 15kV with a nominal temperature of 350°C. Examples
are high voltage power supplies, radar, x-rays and laser.

Metal film resistors

Metal film resistors have a thin metal layer as resistive element on a non-conducting
body. They are amongst the most common types of axial resistors. Other film type
resistors are carbon film and thick and thin film resistors. In most literature referrals to
metal film, usually it is a cylindrical axial resistor. However, thin film chip resistors use
the same manufacturing principle for the metal layer. The appearance of metal film
resistors is similar to carbon film resistors, but their properties for stability, accuracy and
reliability are considerably better.

Typical applications

Metal film resistors have good characteristics for tolerance, stability and TCR.
Furthermore, the resistors feature low noise properties and a high linearity because of a
low voltage coefficient. Therefore, in circuits where tight tolerance, low temperature
coefficient and low noise properties are important, often metal film resistors are used.
Examples of applications are active filters or bridge circuits.

What are metal oxide film resistors?

Metal-oxide film resistors are fixed form, axial resistors. They are
made of ceramic rod that is coated with a thin film of metal
oxides, such as tin oxide. Metal oxide film resistors must not be
confused with metal oxide varistors, made of zinc oxide or silicon
carbide.

Typical Applications

Many properties of metal oxide film resistors are similar to metal film resistors. For basic
use, metal film and metal oxide film are currently the predominant resistor types.
Compared to carbon film, the prices are just as low. Only for dissipation values above 1
watt combined with reasonable stability, the carbon film resistors are still more cost
efficient.

6
 What is a wire-wound resistor?

A wire wound resistor is an electrical passive component that limits

current. The resistive element exists out of an insulated metallic wire
that is winded around a core of non-conductive material. The wire
material has a high resistivity, and is usually made of an alloy such as
Nickel-chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy
called Manganin. Common core materials include ceramic, plastic and
glass. Wire wound resistors are the oldest type of resistors that are still
manufactured today. They can be produced very accurate, and have excellent properties
for low resistance values and high power ratings.

What is a Foil Resistor?

The metal foil resistor has the best precision and

stability properties of all resistor types. The foil is
made of an alloy of usually Nichrome with additives.
It is mounted on a ceramic carrier with high heat
conductivity. The foil has a thickness of only several
micrometers. The desired resistance value is
achieved by a photoetched resistive pattern in the
foil. The metal foil resistor has a low Temperature
Coefficient of Resistance (TCR), good long term
stability, low noise, low capacitance, fast thermal
stabilization and no inductance. The low TCR is one
of the most important parameters that influence the
stability. This means that the resistance value will
vary only a small amount as the ambient temperature and the resistor’s internal
temperature changes. Over a range from 0 till 60 deg C, a typical value for TCR is around
1 ppm per deg C. This depends on the construction (thermo-mechanical effects) and the
properties of the foil material. In the planar foil the pattern is made parallel to reduce
inductance (max 0.08 microH).

Foil Resistor Applications

 Audio Components – Audio components demand accurate reproduction of the signal
throughout the circuitry. It must also be reproduced with no noise or distortion. Foil
resistors are ideal for this application. Their crystalline structure and lead configuration
provide a high signal-to-noise ratio. The design etched in to the foil also makes these
resistors well-suited to use as potentiometers. They provide a smooth, linear resistance
change response.
 Oil Rigs – Temperatures in oil rig applications can exceed 525 degrees. Where other
resistor types would melt or experience major changes in value, foil resistors are able to
function. The thicker layer of resistive material allows them to not only function but
remain accurate for several excursions in to extreme temperature environments.
 Aviation – Resistors destined for use in aviation applications must be both highly precise,
rugged and long-lasting. Foil resistors meet all of these requirements. With tolerances as
low as 0.005%, extremely low TCR and high load life stability, these resistors are ideal
for these demanding applications.
 Electronic Scales – Scales need to be able to maintain a high and constant level of
accuracy throughout their lifetimes. Several properties of foil resistors make them
suitable for this use. They have low noise, a low TCR and a low thermal EMF value.
They have high load life stability with a very low tolerance.