MACROMOLECULES

Proteins

Chemically, proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains
of amino acid residues, which are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or
sulphur. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and protein are the building block of muscle
mass. Protein are linked together by peptide bonds.

Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made of protein.
Your body uses protein to build and repair tissues. You also use protein to make enzymes, hormones, and
other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.
The protein foods group includes seafood, lean meat and poultry, eggs, beans and peas, soy
products, and unsalted nuts and seeds. Protein is also found in the dairy group.

Amino acids – the building blocks of proteins

Amino acid structure The general structure of an amino acid is depicted in Fig. 2.10, and consists
of an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom and a distinctive R group
all bonded to a single carbon atom. Amino acids in solution at neutral pH are predominantly
zwitterions. An amino acid contains both a carboxylic group and an amino group. Amino acids
that have an amino group bonded directly to the alpha-carbon are referred to as alpha amino
acids. The simplest representation of an alpha amino acid is shown below.

If you notice in the structure above, Cα is a chiral center, that is to say, this carbon atom is
attached to four different groups. Chirality refers to a molecule that has optical activity, so amino
acids are optically active molecules.

There are 20 different amino acids that are commonly found in proteins.
In terms of nutritive value, proteins are classified according to their content of non-essential and
essential amino acids. Non-essential amino acids are synthesized by the body and require only an
adequate supply of amino nitrogen and carbohydrate. However, humans cannot synthesize some
essential amino acids and these must be supplied by our diet. These amino acids are as follows:
Arginine (Arg), Aspartic acid (Asp), Histidine (His), Glutamic acid (Glu), Lysine (Lys), Alanine
(Ala) ,Phenylalanine (Phe), Isoleucine (IIe), Proline (Pro), Leucine (Leu), Tryptophan (Trp),
Methionine (Met), Valine (Val), Asparagine (Asn), Serine (Ser), Cysteine (Cys), Threonine
(Thr), Glutamine (Gln), Tyrosine (Tyr), Glycine (Gly).
The peptide bond is the covalent bond between amino acids that links them to form peptides and
polypeptides.
Types of proteins
Based on chemical composition:
 Simple proteins: Contain amino acids(E.g: Serum albumin, serum globulins, keratin etc)
 Conjugated proteins or compound proteins: Conjugated groups + amino acids (E.g.: Egg
albumin, hemoglobin, immunoglobulins etc.)
 Derived proteins: Partial hydrolysis of simple or compound proteins.(E.g: Gelatin,
proteoses & peptones etc.)
Based on shape:
 Globular proteins: Spherical or oval E.g.: Hemoglobin, Albumin, and Enzymes.
 Fibrous proteins: Elongated and fiber- like structures. E.g.: Keratin, Collagen etc.
Based on biological function:
 Catalytic proteins E.g.: Hexokinase, Amylase etc..
 Defence proteins E.g.: Immunoglobulins as antibodies.
 Structural proteins E.g.: Keratin, Collagen
 Hormonal proteins E.g.: Growth hormone, Insulin etc.
 Contractile proteins E.g.: Actin, Myosin and Tropomyosin .
 Transport proteins E.g.: Serum albumin
 Storage proteins E.g.: Ferritin
 Visual proteins E.g.: Rhodopsin & Iodopsin
 Membrane proteins E.g.: Sodium potassium pump
 Hemostatic proteins E.g.: Fibrinogen, Prothrombin.
 Buffer proteins E.g.: Plasma proteins, Hemoglobin
 Respiratory proteins E.g.: Hemoglobin, Myoglobin
 Receptor proteins E.g.: Insulin receptors, Glucagon receptors, Steroid hormone receptors
etc.
Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms. They
are the main source of energy and also perform many functions which are as follows:
Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central nervous system and energy for working muscles. They also
prevent protein from being used as an energy source. Carbohydrates are also important for brain
function. It is the major class of macromolecules.

The fruit, vegetables, dairy, and cereal grain all contain carbohydrates. Sweeteners like sugar,
honey, and syrup and foods with added sugars like candy, soft drinks, and cookies also contain
carbohydrates.
There are three distinct classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides (1 structural unit),
oligosaccharides (2–10 structural units) and polysaccharides (more than 10 structural units).
Monosaccharide: A monosaccharide is the most basic form of carbohydrates. They are also
called simple sugars. Monosaccharides have many functions within cells. First and foremost,
monosaccharides are used to produce and store energy. Most organisms create energy by
breaking down the monosaccharide glucose, and harvesting the energy released from the bonds.
Other monosaccharides are used to form long fibers, which can be used as a form of cellular
structure. E.g: glucose, fructose, glucose.
Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides contain 2–10 sugar units and are water soluble. The most
significant types of oligosaccharide occurring in foods are disaccharides, which are formed by
the condensation (i.e. water is eliminated) of two monosaccharide units to form a glycosidic
bond. Disaccharides can be homogeneous or heterogeneous and fall into two types:
a) Non-reducing sugars in which the monosaccharide units are joined by a glycosidic bond
formed between their reducing groups (e.g. sucrose and trehalose).
b) Reducing sugars in which the glycosidic bond links the reducing group of one
monosaccharide unit to the non-reducing alcoholic hydroxyl of the second
monosaccharide unit (e.g. lactose and maltose). A reducing sugar is any sugar that, in
basic solution, forms an aldehyde or ketone allowing it to act as a reducing agent, and
therefore includes all monosaccharides.

Polysaccharides: are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of

monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages, and on hydrolysis give the
constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides. They range in structure from linear to highly
branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural
polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating
unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their
monosaccharide building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water.[1] When all
the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are the same type, the polysaccharide is called a
homopolysaccharide or homoglycan, but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present
they are called heteropolysaccharides or heteroglycans Polysaccharides have three main
functions in both animals and plants: as sources of energy, as structural components of cells, and
as water-binders.

Animal cell stores energy in the form of glycogen. The most abundant structural polysaccharide
is cellulose, which is also a glucan and is found in plants. Other polysaacharides are pectin and
alginate etc.

Reactions of carbohydrates
1. Caramelization: When a concentrated solution of sugars is heated to temperatures above
100◦C, various thermal decomposition reactions can occur leading to formation of
flavour compounds and brown-coloured products. This process, which particularly occurs
during the melting of sugars, is called caramelization. Caramelization is a non-enzymic
browning reaction.
2. Maillard browning: The Maillard reaction is the chemical reaction between an amino acid
and a reducing sugar that, via the formation of a pool of reactive intermediates, leads to
the formation of flavour compounds and melanoidin pigments (non-enzymic browning).
The initial step in this complex series and network of reactions is the condensation of
reducing sugar and amino acid. The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with the
nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid to form an Amadori compound.

Fats
Fats are one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrates and proteins.[1] Fat molecules
consist of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms and are therefore hydrophobic and are soluble in organic
solvents and insoluble in water. Examples include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.

Benefits:

 Fats give you energy, and they help the body absorb certain vitamins.
 Essential fatty acids help the body function, but they aren’t made by your body—you
have to consume them.
 Promote normal functions of the brain and nervous system.
 Lowering cholesterol levels and supporting heart health.
 Protecting against dry eye disease.
 Reducing inflammation in the body.

Sources:
Many foods naturally contain fats, including dairy products; meats, poultry, seafood, and eggs;
and seeds, nuts, avocados, and coconuts. Certain kinds of fat can be bad for your health—
saturated fats and Trans fats.
Types of fats:

Fats can be classified based on the fatty acids present in them as follows:
 Fatty acids are classified according to the presence and number of double bonds in their carbon
chain. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) contain no double bonds, monounsaturated fatty acids
(MUFA) contain one, and polyunsaturatedfatty acids (PUFA) contain more than one double
bond.

Saturated fats:

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds. A
fat is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Fats are made of long chains of
carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-). They are called saturated,
because the second bond is broken and each half of the bond is attached to (saturated with) a hydrogen
atom. Most animal fats are saturated.

Unsaturated fats:

An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the
fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond,and
polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond. Where double bonds are formed,
hydrogen atoms are subtracted from the carbon chain. Thus, a saturated fat has no double bonds,
has the maximum number of hydrogen bonded to the carbons, and therefore is "saturated" with
hydrogen atoms. In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy
(i.e., fewer calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat.

Classification of PUFA (omega fatty acids):

PUFA can be further categorised into three main families according to the position of the
first double bond starting from the methyl-end (the opposite side of the glycerol molecule)
of the fatty acid chain:

 Omega-3 (or n-3) fatty acids have the first double bond at the third carbon atom and include
mainly alpha linolenic acid (ALA) and its derivatives eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
 Omega-6 (or n-6) fatty acids have the first double bond at the sixth carbon atom and include
mainly linoleic acid (LA) and its derivative arachidonic acid (AA).
 Omega-9 (or n-9) fatty acids have the first double bond at the ninth carbon atom and include
mainly oleic acid.

Classification of MUFA:

monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain
with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded.

 Omega-7 fatty acids are a class of unsaturated fatty acids in which the site of
unsaturation is seven carbon atoms from the end of the carbon chain. The two most
common omega-7 fatty acids in nature are palmitoleic acid and vaccenic acid.
  Omega-9 fatty acids (ω−9 fatty acids or n−9 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated
fatty acids which have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the omega−9
position; that is, the ninth bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid.

Physical Properties:
 Fats and oils are colorless, odorless and tasteless. Any color, or taste is due to association
with other foreign substances, e.g., the yellow color of body fat or milk fat is due to
carotene pigments (cow milk).
 Specific gravity less than 1, they float on water.
 Insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents as ether and benzene.
 Melting points low, but higher than the solidification point.
Chemical properties:
 Hydrolysis: Fats undergo hydrolysis when treated with mineral acids, the alkalies or fat
splitting enzyme lipase or hydrolases to yield glycerol and the constituent fatty acids.
 Hydrogenation: Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids can be hydrogenated in presence
of high temperature, pressure and finely divided nickel. By this process the oils are
converted into solid fats (glycerides of saturated fatty acids). This reaction forms the
basis of the industrial production of hydrogenated oil (vegetable ghee).
 Hydrogenolysis: Oils and fats are converted into glycerol and a long chain aliphatic
alcohol when excess of hydrogen is passed through them under pressure and in presence
of copper-chromium catalyst. This splitting of fat by hydrogen is called hydrogenolysis.
 Saponification: Saponification is a process by which triglycerides are reacted with
sodium or potassium hydroxide (lye) to produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called
"soap."
 Halogenation: When unsaturated fatty acids are treated with halogens, such as iodine and
chlorine, they take up iodine or other halogens at their double bond site. This process of
taking of iodine is called halogenation which is an indication of unsaturation. Iodine
number is the percentage of iodine absorbed by a fat.
 Rancidty: Toxic reaction of triglycerides leads to unpleasant odour or taste of oils and
fats developing after oxidation by oxygen of air, bacteria, or moisture. This is the base of
the drying oils after exposure to atmospheric oxygen.