1.

INTRODUCTION ON COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS

Cold chain logistics is the logistics system that provides ideal condition to the temperature
sensitive perishable goods from the point of origin to the point of consumption through
thermal and refrigerated packaging methods and the logistical planning to protect the
integrity of these shipments. A well developed cold chain starts right from the harvesting of
the crops, and the production of other temperature sensitive goods till it reaches for the final
consumption. Cold chain logistics includes the transportation as well as the storage of the
perishable food items and other products. It reduces the spoilage and retains the quality. With
growing demand of the fast food, ready meal and frozen products organization are seeking
for the better cold chain solutions. There are several food temperature levels to suit the
different food items. Frozen, cold chilled, medium chilled, exotic chilled are some of the
frequently used nomenclature with specified product range, depending on the product,
weather it is meat, or ice-cream or banana or potatoes. The main feature of the cold chain is
that if any of the links is missing the whole system fails.

Cold chain in India is in nascent stage. The estimated size of the Indian cold chain industry is
estimated to be about Rs 80 – 100 billion (2 – 2.5 billion USD). It constitute approximately
about 14– 16% of the total logistics industry in India which is approximately a Rs. 600 billion
(15 billion USD) industry contributing 13% to the GDP of India. The industry is likely to
grow at an annual growth rate of 7% in the next five years. At present the industry is largely
fragmented and unorganized. The industry mainly consists of small players and the organized
sector forms only 20 – 30% of the logistics and supply chain sector. According to
confederation of Indian industry reports – India’s cold chain will require an investment of Rs.
180 – 200 billion (4.5- 5 billion USD) over the next five years to meet the requirement of the
industry. It is estimated that India’s cold chain industry will to Rs. 400 billion (10 billion
USD) by 2015.

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1.1 EMERGENCE OF COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS

While global commodity chains are fairly modern expansions in the transportation industry,
the refrigerated movement of temperature sensitive goods is a practice that dates back to 1797
when British fishermen used natural ice to preserve their fish stock piles. This process was
also seen in the late 1800s for the movement of food from rural areas to urban consumption
markets, mainly dairy products. Cold storage was also a key component of food trade
between colonial powers and their colonies. For example, in the late 1870s and early 1880s,
France started to receive large shipments of frozen meat and mutton carcasses from South
America, while Great Britain imported frozen beef from Australia and pork and other meat
from New Zealand. By 1910, about 600,000 tons of frozen meat was being brought into Great
Britain alone.

The temperature controlled movement of pharmaceuticals and medical supplies is a much

more modern transit option than the shipping of refrigerated or frozen food. Since the 1950s,
logistical third party companies began to emerge and institute new methods for successfully
transporting these global commodities. Before their emergence, cold chain processes were
mostly managed in house by the manufacturer. In the United States, Food and Drug
Administration restrictions and accountability measures over the stability of the cold chain
incited many of these companies to rely on specialty couriers rather than completely
overhauling their supply chain facilities. A specialized industry was thus born. The value of
the cold chain in the preservation of expensive vaccines and medical supplies was only
beginning to be recognized when these logistical providers started to appear. As awareness
began to grow, so did the need for efficient management of the cold chain.

The reliance on the cold chain continues to gain importance. Within the pharmaceutical
industry for instance, the testing, production and movement of drugs relies heavily on
controlled and uncompromised transfer of shipments. A large portion of the pharmaceutical
products that move along the cold chain are in the experiment or developmental phase.
Clinical research and trials is a major part of the industry that costs millions of dollars, but
one that also experiences a failure rate of around 80%. According to the Healthcare
Distribution Management Association, of the close to 200 billion dollars in pharmaceutical
distribution, about 10% are drugs that are temperature sensitive. This makes the cold chain
responsible for transporting a near 20 billion dollar investment. If these shipments should
experience any unanticipated exposure to variant temperature levels, they run the risk of
becoming ineffective or even harmful to patients.

Temperature control in the shipment of foodstuffs is a component of the industry that has
continued to rise in necessity with international trade. As more and more countries focus their
primary or large portions of their export economy around food and produce production, the
need to keep these products fresh for extended periods of time has gained in importance. Any
major grocery store around the world is likely to carry tangerines from South Africa, apples
from New Zealand, bananas from Costa Rica and asparagus from Mexico. Thus, a cold chain
industry has emerged to service these commodity chains. In 2002, an estimated 1200 billion
dollars worth of food was transported by a fleet of 400,000 refrigerated containers (Reefers).
Alone, the United States imports about 30% of its fruits and vegetables and 20% of its food
exports can be considered perishables. The uncompromised quality and safety of this food is
often taken for granted, despite being the main reason behind the ability to sell the food. The

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cold chain serves the function of keeping food fresh for extended periods and eliminating
doubts over the quality of the food products.

1.2 COLD CHAIN INFRASTRUCTURE

The cold chain infrastructure consists of:

 pre-cooling facilities
 cold storages
 reefer vans
 warehouses
 Packaging
 Information system.

1.3 EXISTING COLD CHAIN INFRASTRUCTURE IN INDIA

Statistical figures released by the Government of India through Department of Marketing and
inspection (DMI) reveals the current stage of cold chain as follows:

Storage infrastructure:

a. According to DMI, Government of India statistics India currently has 5,101 cold
storage facilities with a total capacity of 21.5 MillionTones. Industry experts estimate
that the cold storage capacity in India is about 30 – 40%. The major states are UP and
Uttarakhand (with 1567 cold store units), Maharashtra (437 cold stores), and West
Bengal (434 cold stores). Cold storage utilization, by commodity wise, is potatoes
(85%), fisheries (1%), fruits and vegetables (1%), multipurpose (12%), and others
including milk and meat (1%).
b. These facilities are fully utilized by potato for 4 to 5 months in a year. During these
months cold storage for other fresh products is not available.
c. This leaves only 3 – 4 million tones of capacity for other perishable goods.
d. The seasonality of storage capacity has implications on the market potential for reefer
transportation. During this period, there is a shortage of reefers while at other times
overcapacity makes the business unprofitable.
e. More than 80% of the cold storage capacity is owned and maintained by private
players.

Transportation:

a. According to industry sources, India has about 250 transport operators including
organized as well as unorganized players involved in perishable product
transportation.
b. It is estimated that there are about 25000 vehicles available for the transportation of
perishable products of which Dairy (wet milk) constitute about 80% utilization.

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 c. Typically, a large size operator like Snowman (now acquired by Gateway Distipark
Ltd.) has a fleet of about 100 refrigerated transport vehicles ranging from 6ft – 24ft
equipped with Thermoking and carrier refrigeration units, where as other small
players like Akal transport runs about 8 – 10 refrigerated vehicles.
d. Currently, the reefer transportation business in India (both organized and unorganized
sector together) is estimated to be Rs. 10 – 12 billion (about 250 – 300 USD).
e. As per volume, the current reefer transportation business for export is about 2.5
million tones and transportation for domestic consumption is about 1.5 million tones.

1.4 THE MAJOR COLD CHAIN TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVE

 Dry ice. Solid carbon dioxide is about -80°C and is capable of keeping a shipment
frozen for an extended period of time. It is particularly used for the shipping of
pharmaceuticals, dangerous goods and foodstuffs. Dry ice does not melt, instead it
sublimates when it comes in contact with the air.
 Gel packs. Large shares of pharmaceutical and medicinal shipments are classified as
chilled products, which mean they must be stored in a temperature range between 2
and 8°C. The common method to provide this temperature is to use gel packs, or
packages that contain phase changing substances that can go from solid to liquid and
vice versa to control an environment. Depending on the shipping requirements, these
packs can either start off in a frozen or refrigerated state. Along the transit process
they melt to liquids, while at the same time capturing escaping energy and
maintaining an internal temperature.
 Eutectic plates. The principle is similar to gel packs. Instead, plates are filled with a
liquid and can be reused many times.
 Liquid nitrogen. An especially cold substance, of about -196°C, used to keep
packages frozen over a long period of time. Mainly used to transport biological cargo
such as tissues and organs. Considered as a hazardous substance for the purpose of
transportation.
 Quilts. Insulated pieces that are placed over or around freight to act as buffer in
temperature variations and to maintain the temperature relatively constant. Thus,
frozen freight will remain frozen for a longer time period, often long enough not to
justify the usage of more expensive refrigeration devices. Quilts can also be used to
keep temperature sensitive freight at room temperature while outside conditions can
substantially vary (e.g. during the summer or the winter).
 Reefers. Generic name for a temperature controlled container, which can be a van,
small truck, a semi or a standard ISO container. These containers, which are insulated,
are specially designed to allow temperature controlled air circulation maintained by
an attached and independent refrigeration plant.

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 2. REVIEW OF LITTERATURE

India is the second largest food producer of the world, yet over 300 million people go without
two square meals a day. Food worth Rs.58000 crore – by the government own admission –
goes waste every year. The country just processes only about 2% of the produce from its 182
billion USD food industry. According to ministry of food processing – India 90 million tones
of milk and 485 million livestock annually, the highest in the world, and is the second largest
producer of fruits and vegetables about 150 million tones, and is the largest producer of food
grain, and fish approximately 204 million tones and 6.3 million tones respectively. These
impressive numbers meant little as large part of the perishables is wasted as the country is
failed to create a farm to fork supply chain.

For the farm to fork revolution to become realty, there has to be a seamless flow from what is
sown in the fields to procurement, processing, storage, logistics and retailing.

According to ASSOCHAM (associated chamber of commerce and industry) and KPMG

reports, 26Aug, 2009, “food processing and agri-business” - that the country is short by 10
millions of cold storage capacity due to which 30 – 40% of agricultural produce goes waste a
year .According to latest study of ASSOCHAM, against a requirement of over31 million
tones of cold storage, India has a capacity of nearly 21.7 million tones leading to a loss of
about 40% of the agricultural produce post harvest. At present the Indian cold chain market is
worth 2.6 billion USD. Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal together constitute 65% of the total
installed capacity of the cold storage in the country. Cold chains are used primarily for fruits,
vegetables, ice-creams, floriculture, meat, marine products, dairy products, and
confectionary.

According to the reports, entire supply chain in the country is dominated by unorganized
player with several intermediaries adding wastage and cost from farm to fork via retailer,
processor or exporter. In the long supply chain, one level is unaware of requirements of the
next level leading to the disconnection between farmers and processors. Secondly absence of
structured market hampers discovery correct price and availability of consistent quality of the
produce.

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2.1 MARKET OPPORTUNITIES
 The cold chain market in India worth Rs. 21375 million, which is equivalent to 475
million USD.
 Chiller segment which constitute fruits & vegetables pack-houses, potato, apple
contributes Rs. 16050 million (357 million USD) to the cold chain market.
 The remaining market is segregated into:

VALUE
SEGMENT (US$ MILLION)

Imported fresh fruits and vegetables 1.67

Export by sea (sea food, meat, poultry, fruits & vegetables) 46

Chocolate industry 2

Dairy industry 2.67

Meat and poultry (domestic) 1.33

Ice-cream industry 4.90

Processed potatoes 4.45

Frozen fruits & vegetables 1.67

Emerging segments (RTE, RTS, RTC, flavored milk/yoghurt) 13.33

Cold chain transportation 40

 Retail: Indian retail industry contributes about 10% to the GDP. It is the fastest
growing sector in the country with the emergence of the mall culture. Domestics
players like Reliance fresh, Shoppers Stop, Big Bazaar, More etc are some of the
major players in this industry. Companies like ITC, Reliance, Future Group are going
for the backward integration. Besides these foreign giants like Wal-Mart, Spencer etc
forayed the Indian market.

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Union minister for agriculture, Mr. Sharad Pawar replying the questions in the Lok Sabha
said that lack of power supply and unavailability of land are the hurdles for the setting up of
new cold storage units in a big way. Running such units on diesel gensets are very expensive.

The Centre had set up a taskforce on Development of Cold Chain in association with the
Confederation of Indian Industry for developing a cold chain development roadmap in the
country.

Based on the recommendations of the taskforce, Central Warehousing Corporation has been
designated as the nodal agency to take action for setting up of Special Purpose Vehicle for
cold logistics, creation of integrated multi-product multi-purpose commodity complex as well
as to develop software for commissioning of IT-based market information and management
system.

Under the schemes of National Horticulture Mission (NHM), financial assistance of Rs 44.87
crore has been provided for the establishment of 156 cold storages from 2005 - 06 to 2009
-10.Under NHM, a new scheme of Terminal Market Complex has been approved by
government to link farmers to markets by shortening supply chain of perishables with
provision of state of the art technology for infrastructure which includes cold chain logistics.
National Horticulture Board has provided assistance for establishment of 2,172 cold storages
with eligible subsidy of Rs 604.60 crore from 1999 - 2000 to 2009 -10, Mr. Pawar said.

Ministry of Food Processing Industries is implementing a scheme for cold chain, value
addition and preservation infrastructure whereby financial assistance is provided for
strengthening cold chain infrastructure. The ministry has also accorded approval to 10 cold
chain projects during 2008 - 09 in Maharashtra, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Karnataka,
Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Haryana. Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority also provides assistance for setting
up of integrated pack house which includes pre-cooling, sorting, grading and cold storage
facilities, Mr. Pawar said.

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 2.2REVISED OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES OF THE SCHEME
FOR COLD CHAIN, VALUE ADDITION, AND
PRESERVATION INFRASTRUCTURE DURING THE 11TH
FIVE YEAR PLAN (REVISED AS ON 18.3.2010)
The objective of the scheme is to provide integrated cold chain without any break from farm
to consumption point. The project can be set by any individual or a group of entrepreneurs
who are interested in cold chain or supply chain solutions. They will enable linking groups of
producers to the processors and market through well equipped supply chain and cold chain.
Pre-cooling facilities at production sites, reefer vans, and mobile cooling units are the part of
the cold chain that will be assisted under the integrated chain projects.

Salient features:

 The scope of component of integrated cold chain, value added centre, packaging
centre, irradiation facilities has been broadened to allow flexibility in the project
planning. The scheme will have the following components:
a. Minimal processing centre at the farm level and this centre is to have the
facility of weighing, grading, sorting, packing, pre-cooling, controlled
atmosphere (CA)/ modified atmosphere (MA) cold storage, normal storage
and IQF.
b. Mobile pre-cooling and reefer trucks.
c. Distribution hubs with multiproduct and multi CA/MA chambers, cold
storage/ variable humidity chambers, packing facility, CIP fog treatment,
IQF and blast freezing.
d. Irradiation facility.
 To provide integrated and complete cold chain facilities without any break from farm
gate to consumer, precooling facilities at production sites, reefer vans, and mobile
cooling units has been covered under the integrated cold chain projects. Stand alone
facility, except irradiation facility will not be considered for financial assistance.
 Horticulture produce has also been included for support under integrated cold chain
facilities.
 Value addition centres may also include infrastructural facilities including
processing / multiline processing /collection centres etc for horticulture including
organic produce, meat, marine, poultry etc.
 Irradiation facilities may also cover warehousing, cold storage, etc. for storage of raw
material and finished products for efficient utilization of the facilities.

2.3 PATTERN OF ASSISTANCE

Financial assistance (grant in aid) of 50% of the total cost of plant and machinery and
technical civil work in general areas and 75% for north east region and difficult areas (North

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East including Sikkim and J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) subject to a maximum of
Rs.10crore.

The value of the land to be computed in the project cost should not exceed 10% of the project
cost. In case, if the value exceeds 10% of the project cost, such value to the extent of 10% of
the total cost should only be computed in the project cost.

Some more conditions regarding land for the project:

1. The cost of the land will be computed in the project cost only when the land is to be
purchased by the enterprise.
2. The cost of the land should be the purchase value not the market value.
3. The value of that portion of the land, which is, need based for the project only is
included.

No interest will be charged on the subsidy portion i.e. the subsidy amount will be excluded
from the loan amount while charging interest. The subsidy admissible to the borrower under
the scheme will be kept in the subsidy reserve fund account – borrower wise in the books of
the financing bank.

2.4 PATTERN OF RELEASE OF THE GRANT

A. The grant in aid will be admissible for payment only after the private investor
has paid his share fully as per the following schedule:

a. First installment of 25% of the total grant under the scheme will be
released after ensuring that 25% of the promoters’ contribution and 25%
of the term loan has been spent on the project.

b. 2nd installment of another 50% of the total grant under the scheme will be
released after ensuring that utilization of first installment of the grant and
75%of the promoters contribution and 75% of the term loan have been
spent on the project. Utilization certificate of the first installment shall be
submitted by the promoter at the time of making claim for the second
installment.

c. 3rd and final installment of remaining 25% of the grant assistance will be
released after ensuring that the utilization of the second installment and
100% of promoters contribution and 100% of the term loan has been
invested on the project and the project has achieved completion and
commercial operation has been started. Utilization certificate of the second
installment shall be submitted by the promoter at the time of making claim
for the 3rd and final installment.

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 B. The implementation schedule for the project would be about 18 months from
the date of approval of the project.

3. FACTS AND FINDINGS

3.1 COLD STORAGE OF POTATOES, GREEN VEGETABLES &
FRUITS

Since most of the cold storage capacity is utilized by potatoes, the primary research of the
study covered the cold stores for potatoes and green vegetables. Fresh potatoes are available
only for three months; hence there is a need to store potatoes for 6-8 months and potatoes for
table and processing purposes up to 9 months to maintain the potato supply throughout the
year. Potatoes start arriving in cold stores from the month of February and remains there till
the month of October. During the rest of the period maintenance work goes on like
maintenance of the wood used in the flooring, cleaning of the cold store, etc. Seed potatoes
have to be stored at 2-40C and 90-95% relative humidity (RH) to maintain right physiological
age. Refrigeration helps in eliminating sprouting, rottage and tuber moth damage and in
reducing weight loss are well established while for table and processing purposes potatoes are
stored at higher temperatures for the maintenance of processing quality and good taste. There
has been a surge in potato processing sector in the last decade due to increased demand of
processed potato products by the consumers and a major problem of potato chips industry
needs continuous supply of tubers with low reducing sugars for maintenance of chip colour.
At present there are two popular refrigerant available in the market namely ammonia and
Freon. Ammonia refrigerant is cheaper, easily available and is of high latent heat of
evaporation. The disadvantage of ammonia is that it is highly toxic in nature. It forms
explosives when it is mixed with oil containing high percentage of carbon. All the cold stores
that I have visited during the study were using the ammonia refrigerants.

The cold store structures are mainly differentiated according to the number of floors. Mostly
the cold stores are having six to seven floors including the basement. The capacity of the cold
store is according to chambers and the number of packets they can store. Most of the stores
that I have visited were having 2-3 chambers. The capacity may range mostly from 1lakh to 8
lakh packets. The inside of the building is divided into chambers with wooden flooring
having gaps between them so that cooling can easily pass from the top floor to bottom ones.
Cemented floors are avoided in cold stores as it will not let the cooling to pass from one floor
to another floor. All the sides of the cold storage room need to be insulated in order to
maintain the required temperature inside. Various types of insulating materials are used for
insulation of side walls, partition walls, floor and roof. However, the most commonly used
insulation material is thermocoal and sometimes Poly Urethane Fibre (PUF) panels are also
used for insulation depending upon the economics of the project. Proper thickness of
insulating material should be used for insulation of walls. Normally, two layers of insulating
material are used for insulation. A minimum 100 mm thickness of low density thermocoal
need to be used for sun facing walls and roof, whereas 80 mm thickness of low density
thermocoal may be used for other two walls. Partition walls need to be insulated with 40 mm
low density thermocoal and a thickness of 80 mm high density thermocoal is necessary for
floors. The pipes having ammonia are placed at top floor with ice layers over it and the

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ceiling fans are which are above the pipes containing ammonia suppress the cooling down to
all the floors. Each floor is divided into spaces (with a capacity of 64 packets) for the stacking
of the potato bags. These bags are referred as packets. Stacking of these packets should not
be more than six packets according to the government rules but in most of the cold stores
eight to nine packets are stacked above one another. The farmers are charged as per the
number of packets by the cold store owners as against Rs.124 per quintal set by the
government. At present the rate of storing per packet is Rs. 62 per packet.

Fruits and vegetables which are to be kept for cold storage are sorted out and the bad ones
need to be removed. The material is packed preferably in wooden /plastic carton boxes and
then kept in cold storage chambers. The temperature and humidity is to be maintained
depending upon the commodity kept in the store. The requirement of suitable temperature for
successful storage of important fruits and vegetables are shown in Table I & Table II.

Table I: Required suitable temperature for vegetables

(Optimum storage condition for vegetables Relative Humidity, 85 – 90 % except beet
roots, cabbage, radish, turnips and peas where RH is 90 – 95 %)

Name of vegetables Storage in temp. in Cold storage life in

Fahrenheit weeks
Beans 32 – 35 2–3

Beet roots 32 – 35 6–8

Brinjals 47 – 50 3–4
Carrot 32 – 35 13 – 17

Cauliflower 34 – 35 4–6

Cabbage 32 – 35 9 – 13

Onions 32 – 35 17 – 26

Potatoes 37 – 38 26 – 35

Radish 32 – 35 6–8
Turnips 32 – 35 13 – 17

Tomatoes ripe 40 – 45 1 – 1½
Mature (greenish 3–4
yellow)
pears 32 – 35 2–3

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 Table II: Required suitable temperature for fruits

Name of the fruit Storage temp. in Cold storage life in

Fahrenheit weeks
Apple 32 – 35 7 – 26
apricot 30 – 32 2–4
Berry fruits 30 – 32 2–3
Bananas 55 – 60 2–3
Cherries 30 – 32 2–3
Guavas 47 – 50 3–4
Grapes 30 – 32 4–6
Lemon 50 – 55 9 – 13
Lime 50 – 55 4–5
Mangoes 45 – 50 4–6

Mandarin 40 – 42 9 – 13
Oranges (Nagpur)
Coorg (Assam)

Oranges (tight 36 – 39 13 – 17
skinned) 36 – 39 13 – 17
Malta (Punjab) 39 – 42 13 – 17
Sathgudi (Chennai) 42 – 45 13 – 17
Mussambi (Mumbai)

Pears 30 – 32 2–4
Peaches 30 – 32 2–4
Plums 30 – 32 2–4
Pineapple 50 – 55 3–4
Quinces 30 – 35 9 – 17

 If we look at the storage period from the above tables, we can find out that storage
period of all other fruits and vegetables except apple, oranges, potatoes and onions
respectively is very small. During conversation with the cold store owners, they said
that there is less benefit in storage of commodities having lesser storage period as in
case of green vegetables. But in case of potatoes and fruits like apple and oranges
which are stored for a period of 6 – 10 months are more profitable because of the
maximum utilization of the facility. During the interviews, the owners also revealed
that there is a lot of unawareness among the farmers regarding the cold storage. As in

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case of onions, farmers mostly use the traditional method of storage. They keep the
onions in the wooden made racks in their farms in shadows. There is a loss to the
farmers in this because as discussed earlier that improper storage of onion may lead to
40% weight loss. But in case of potatoes the weight loss can be about 7 – 10%.

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 3.2 COLD STORAGE OF MEAT
India ranks top in animal and cattle population. The meat and meat processing industry is still
to come up. The processing of meat is very little. The meat produced for the domestic market
is sold as ‘hot meat’. The consumers in the domestic market mostly prefer meat of goat,
sheep, and pig and the meat are marketed directly to the consumers. The poultry meat
(commonly chicken) is sold mostly by the slaughtering the bird in front of the customer.
Hence the chances of deterioration are less as the time gap between the slaughter and the sale
is less. But meat supplied to the restaurants, hotels and in retail stores are in the frozen form.
The export of poultry meat is insignificant. The reasons are the mortality of the birds is high,
overhead inventories are abnormal and the exporters find the prices quoted in the importing
countries are not favourable.
Meat is not a living organism but it is subject to endogenic enzymatic activity or proteolysis,
which causes the muscle tissue to mature, become tender and develop a typical taste. Meat
has a chemical composition which is rich in proteins, lipids, and water, so it is favourable for
the growth of micro-organism. The lipid content also makes it very sensitive to oxidation.
The growth of micro-organism which causes the spoilage of meat depends upon the
temperature condition. Following slaughter the evisceration (cut, open and removal of the
internal organs) and dressing operations inevitably produce microbial contamination in depth
especially on the surface through contact with equipment, tools, hands, clothes despite all
precautions. Another important thing is the weight loss due to the surface evaporation. This
process depends on difference in temperature and relative humidity between meat and
environment. To avoid them it is essential to reduce the temperature of the meat. Cooling
must therefore be carried out in slaughter house – known as primary chilling operation.

3.2.1 CHILLING

Chilling can be defined as the fundamental operation in applying cold to meat to reduce its
temperature quickly. This is done in a cold chamber with intensive air draught or movement.
Rapid cooling of the meat surface not only slows and nearly stops the development of surface
micro-organisms but also reduces weight loss and discoloration of the surface owing to
haemoglobin oxidation. Different systems of primary chilling are in use (including immersion
in iced water, especially for poultry) but air chilling is the most common.

The cold chambers where chilling takes place must have a low air temperature, a high air
speed, a high relative humidity and a high refrigerating capacity. Air temperature must be in
the region of 0°C, with no decrease below -1°C, which could freeze the meat surface and
impair its appearance. Air speed can range from 0.25 to 3.0 m/s. However, for economical
reasons the most common speeds in use are from 0.75 to 1.5 m/s in the empty section of the
cold chamber. Air speed over the carcasses will be much higher because of the reduction in
air circulation. Increased air speed reduces the cooling period but it has a limit as there is a
threshold above which fan-power consumption increases more than the chilling rate, resulting
in an increase in operational costs. Also, the higher the air speed the greater the weight
loss.Relative humidity during the chilling operation should be kept fairly high to prevent
excessive weight loss. The recommended rate is between 90 and 95 percent, though this is the
most difficult factor to control.

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Primary chilling is completed when the warmest point of the carcass has reached a
temperature of about 7°C (3°C for edible offal). With current technology these temperatures
can be arrived at in 16–24 hours in small carcasses and in less than 48 hours in large
carcasses (centre of the hind leg). Average and surface temperatures are obviously much
lower, reaching 0°C on the surface within four hours; this is important to slow microbial
proliferation.Quick chilling has its problems, cold shortening being the most common. Cold
shortening can often be seen in beef and mutton, when the meat, still in its pre-rigor phase,
reaches temperatures of 10°C or lower. These conditions cause irreversible contractions of
the muscle tissue which toughen the meat even after prolonged ripening.

Quick primary chilling also signifies an increase in investment and higher operational costs.
The chilling period can be reduced by lowering the air temperature (surface freezing risks) or
increasing air speed (higher operational costs) or both. Occasionally cold chambers are
refrigerated in advance to reach lower temperatures than those in operation (-5°C/-6°C for
beef; -10°C/-12°C for pork), taking advantage of thermal inertia to offset the effect of warm
meat loads.

Quick primary chilling can be performed in small chambers or in cooling tunnels. In cold
chambers it is carried out in two or three phases. During the first phase the air temperature is
maintained at about 0°C, carefully controlling the risk of superficial freezing while air
movement is maintained at a high level. For large carcasses, after 10–12 hours the air
circulation inside the store is reduced, maintaining temperature and humidity conditions; this
second phase lasts another six to 10 hours. After this period the meat is transferred to cold
storage chambers where the carcass temperature is stabilized, concluding the third
phase.Small cold chambers used for chilling must be designed so their capacity can be filled
in two hours at the slaughterhouse's normal work rate. The number of chambers should be
sufficient for a peak working day. Particular care should be taken that warm humid carcasses
are placed behind those already chilled or in the process of being chilled so that the air, which
is still cold, reaches them and there is no risk of superficial condensation.

Cooling tunnels used for chilling meat are usually of the continuous type. Here again meat is
subjected to a two-phase process, with conditions similar to the cold chamber. However the
temperature can be as low as -5°C for a short time. Beef carcasses can reach an average
temperature of about 15°C in a four-hour period, while pork and mutton reach the same
temperature in two to two and a half hours. Surface temperature decreases to 4–5 °C. During
the second phase, conditions are less exacting, and an average temperature of about 4°C is
stabilized after 15–16 hours in a secondary refrigerating chamber. This method is used in
high-capacity slaughterhouses particularly for pig carcasses; for beef and mutton slower
cooling is recommended because of the dangers of cold shortening.

3.2.2 CHILLED STORAGE

Stored chilled meat is mainly intended to serve as buffer stock between production and
shipment and/or consumption. During storage, ageing (ripening) of the meat also occurs,
progressively increasing tenderness and developing taste through the proteolytic activity of
meat enzymes. Ageing depends on temperature and can be accelerated by increasing it, but
for hygienic reasons it is recommended that 4°C be used with a relative humidity of 85–95
percent. In these conditions ageing takes place in a few hours for poultry, two to four days for

Page 15
pork, four days for mutton and two weeks for beef. It can thus be considered as
complementary treatment only for the last two products.

When chilled meat is stored for long periods a lower temperature without the risk of freezing
should be used; normally 0°C is a reasonable choice. A temperature of about 4°C is used in
butcher shops (for final ageing, due to the difficulty of maintaining lower temperatures as the
cold store rooms are small). Relative humidity is between 80 and 90 percent, which is a
compromise between weight loss and microbial development; 80 percent is normally used for
carcasses and quarters, and 85–90 percent for small meat cuts. The preservation of edible
offal requires different conditions,-1°C rather than 0°C, and a relative humidity close to
saturation to avoid surface blemishes. Organs intended for therapeutic purposes, such as
thyroid, pancreas, ovaries, pituitary and so on, must be frozen immediately to preserve their
active principles.

However, there is wastage and some loss of quality and nutritive value and it is therefore
recommended that the storage time should not exceed by much the ripening period required
for the different types of meat. Air circulation inside industrial chambers should be at a rate
of 20–35 times per hour the volume of the empty cold room. When the chambers are used to
store offal it is advisable to use natural air circulation to maintain high humidity levels.

3.2.3 INCOMPATIBILITIES

In many countries a deficient cold chain and insufficient cold storage capacity sometimes
make it necessary to store different products in the same room. These products may be
incompatible because they require different storage temperatures or they present some risk of
tainting, through the transfer of aromas from one to another. The first type of risk is not a
problem with animal products as they keep reasonably well under similar temperature
conditions (obviously reference is made here only to chilled storage). Nevertheless the lowest
recommended temperature without risk of superficial freezing should always be used.

Tainting is likely when meats or other animal products are stored with odorous fruits like
orange or apples, and the risk is more severe when there is mixed storage with potatoes.
However, it is unusual to store meats with vegetables, so precautions are mainly needed when
storing mixed animal products. There is some danger of cross action between beef and bacon;
cheese will taint beef, mutton and pork. Tainting must be guarded against not only during
mixed storage but also when using a cold chamber which has previously stored produce with
a strong tainting potential. Chambers must be thoroughly cleaned before any other product is
stored.

3.2.4 COMPLEMENTARY TREATMENT

Like the ageing of meat during cold storage, such as when butchers keep their stock at 4°C
and 85–95 percent relative humidity, other complementary treatments are also used to
lengthen the storage period, maintaining quality and reducing the risk of microbial spoilage.

A modified atmosphere is one of the treatments used nowadays for animal products, though
not to such an extent as for fruit and vegetables. This technology employs a gas-composed

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atmosphere which is different from the normal (i.e. 21 percent O 2, 79 percent N2 and minor
contents of other gases).

A more common complementary treatment for meat storage is the vacuum packaging of
boneless meat cuts. Special extremely airtight (oxygen-tight) synthetic films have been
developed which can be heat sealed after removing the air around the packed meat cut, thus
keeping it practically out of contact with the surrounding atmosphere. Provided hygienic
slaughter and cutting methods are used, the shelf-life of meat packed in this way and stored
under 0°/-1°C can be remarkably extended (up to eight weeks for beef, four weeks for lamb
and two to three weeks for pork), which is important for the export of boneless chilled meat
from meat producing countries. This type of packaging is widely used for shipments of dried
beef and mutton.

In special cases radiation is used as a complementary treatment to extend the shelf-life of

chilled meat carcasses. However, this treatment is subject to national food legislation and is
not allowed in many countries.

UV light (200–320 nm) is also used to reduce surface microbial contamination on meat and
meat products. As the cuts have irregular shapes it is rather difficult to achieve the same
radiation intensity, so it is normal procedure to irradiate the most contaminated zones.
Radiation intensity produced by a 30W UV lamp is enough for every 10–12 m 2 of floor space
in a slaughterhouse or cold chamber.

3.2.5 FREEZING

Freezing is usually limited to meat to be used as buffer stock, frequently intended for export
or for storage with a view to later processing. When the preservation period is longer than
that acceptable for chilled meat, freezing must be used to minimize any physical, biochemical
and microbiological changes affecting quality in storage. During freezing most of the water
content of the meat, about 80 percent solidifies into pure ice crystals, accompanied by a
separation of dissolved solids.

A product can be considered frozen when its centre has a temperature of -12°C or less. To
reach this temperature the product passes through the temperature range of maximum
crystallization (from -1° to -5°C). The speed of freezing is a very important factor as frozen
meat quality depends mainly on the size of the ice crystal formed: the lower the speed of
freezing the larger the size of the crystals. Slow freezing facilitates the separation of solution
and the migration of water out of the muscle cells which is subsequently frozen, forming
rather large crystals. Quick freezing conversely produces many small ice crystals, mainly
formed within the muscle cells, and reduces water migration and separation of solution. It is
obvious that the latter technology will preserve the meat closer to its original quality and,
particularly during thawing, moisture loss will generally be lower.

The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) expresses the freezing speed as the velocity
with which a temperature front moves through the body of the product (cm/h). Good results
are attained when the speed is from 2 to 5 cm/h. Slow freezing is considered to be below 1
cm/h and quick freezing above 5 cm/h. Meat can be treated before freezing, generally being
refrigerated to a chilled condition. Cutting into quarters is usual, particularly for large
animals, and the fat is removed from some parts because though it prevents surface

Page 17
desiccation it reduces the heat transfer rate, and is susceptible to damage during frozen
storage.

The relationship between thickness and freezing speed favours cutting and deboning before
freezing, either as lean meat packaged in cardboard boxes or cut into individual portions. This
has many advantages:

 the mass to be frozen is reduced by 30 percent or more;

 storage density is increased by 100 percent;
 handling operations are easier;
 Deboning after thawing, which causes hygienic and exudative problems, is avoided.

Freezing is performed in tunnels or in chambers with intense air circulation called blast
chambers. Air temperatures should be in the range of -30° to -35°C; sometimes -40°C is used.
Air is circulated at high speed, from 2 to 4 m/s and up to 6 m/s. An air circulation coefficient
of 150–300 is used inside freezing chambers. Relative humidity is maintained at 95 percent
or above. In these conditions half beef carcasses or quarters are frozen in about 16– 20 hours,
cut-up meat in cardboard boxes measuring 54×34×16 cm in about four hours and small
prepackaged cuts in about one hour. Small boxes and cuts, particularly of offal, are
sometimes frozen in surface contact freezers (plate freezers): the product is pressed between
two metallic plates cooled by direct expansion refrigerant. For items 3–5 cm thick, freezing
time is as low as two to three hours. After freezing carcasses and quarters must be protected
with plastic film, usually under cloth or jute fabric. Meat cuts are covered with plastic film, or
vacuum-packed in plastic bags; they are placed inside cardboard boxes and usually frozen in
these.

When meat cuts are prepackaged without vacuum, air pockets must be avoided. A 2-cm space
should be left in the upper part of the box to allow for expansion. Superficial fat should be
eliminated before freezing to reduce the development of rancidity during storage.

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 TABLE: Practical storage life of meat and meat products

Practical storage life in months

Products
-18 °C -25 °C -30 °C

Beef carcass 12 18 24

Roasts, steaks, packaged 12 18 24

Ground meat, packaged, (unsalted) 10 >12 >12

Veal carcass 9 12 24

Roasts, chops 9 10–12 12

Lamb carcass 9 12 24

Roasts, chops 10 12 24

Pork carcass 6 12 15

Roasts, chops 6 12 15

Ground sausage 6 10  

Bacon (green, unsmoked) 2–4 6 12

Lard 9 12 12

Poultry, chicken and turkeys, eviscerated,    

well packaged 12 24 24

Fried chicken 6 9 12

Offal, edible 4    

From: Recommendations for the processing and handling of frozen foods, International
Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, 1972.

3.3MEAT QUALITY AND SAFETY MEASURES

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Most of the export-oriented meat processing plants in India follow world class sanitary and
phytosanitary measures given by the OIE (office International Des Epizooties), Paris a
referral institution of WTO. The plants are certified with HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Points), ISO-9002 and SGS meeting the OIE norms. These measures are for meat
safety which starts right at the primary production level either with the farmers raising 5 – 20
animals or in the feedlot. The identification and trace ability of the animals from production
source to the abattoir is completely maintained. It is ensured that animals have been raised
under disease free conditions of the diseases related to List ‘A’ of OIE. Except for FMD
(Foot and Mouth Disease), which is endemic in a few pockets in India and has an
insignificant incidence (0.001%), India is free from Rinderpest, Contagious Bovine
Pleuropneumonia etc. India has now launched a massive FMD control programme with
Central Government assistance to make the three zones free of FMD comprising of 56
districts.

In the HACCP, the Critical Control Points (CCP) are closely monitored at the reception of the
animals (procured from disease free areas), ante-mortem examination, post mortem
examination, chilling of carcasses at 0 - 4 degree Celsius for 24 hours to bring pH level below
7, freezing of deboned meat at –35 to –40 degree Celsius for 10 – 12 hours and storage at –18
degree Celsius. All these measures exclude the possibility of transferring any
contagious/infectious/zoonotic disease to the importing countries. The in-house quality
laboratories in the plants ensure the absence of Salmonella, Listeria and permissible limits of
E-Coli, Coliform bacteria.

Almost all the export oriented plants follow the safety specifications given by the Meat and
Meat Product Order of 1993 issued by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection,
Government of India. In addition, the measures recommended in Codex Alimentarius are also
implemented.

3.3.1 CONDITIONS OF FROZEN STORAGE

Meats properly frozen are transferred from the freezer to storage chambers where
temperature, relative humidity and air circulation should be adequate and can be tightly
controlled. In particular fluctuations in temperature must be kept to a very narrow time
interval. As there is a certain degree of quality deterioration, even at very low temperatures,
storage life is limited. The usual temperatures are in the range of -18° to -25°C for periods of
preservation of one year or more. However, each type of meat requires specific conditions.
The higher the relative humidity the better: a range of 95–98 percent prevents meat
dehydration. For frozen meats and other animal products storage incompatibility is low. The
temperature level needed in the chamber is similar for all of them, and tainting is negligible
owing to the low temperature and to the fact that most of the products are in adequately
protective packages.

The main problem with frozen storage is deterioration in organoleptic quality. There may be
changes in meat texture, fat can become granular and crumble, and there can also be some
discoloration of the meat. Fat modification induced by air oxygen produces rancidity and
acidity, and a disagreeable taste. Microbial enzymes also remain active, especially those that
attack the fat.

As in chilled storage, there are also weight losses through evaporation. This can be seen as
freezer burn, i.e. superficial desiccated areas which can occur even in packaged meats when

Page 20
the packaging film is loose and temperature fluctuates inside the chamber. Weight loss,
which can be between 1 and 4 percent in unpacked meat, favours organoleptic deterioration.
The surface of the meat grows dry and porous, encouraging rancidity and transfer of aromas.
In addition, the area of surface sublimation of frozen meat is very large - 12 m2/t for beef
quarters, 11 m2/t for pork and 20 m2/t for mutton.

3.3.2 PRACTICAL STORAGE LIFE (PSL)

PSL is the storage period from the time of freezing for as long as the product maintains its
organoleptic and nutritive characteristics and is suitable for human consumption or for further
processing. PSL relies on high quality raw material, good industrial practice, including
hygiene, and the use of a reasonably constant temperature. PSL is therefore clearly dependent
on PPP factors—product, processing and packaging. Processing refers mainly to preliminary
treatment and the freezing operation. Slaughtering, dressing of carcasses, preliminary
chilling, cutting and deboning, and prepackaging of small cuts, must be conducted
hygienically and by skilled labour. In addition to personal hygiene, and cleaning and
disinfection programmes in slaughterhouses, chilling facilities and cutting rooms, particular
care should be taken when cutting and deboning and packaging, keeping contamination of the
meat to a minimum. Carcasses should preferably be cut while hanging or on regularly
cleaned surfaces, with tools frequently sterilized during operation and the meat stored in
clean containers. The packaging material should be of good quality and clean.

Packaging is intended to preserve products from microbial contamination, from dehydration

and from environmental factors that affect quality and nutrition. The materials used, besides
being specifically for food, must be chemically inert and prevent the transfer of foreign
odours or flavours. They must be stable at low and high temperatures, elastic, tear-resistant,
and proof against water vapour, oxygen and volatile substances. They must offer protection
against light, particularly UV light. Moreover they should be adaptable to different automatic
packaging systems, of an appropriate size and shape for easy storing and distribution, and
ready for opening. Plastic films and papers and cardboard lined with plastic film are often
used. For special packaging, different plastic films can be combined to take advantage of the
main properties of each. Plastics of interest to the meat industry for cold storage are:

 polyamide (PA)
 polyethylene (PE)
 polyester (polyterephthalic acid ester) (PET/PETP)
 polyvinylchloride (PVC)
 polyvinyliden chloride (PVDC).

There is a daily quality loss in frozen meat storage that is cumulative, i.e. the total quality loss
through freezing, storage; transport and distribution can be calculated by adding the losses at
each step of the process. The tolerance of a product to a fixed temperature and time storage
can be determined and expressed in figures. Figures or graphs representing practical storage
life in different conditions can be established through time tolerance and tolerance (TTT)
studies. These are run at least three temperatures, around those normally used for storing the
product under test (-18°, -25° and -30°C for instance) and show the quality relationship to
time temperature conditions. As temperature fluctuations highly influence the final quality of
the frozen product, its refrigeration history should be known. This together with the TTT
characteristics of the product will allow the residual storage time to be calculated.

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The rotation of stock throughout the cold chain should be organized according to the first in-
first out (FIFO) rule: the first lots to be stored are the first to be unloaded.

3.3.3 THAWING

Thawing is another critical phase in the freezing process as it involves a change from ice
crystals to melted water, which is reabsorbed, and microbial reactivation.

If heat is applied to the frozen product its surface becomes warm enough to transfer heat to
the inside and create conditions of temperature and humidity suitable for microbial
development. Low temperature thawing, below 5°C, reduces the risk of microbial growth and
produces a slow thawing rate which guarantees efficient reabsorption of the melted water. It
is recommended that carcasses be thawed at 4° to 6°C, in a hanging position and without any
covering (plastic or jute is removed), inside a cold chamber with a reasonably low level of air
circulation - about 0.2 m/s. Relative humidity must be kept low at the beginning (70 percent)
to avoid frost forming on the meat surface, with an increase at the end of the thawing period
up to 90–95 percent. In these conditions thawing of beef carcasses lasts about four to five
days and of smaller carcasses one to three days. It must take place in installations specifically
designed for this purpose.

Offal is not particularly influenced by the manner of thawing, but it is advisable to follow the
same method. Thawing is considered finished when the temperature of the meat is about 0° to
-1°C. When frozen meats are further processed they may in some cases be used directly in the
frozen state. The consumer can start cooking small prepackaged cuts without prior thawing.
New quick thawing systems that satisfy hygienic requirements are now being used in the
meat industry. Rapid thawing tunnels for carcasses, microwave ovens and tunnels and
vacuum steam-heated autoclaves are some of the novelties. Thawed meats deteriorate quickly
and must be kept at about 0°C and consumed as soon as possible.

Obviously a badly conducted freezing operation and/or frozen storage period (which includes
transport and distribution) with irregular storage conditions will produce disorders in meat
which become immediately apparent after thawing. Exudation indicates histological damage
by ice crystals; other undesirable changes have already been mentioned.

3.3.4 TRANSPORTATION

If we talk about the transportation, refrigerated trucks are used. These reefers can carry the
perishables such as vegetables, ice creams, meat, chocolates, flowers, medicines etc. at any
temperature up to -180C. Air conditioner plant chiller is used for cooling and no chemicals or
gases are used as refrigerants. GPS system is used for tracking together with the Data loggers.

Data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location either
with a built-in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensor. Some data loggers
interface with a personal computer and utilize software to activate the data logger and view or
analyze the collected data, while others have a local interface (with keypad, and a LCD
monitor) and can be used as standalone device.

Most of the companies do not maintain their own refrigeration units rather they took them on
lease. Talking to one of the manager at Transafe, New Delhi, he revealed that they have

Page 22
provided refrigerated containers to cold chain companies like Snowman Frozen Foods Ltd.,
Bulaki Deep Freeze Ltd., Devbhumi cold chain Pvt. Ltd. and many others.

The transport of meat in a chilled or frozen state must be undertaken at a controlled

temperature so as not to exceed the threshold that encourages microbial development or starts
thawing or recrystallization in frozen meats.

Transport vehicles are classified in three categories: insulated, refrigerated and mechanically
refrigerated.

Insulated vehicles should be used only for short distances and for short periods of distribution
when not much door opening is involved.

Both types of refrigerated vehicle are employed for long hauls. Ice, solid carbon dioxide and
eutectic mixtures add enormous weight to the load to be transported, reducing the space for
merchandise. The same is true of the liquid nitrogen refrigeration system for long journeys as
the dead weight of the cylinders containing liquid nitrogen will be too high. Only
mechanically refrigerated vehicles should be considered at present for long-distance
transport.

Insulation should be thick enough to give low values for the overall heat transfer coefficient
without reducing load space. For warm countries reinforced insulation leading to an overall
heat transfer coefficient under 0.4 W/m2°C is recommended.

To reduce transport time and cope more easily with vehicle movement to and from cold
stores large traffic areas are recommended. The size of the forecourt of the loading docks will
depend on traffic and the size of the trucks, but it should be at least 35 m wide when high
traffic is expected and trucks can line up at right angles to the dock. Trucks with an overhead
rail should be used for carcass transport. Rails should be standardized to ease transfer from
the cold store to the truck, eliminating additional handling. Chilled carcasses must not be
piled on the floor.

4. PROFITABILITY IN COLD STORAGE

Page 23
Talking to the cold store owners (fruits & vegetables) about the profitability in the cold store
business, they revealed that it depends upon the utilization of the capacity of the cold store. If
the cold store is utilized fully at the time of season then roughly within 3-4 years, BEP (Break
Even Point) could be attained. But the only thing is that the initial investment is heavy.

The Total Cost includes Fixed Cost and Variable Cost.

Fixed cost: Land, building, machinery, transformer, furniture and flooring.

Variable cost: salary to manager, maintenance supervisor, storekeeper,

accountant(muneem), watchman, labor, water and ammonia gas refilling , power, postage
and stationary, telephone, consumable stores, repair and maintenance of machines and the
wooden floorings, insurance and other miscellaneous expenses.

Talking about the education of the maintenance supervisors, they are not qualified engineers,
or the diploma holders. Mostly they are the mechanics and have good experience of working
with those machines.

5. CONCLUSIONS
Some of the key reasons for the slow growth of cold chain logistics in India are as follows:

 High capital cost and very low return on investment (ROI) are one of the most
important reasons for the sluggish growth of the cold chain in India.
 Inadequate policies of the government like inadequate capital subsidy, high exercise
duty on the cold chain equipments.
 Value loss of the perishable products like fruits and vegetables is high then the
volume loss i.e. much of these products are consumed in some forms.
 The cold chain supply model in India is supply driven rather than demand driven. The
pricing models are classic, with oversupply and price depression during the peak
season.
 Inadequate power supply and poor infrastructure are other important reason that leads
to the rotting and damage of the products.
 Poor capacity utilization of the existing facilities, lack of awareness.
 Price variation due to volume loss from improper storage and handling. For example
the weight loss in case of onion could be as high as 40% from farm to consumption
point.
 Inadequate grading, sorting, cleaning and packaging practices due to the lack of some
regulatory standards and safety norms.
 Most of the fresh produce is consumed locally with a radius of 200 km and hence
there is a wrong perception of no need of refrigerated transportation.
 No use of the refrigerated transportation and storage in the distribution of milk. The
local milkmen use the traditional insulated steel containers and distribute milk mainly
during the morning and evening hours.

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  Absence of big players as mostly there small players in this field and hence difficulty
in providing integrated cold chain.
 No full utilization of the meat production capacity of the country.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 Mostly the cold store for potatoes and green vegetables are covered for the study.
 The cold stores covered are mainly from Aligarh and Agra region of Uttar Pradesh.
 Difficulty in accessing information from the owners due to their unwillingness to
share information.
 Time and budget constraints.

REFERENCES:

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http:/ /www.mofpi.nic.in

http:/ /www.accenture.com

Cold Storage: By Small Industries Service Institute, Ludhiana

chapter 7, p - 1to7.

Project MP Argos
Global Agri system Pvt. Ltd.
p – 1to6.

Revised operational guidelines of the scheme for cold chain, value addition &
preservation infrastructure during the 11th five year plan.
P – 1to9.

Article: Potato storage & value preservation.

By Capt. Pawanexh Kohli.
P – 1to 9.

Building capacity in India’s cold chain infrastructure

–establishing linkages between India and US Firms–
By US Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) p – 1to20.

Article : The Cold Chain.

Authors : Dr. Jean Paul Rodrigue and Matthew Craig

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