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Phthalates removal efficiency in different wastewater treatment technology

in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Article  in  Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · May 2018

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-018-6665-8

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Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6665-8

Phthalates removal efficiency in different wastewater

treatment technology in the Eastern Cape, South Africa
Taofeek Salaudeen & Omobola Okoh &
Foluso Agunbiade & Anthony Okoh

Received: 18 July 2017 / Accepted: 4 April 2018

# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract The removal capacity of different wastewater by DEHP and BBP. There was a relatively high removal
treatment plant (WWTP) technologies adopted in rural capacity achieved by AS in Alice, TF in Berlin, and OP
areas for phthalate was investigated in the Eastern Cape, in Bedford with a removal efficiency that varied be-
South Africa. Wastewater samples collected from three tween 77 and 99%, 76 and 98%, and 61 and 98%,
selected WWTPs which use activated sludge (AS), respectively. A high significant correlation of PAE re-
trickling filter (TF), and oxidation pond (OP) technolo- moval with total suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity
gy were extracted using the solid-phase extraction meth- suggests that the removal performance proceeded more
od followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry through adsorption on settling particles and sludge than
(GC-MS) analysis. The six selected phthalate esters on biodegradation. However, the concentrations of
(PAEs) dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate PAEs detected in the final effluent and sludge samples
(DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthal- exceeded acceptable levels allowed internationally for a
ate (BBP), di(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di- safe aquatic environment. AS may have exhibited a
n-octyl phthalate (DOP) were detected in all the samples more stable and better performance across the different
collected from the WWTPs. DBP was the most abun- seasons; however, pollution source control still deserves
dant compound in the influent, effluent, and sludge a special attention to prevent the risk posed by these
samples with a maximum detection of 2497 μgL−1, micropollutants.
24.2 μgL−1, and 1249 μg/g dW, respectively, followed
Keywords Wastewater treatment plants . Phthalate
T. Salaudeen (*) : O. Okoh : A. Okoh
esters . Activated sludge . Trickling filters . Oxidation
SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University pond . Sludge
of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
e-mail: [email protected]

T. Salaudeen : O. Okoh Introduction

Department of Chemistry, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag
X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa In recent years, some chemicals have been implicat-
F. Agunbiade ed in endocrine system interference, resulting in
Department of Chemistry, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, negative effects on hormonal control and on the
Nigeria development of aquatic organisms, wildlife, and
even humans (Matsui 2008). They are known to be
A. Okoh
Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group, mutagenic and carcinogenic in a number of human
Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort tissues, causing a shortened menstrual cycle, female
Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa breast cancer, hypospadias, cryptorchidism, and
299 Page 2 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

endometriosis (Balabanič et al. 2011; Park et al. 2011). Water availability is being severely impacted
2012). Phthalate esters (PAEs) are among chemicals by population growth and urbanization, and the de-
considered to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals teriorating quality of the existing water has also
(EDCs) (Horn et al. 2004), and the potential hazard- increased the problem of finding suitable and sus-
ous nature of these chemicals has increased the tainable treatment technology (Jonathan 2011).
global attention on their environmental fate. This The ease, with which WWTPs enable the disposal of
has also made the European Union place restrictions domestic and industrial effluents without posing danger
on the use of some PAEs (Becker et al. 2004; Gao to human health, and the ecosystem provides a basis for
et al. 2014). More so, the U.S. Environmental Pro- standard measurements (ESCWA 2003). Therefore, it is
tection Agency (EPA) has classified six PAEs: (di- important that the performance record of a wide-range
methyl (DMP), diethyl (DEP), di-butyl (DBP), WWTP technologies is made available (Coskuner and
benzyl-butyl (BBP) di(2-ethyylhexyl) (DEHP), and Ozdemir 2006).
di-n-octyl (DOP) as priority pollutants (Liu et al. Optimizing the existing treatment operations or
2013). incorporating new specific treatment operations for
Some PAEs are known to be toxic to reproduction, micro pollutant removal are additional processes
impair development in aquatic animals (amphibians and adopted especially in developed countries to im-
crustaceans), and induce genetic mutation (Clara et al. prove WWTP performance (Batt et al. 2007; Cai
2010; EU-RAR. 2007, 2008). They are easily leached et al. 2012). Many past studies on the occurrence
into the environment during manufacturing processes, and removal of EDCs from WWTPs have focused
uses, or decomposition of plastic because they are not mainly on large-scale treatment plants using the
chemically bound to the polymeric matrix in soft poly- activated sludge process (Leech et al. 2009; Qiang
vinyl chloride (PVC) when applied as plasticizer (Clara et al. 2013). It is also important that attention be
et al. 2010; Dargnat et al. 2009). focused on the removal of EDCs in other smaller
The primary route of these PAEs (plasticizers) in scale treatment plants (that usually serve smaller
the aquatic environment has been linked to the ef- communities) with technology other than activated
fluent and sludge discharged from wastewater treat- sludge to assess their performance. Investigating the
ment plants (WWTPs) (Gao et al. 2014). These removal of these organic pollutants as they are
traces of dangerous organic contaminants often es- passed through the WWTP processes is crucial to
cape the conventional wastewater treatment process- ecological and environmental health (Gao and Wen
es which are not designed to specifically degrade 2016).
them. This has made the performance of WWTPs WWTPs are designed with many treatment pro-
usually unsatisfactory for PAE removal (Xue et al. cesses and operated in order to replicate the natural
2010). Aquatic organisms are therefore exposed to treatment processes which reduce contaminant load
the escaped PAEs, and consequently, they pose a to a level that nature can handle (Ravi et al. 2010).
hazard to the whole food chain (Balabanici et al. As a result, special attention on the environmental
2012; Kraigher et al. 2008). Sources of PAEs in impacts of existing WWTPs is of paramount impor-
municipal wastewater may include domestic and tance. The type of wastewater treatment technology
industrial wastes, atmospheric deposit, or urban adopted also plays a vital role among factors
runoff. influencing PAE removal (Qiang et al. 2013). It is
Phthalate esters have been detected in natural therefore important for us to know the relative per-
water bodies, urban, and municipal water in concen- formance of other treatment technologies in relation
trations that raise a great concern for the protection to PAE removal, especially in the rural areas where
of the aquatic environment and conservation of communities still rely heavily on surface water for
drinking water resources especially in the rural areas their domestic and agricultural use.
(Löwenberg et al. 2014). In some rural areas in This present study focuses on the influence of differ-
South Africa, scarcity of potable water is still a ent types of treatment technologies in rural areas on the
serious problem for millions of people as a result removal of six selected priority PAEs in municipal
of climate change which increases flooding and WWTPs in the Amathole and Buffalo District Munici-
drought in many parts of the country (Jonathan palities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.
Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299 Page 3 of 14 299

Materials and methods from AccuStandard, Inc., USA. Surrogate standard 2-

fluorobiphenyl (2FB) was sourced from Restek, USA.
Study area A standard working mixture of 100 μgmL−1 in metha-
nol was prepared from the stock solution and stored
Three wastewater treatment plants located in Alice, Bed- under 4 °C in amber bottles. Sodium thiosulfate
ford, and Berlin all in the Eastern Cape of South Africa pentahydrate and anhydrous sodium sulfate as well as
were investigated for their PAE removal efficiency. high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) grade
WWTPs in Alice and Bedford are both in the Amathole dichloromethane, n-hexane, acetone, and methanol in-
District Municipality, and they have adopted activated cluding glass wool were all from Darmstadt, Germany.
sludge (AS) and oxidation pond (OP) technology, respec- Afrox gas, South Africa, supplied the nitrogen gas used
tively. Alice is a well-known town because of the pres- for drying, with 99.995% purity while double-distilled
ence of the University of Fort Hare and has a land area of water was produced in the Department of Chemistry
9.85 km2. Bedford on the other hand, is a town in the laboratory of the University of Fort Hare. Solid-phase
center of the Eastern Cape with a total land area of extraction (SPE) cartridges C18-U (strata) 1000 mg/
14.6 km2, while Berlin is the only town in Buffalo 6 mL were purchased from Phenomenex supplied by
District Municipality selected for this study. It has a total Separations, South Africa.
land area of about 38.22 km2 and uses trickling filter (TF)
as WWTP technology. These are all treatment facilities
serving small populations in the rural areas. Table 1 Sample collection
illustrates the geographical location, population equiva-
lent, and receiving river in all the selected WWTPs. Samples of wastewater from the influent, final efflu-
During sampling period, a global positioning system ent, and sludge were collected from each of the three
was used to locate the position of the treatment plants, selected WWTPs on a monthly basis for a period of
and reference was made to the 2011 census results. 6 months from February to July 2016. Two sampling
Figure 1 also shows the geographical location of the campaigns were carried out in the winter (June–
sampling sites and receiving water bodies. July), three in autumn (March–May), and one in
the summer (February) to assess the seasonal varia-
Materials tion of phthalate removal. One-liter amber glass
bottles fitted with PTFE-lined polypropylene screw
DMP (98.0%), DEP (99.9%), DBP (96.8%), BBP caps, previously cleaned and rinsed, were used to
(99.0%), DEHP (99.6%), and DOP (99.1%) were all collect composite samples of the influent and final
effluent. Each water sample was first dechlorinated
by adding 40–50 mg of sodium thiosulfate followed
Table 1 Brief description of the selected wastewater treatment
plants by acidification to a pH of ≤ 2 with 50% HCl. Some
physicochemical parameters (pH, temperature, total
Plants Alice Bedford Berlin dissolved solids, total suspended solids, turbidity)
were measured on-site in triplicate on a routine basis
Technology Activated Oxidation Biofilters, anaerobic
sludge pond digestion, and using a multiparameter ion-specific meter, (Hanna
sludge drying bed instruments, version HI9828), and turbidity was
Design 0.5–2 0.5–2 1.0–2 measured using a turbidimeter (Hach instrument
capacity model 2100P). Centrifuged sludge was collected in
(ML/d) Berlin WWTP (TF) in a glass jar with a PTFE-lined
Geographical 32° 47.566′ 32° 41.157′ 32° 50.700′ S and 27°
location S and S and 37′ E cap, while exposed sludge samples from the drying
26° 50′ E 26° 05′ E floor were collected in Alice and Bedford WWTPs.
Population 15,143 8770 3048 All samples were stored in an ice chest during trans-
(2011) portation and kept under a temperature of 4 °C in
Receiving Tyume No Tributary of Nahoon
river dis- the Chemistry Department laboratory of the Univer-
charge sity of Fort Hare and analyzed within 3 days of
sample collection.
299 Page 4 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

Fig. 1 Location of sampling sites and receiving watersheds at Amathole and Buffalo District Municipalities

Sample preparation 7-mL mixture of dichloromethane:n-hexane (1:1)

and dichloromethane:acetone (1:1) was used for
Effluent extraction elution of the analytes. The eluents were reduced
to about 2 mL in a rotary evaporator and blown to
The six target phthalates in wastewater were ana- 1 mL under a dry stream of nitrogen at 30 °C.
lyzed in duplicate following a modified method of
(Sánchez-Avila et al. 2009). Prior to extraction,
samples were allowed to settle for 24 h and care- Wastewater treatment plant removal efficiency
fully filtered through a glass wool to remove
suspended particles. The separate filtrates (500 mL The removal efficiency of the WWTPs was calculated in
each) at a pH ≤ 2 were spiked with 25 μL of the percentage as the ratio of the difference between average
surrogate standard (5 μg/L) to measure method influent and final effluent analyte concentrations to the
efficiency and error correction. The C18-U car- average influent concentrations multiplied by 100 for
tridges (strata) 1000 mg/6 mL used for the SPE each of the PAEs compounds.
were conditioned successively with 7 mL each of
n-hexane, dichloromethane, and methanol followed
by 10 mL double-distilled water at a flow rate of 100
fðInf −Ef Þ=Inf g ð1Þ
3 mL min−1. The cartridges were rinsed with 5 mL
of double distilled water after a complete run of the
500 mL sample water at a flow rate of 10 mL min−1 where Inf = average influent concentration and Ef = av-
and left to dry under vacuum for about 1 h. A erage effluent concentration.
Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299 Page 5 of 14 299

Sludge preparation of laboratory fortified blanks (LFBs) spiked differ-

ently at 5- and 10-μgL−1 levels gave a relative
Sludge samples were air dried at room temperature standard deviation of less than 15% indicating
for 7 days and ground into fine powder with a good precision.
mortar and pestle. Two grams of the homogenous Five-point external standard calibration was car-
dried sludge was extracted three times each with ried out for each analyte, and concentration was
10 mL of dichloromethane for 15 min in an ultra- determined within the linear range of the curve.
sonic bath at 60 °C. The combined extracts sepa- Analyses of calibration standards ranging from 0.1
rately collected in 60-mL amber bottles were cen- to15 μgmL−1 for each analyte including surrogate
trifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant standard were performed to generate the calibration
was filtered and reduced to about 5 mL in a rotary curve. The regression coefficient between the peak
evaporator and subjected to a cleanup. area and injected concentration for each of the six
PAEs and surrogate varied from 0.993 (BBP) to
Column chromatographic cleanup 1.000 (DBP). Recoveries for each of the PAEs
spiked in water at 5 and 10 μgL −1 including
A pre-cleaned glass column was filled with 5 g of surrogate standard ranged between 75 and 123%.
silica gel and topped with 2 g anhydrous sodium A midpoint continuous calibration check standard
sulfate which was previously heated in a muffle was injected into the instrument before and after
furnace at 450 °C for 2 h. The respective columns every 10 samples analyzed to verify sensitivity.
were conditioned twice with 10 mL dichloromethane
to remove contaminants and trapped air. The extract
was quantitatively transferred onto to the column Instrumental analysis
and eluted with 10-mL mixture of dichloromethane
and n-hexane (1:1). The eluents were reduced to All extracts were quantified by gas chromatogra-
about 2 mL in a rotary evaporator and finally blown phy coupled with mass spectrometer (Agilent
to 1 mL in a 5-mL amber glass vial under a stream 7890B coupled with 5977A MSD). The carrier
of dry nitrogen at 30 °C (Sablayrolles et al. 2005). gas was helium at 90 kPa pressure and the capil-
lary column was HP-5 MS (30 m long × 250 μm
Quality assurance and quality control internal diameter × 0.25-μm film thickness). The
oven temperature was initially set at 50 °C for
Throughout the sampling procedure and analysis, 1 min, ramped at 10 °C/min to 310 °C, and held
no plastic material was introduced, considering the constant for 5 min. The transfer line and injection
ubiquitous nature of PAEs. All bottles and glass- port were maintained at 280 and 300 °C, respec-
ware were thoroughly washed with detergent, tively. A 2-μL sample was injected in paused
rinsed with tap water, and finally with distilled splitless mode with injection pulse pressure of
water before they were soaked in 10% nitric acid 90 kPa for 1 min and purge flow to split vent of
for 24 h. This was followed with soaking in 50 mL/min at 2 min.
HPLC grade acetone for 2 h before oven drying
at 200 °C for about 4 h. Regular rinse of the
glassware with HPLC acetone or dichloromethane Statistical analysis
before use was carried out.
For each batch of 15–20 samples analyzed, one The mean values of data obtained from the differ-
laboratory reagent blank (LRB) was analyzed to- ent parameters investigated were compared using
gether in order to determine background contami- SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics 20), one-way analysis
nation of phthalate, and subsequent background of variance, and Tukey’s multiple range tests. The
subtraction was performed. All samples were for- coefficient of correlation among PAEs and some
tified with 2-fluorobiphenyl surrogate (2FB) prior physicochemical parameters was calculated by the
analysis to correct for any error that might occur Pearson correlations test. Significance for statistical
due to method performance. Four replicate analysis analysis was set at p values < 0.05).
299 Page 6 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

Table 2 Mean concentration (μgL−1) of PAEs in WWTP at Alice

PAEs Influent Final effluent Sludge (μg/g)

Mean Min Max FD (%) Mean Min Max FD (%) Rem. (%) Mean Min Max FD (%)

DMP 8.40 ± 3.88 0.89 24.51 100 1.73 ± 0.67 0.34 4.87 100 79.38 6.10 ± 0.1 6 6.1 75
DEP 13.42 ± 4.53 2.29 27.19 100 3.08 ± 0.93 0.40 7.32 100 76.99 3.44 ± 0.1 3.4 3.5 100
DBP 1100 ± 429 3.12 2497 100 6.47 ± 3.60 1.23 24.19 100 99.41 1094 ± 89.3 939 1248.6 100
BBP 26.82 ± 10.04 ND 52.25 83 3.00 ± 1.45 0.28 8.95 100 86.54 449.4 ± 99.6 277 621.8 100
DEHP 35.66 ± 14.71 6.16 96.18 100 5.84 ± 2.16 1.84 15.13 100 83.62 311.7 ± 23.7 271 352.7 100
DOP 26.11 ± 11.66 3.08 67.37 100 2.32 ± 1.75 ND 5.78 50 95.55 83.45 ± 6.6 71.9 94.9 100
Total PAEs 1210.83 22.47 1947.9

ND not detected (below limit of detection 0.102–0.586 μg/L); FD frequency of detection; Min minimum; Max maximum; Rm removal;
DMP dimethyl phthalate; DEP diethyl phthalate; DBP di-n-butyl phthalate; BBP benzyl butyl phthalate; DEHP di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate;
DOP di-n-octyl phthalate

Results and discussion 595.0 ± 282.3 μgL−1), and 1.59 to 791.2 μgL−1 (mean
180.69 ± 129 μgL−1), respectively. This was followed
Occurrence and concentration of six PAE compounds by DEHP with a similar average concentration distribu-
in three selected WWTPs tion of 35.6 ± 14.7 μgL−1 in Alice, 46.43 ± 8.6 μgL−1 in
Bedford, and 16.44 ± 2.9 μgL−1 in Berlin. The least
The average concentration of the six target phthalates in concentrated among the six selected phthalates was
the influent, final effluent, and sludge samples from DMP. On the average, the mean concentrations of
each of the selected WWTPs in Alice, Bedford, and DMP for the three WWTPs were lower than 10 μgL−1.
Berlin as well as the detection frequencies are presented From this study, the prevalence of DBP over DEHP in
in Tables 2, 3, and 4. DBP was the most abundant the influent of a WWTP is similar to the findings of
phthalate compound in the influent of all the WWTPs Olujimi et al. (2012). This observation, however, is in
followed by DEHP, BBP, and DOP. The average con- sharp contrast to what is obtained in many other coun-
centration range of DBP in order of abundance in Alice, tries in Europe and in China, where DEHP was more
Bedford, and Berlin WWTP are 3.12 to 2497 μgL−1 prevalent than DBP (Clara et al. 2010; Dargnat et al.
(mean 1100 ± 429 μgL−1), 6.92 to 1494 μgL−1, (mean 2009; Gao et al. 2014). The abundance of DBP and

Table 3 Mean concentration (μgL−1) of PAEs in WWTP at Bedford

PAEs Influent Final effluent Sludge (μg/g)

Mean Min Max FD Mean Min Max FD % Mean Min Max FD

(%) (%) Rem. (%)

DMP 5.96 ± 1.47 2.27 11.74 100 2.31 ± 0.68 0.53 5.15 100 61.24 5.06 ± 1.3 2.1 8.2 100
DEP 16.55 ± 5.05 4.02 35.29 100 2.97 ± 0.80 1.02 6.74 100 82.05 13.16 ± 1.7 8.5 16.5 100
DBP 594.9 ± 282 6.92 1494 100 9.84 ± 2.89 3.36 22.08 100 98.34 592.9 ± 101 436.5 877.2 100
BBP 44.60 ± 10.42 5.09 71.62 100 6.00 ± 2.56 ND 15.84 83 88.79 322.5 ± 32 233.6 386.5 100
DEHP 46.43 ± 8.64 21.36 85.04 100 10.79 ± 4.23 1.47 30.99 100 76.75 288.6 ± 36 217.5 387.4 100
DOP 23.09 ± 6.32 3.11 42.48 100 5.81 ± 2.16 ND 12.88 83 79.02 123.9 ± 27.8 72.9 201.4 100
Total 731.65 35.77 1346.14
PAEs

ND not detected (below limit of detection 0.102–0.586 μg/L); FD frequency of detection; Min minimum; Max maximum; Rm removal;
DMP dimethyl phthalate; DEP diethyl phthalate; DBP di-n-butyl phthalate; BBP benzyl butyl phthalate; DEHP di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate;
DOP di-n-octyl phthalate
Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299 Page 7 of 14 299

Table 4 Mean concentration (μgL−1) of PAEs in WWTP at Berlin

PAEs Influent Final effluent Sludge (μg/g)

Mean Min Max FD (%) Mean Min Max FD (%) % Rem. Mean Min Max FD (%)

DMP 3.20 ± 0.63 1.12 5.52 100 1.12 ± 0.36 0.53 2.02 100 76.59 4.54 ± 0.9 2.5 6.8 100
DEP 6.02 ± 1.93 2.15 15.32 100 2.20 ± 0.61 0.91 3.78 100 75.62 11.67 ± 2.1 6.9 17.3 100
DBP 180.69 ± 129 1.59 791.2 100 4.18 ± 0.85 2.77 6.25 100 98.46 399.45 ± 151.6 64.9 799.2 100
BBP 15.48 ± 4.68 6.32 36.42 100 3.70 ± 0.55 ND 4.39 75 88.02 448.38 ± 87.9 220.9 649.4 100
DEHP 16.44 ± 2.89 8.80 27.89 100 4.40 ± 0.96 1.54 5.64 100 82.13 234.93 ± 12.4 200.3 257.6 100
DOP 9.73 ± 1.51 3.74 11.55 83 2.77 ± 1.92 ND 4.69 50 88.63 129.44 ± 18.8 96.3 181.9 100
Total PAEs 231.59 17.47 1228.41

ND not detected (below limit of detection 0.102–0.586 μg/L); FD frequency of detection; Min minimum; Max maximum; Rm removal;
DMP dimethyl phthalate; DEP diethyl phthalate; DBP di-n-butyl phthalate; BBP benzyl butyl phthalate; DEHP di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate;
DOP di-n-octyl phthalate

DEHP compounds in this work and other similar ones concentrations of 10.79 ± 4.23 μgL−1 and 4.40 ±
explains their importance and popularity as additives in 0.96 μgL−1, respectively. This was closely followed by
many industrial products including flexible PVC mate- DBP with an average concentration of 9.84 ± 2.9 μgL−1
rials and household products suggesting a major phthal- and 4.18 ± 0.85 μgL−1 for Bedford and Berlin, respec-
ate contaminant source in water (Liu et al. 2013). tively. In Alice WWTP, DBP had the highest mean
In the influent and effluent samples of the treatment concentration of 6.47 ± 3.60 μgL−1 in the effluent close-
plants, DMP, DEP, DBP, and DEHP were detected in all ly followed by DEHP 5.84 ± 2.16 μgL−1. In Bedford,
the samples analyzed for all the sampling periods, BBP and DOP were the other compounds with a mean
whereas BBP and DOP varied in detection frequencies concentration above 6.00 μgL−1, whereas other phthal-
both in the treated and untreated wastewater. Except for ate compounds DEP and DMP were the least concen-
Bedford which had all the six compounds detected in the trated compounds in the final effluent, and are of minor
influent samples, detection frequencies for both BBP in significance in terms of concentrations. Comparable
Alice and DOP in Berlin amounted to 83%. This sug- distributions in the effluent samples were reported by
gests that the ubiquitous nature of phthalates is also Clara et al. (2010); Dargnat et al. (2009); and Roslev
predominant in surface runoff and domestic and agri- et al. (2007). Also, Fatoki and Noma (2002) as well as
cultural runoff water just as expected in industrial dis- Fatoki and Olujimi et al. (2012) observed similar distri-
charge. The values obtained in this study were true bution pattern of phthalates in rivers and WWTPs efflu-
representations of PAEs in domestic and agriculture ent, respectively, but with much higher concentrations.
runoffs, because there was no evidence of heavy indus- The average concentrations of the prominent PAEs,
trial effluent discharge in any of the areas which these DEHP, DBP, BBP, and DOP, in the final effluent are
WWTPs served. At the final effluent, detection frequen- relatively higher at Bedford than Alice and Berlin
cies for DOP were 50, 83, and 50% in Alice, Bedford, WWTPs. Likewise, the final average effluent concen-
and Berlin, respectively, whereas only Bedford and trations of these same compounds from all the treatment
Berlin had varying detection frequencies of 83 and processes (except DOP in Alice and Berlin) were above
75% for BBP, respectively. The PAE concentration mea- the 3-μgL−1 criteria standard set by USEPA for the
sured in the influent samples were notably higher than protection of aquatic life.
the concentration at the final effluent signifying good
removal capacity of the municipal WWTPs. Occurrence of phthalates in sludge samples
At the final effluent, DEHP and DBP were also the
most abundant compounds with similar mean concen- All the six phthalate compounds were detected in sludge
trations across the three WWTPs. Apart from Alice samples of all three treatment technologies as shown in
treatment plant, DEHP was the compound with the Tables 2, 3, and 4. The total concentration of all
highest concentration in Bedford and Berlin with mean phthalates in AS (Alice), OP (Bedford), and TF
299 Page 8 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

(Berlin) WWTPs were 1948, 1346, and 1228 μg g−1 dW, agriculture (EU legislation 86/278/EEC) (Inglezakis
respectively. It varies from below the limit of detection et al. 2014). This calls for considerable treatment of this
(LOD) to 1249 μg g−1 dW in AS technology (Alice), 2.1 sludge if it is to be considered for agricultural use
to 877.2 μg g−1 dW in OP (Bedford), and from 2.5 to especially in these areas where livelihood depends large-
799.2 μg g−1 dW in TF (Berlin). All the phthalate ly on agriculture. Contamination of groundwater
compounds were consistently detected throughout the through the soil or surface water by runoffs is a possible
sampling period in all the WWTPs other than DMP in consequence of the use of this untreated sludge for
Alice’s treatment plant. The phthalate profile showed agricultural purposes. This will in turn pose a serious
that DBP, BBP, DEHP, and DOP as the most abundant health challenge to the ecosystem as human and aquatic
compounds, respectively, for Alice and Bedford with an animals are exposed to PAEs. These results are also
average concentration of 1094 ± 89.3, 449.36 ± 99.6, higher in comparison with similar work in Europe and
311.68 ± 23.7, and 83.45 ± 6.6 μg g−1 dW and 592.91 China (Dargnat et al. 2009; Gao et al. 2014) but not as
± 100.7, 322.45 ± 32.4, 288.63 ± 36.0, and 123.93 ± high as what Olujimi et al. (2014) detected in upstream
27.8 μg g−1 dW, respectively. However, BBP was the and downstream sediment of an oxidation pond in Ni-
most abundant in Berlin followed by DBP, DEHP, and geria. To the best of the author’s knowledge, there was
DOP with an average concentration of 448.38 ± 87.9, no other similar work on PAEs in WWTPs sludge for
399.45 ± 151.6, 234.93 ± 12.4, and 129.44 ± comparison in South Africa.
18.8 μg g−1 dW, respectively. The relative contribu-
tions of DMP and DEP are of minor importance to all Comparative removal efficiency of different wastewater
the WWTPs as the average concentration of DMP was treatment technology
lower than 10 μg g−1 dW. This distribution pattern
conforms with the octanol/water partition coefficient The removals of PAEs from three selected wastewater
(logKow) of all the PAEs as observed by Tan et al. treatment plants are illustrated in Fig. 2. On a general
(2007). Byrns (2001) also showed that compounds note, PAEs were significantly removed in all the treat-
that are poorly degraded have logKow ≥ 4. DMP and ment plants. The removal capacity varied between 76.99
DEP are also considered as volatile PAEs that could be and 99.41% in Alice, 61.24 and 98.34% in Bedford, and
lost during treatment or preparation of sludge mate- 75.59 and 98.46% in Berlin. DBP was most efficiently
rials (Berge et al. 2012). Dargnat et al. (2009) and removed in all the WWTPs with a mean removal effi-
Kong et al. (2008) also observed over 50–90% degra- ciency of over 98%, followed by BBP and DOP with
dation of DMP and DEP compound in aerobic removal efficiency of over 80% except in the OP where
treatments. DOP was 79.02%. However, there was no notable dif-
Generally, the average concentrations of DBP, BBP, ference in the removal capacity for DBP and BBP in any
DEHP, and DOP in these studies were above the max- of the treatment plants (Fig. 2). A distinct difference in
imum allowable concentration of the European Union removal capacity for any of the WWTPs was only
legislation of 100 μg/g dW on the use of sludge for observed with respect to DMP, DEP, DEHP, and DOP.

Fig. 2 Removal efficiency of

different wastewater treatment
processes
Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299 Page 9 of 14 299

Table 5 Physicochemical properties of wastewater samples in the selected WWTPs

Plants Alice Bedford Berlin

Influent Effluent Red. (%) Influent Effluent % Red. Influent Effluent Red (%)

TDS (mg/L) 196.64 ± 12.3 147.19 ± 5.1 25.15 342.67 ± 70.2 188.59 ± 4.1 44.96 380.61 ± 42.5 389.83 ± 30.8 − 2.42
Turb. NTU 547.67 ± 136.2 17.82 ± 6.9 96.75 637.67 ± 133.9 119.12 ± 18.9 81.32 129.43 ± 36.2 6.49 ± 4.6 94.99
TSS (mg/L) 179.87 ± 36.5 6.73 ± 2.6 96.26 184.87 ± 18.8 57.4 ± 10.8 68.95 49.07 ± 17.5 1.53 ± 0.6 96.88

TDS total dissolved solids; Turb turbidity; TSS total suspended solids; Red reduction (below limit of detection LOD); FD frequency of
detection; Min minimum; Max maximum; DMP dimethyl phthalate; DEP diethyl phthalate; DBP di-n-butyl phthalate; BBP benzyl butyl
phthalate; DEHP di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; DOP di-n-octyl phthalate

Activated sludge (AS) treatment performed better than directly proportional to phthalate removal as shown in
trickling filter (TF) and the oxidation pond (OP) in that Tables 5 and 6. There was a high significant correlation
order for the removal of DMP, DEHP, and DOP. The between TSS, turbidity, and all the phthalates
only difference in this trend was observed for the re- (p < 0.001) except DBP that was significant at
moval of DEP where OP outperformed AS and TF, with p < 0.05. This shows a direct proportionality between
removal efficiencies of 82.05, 76.99, and 75.62%, re- phthalate compounds and both the TSS and turbidity
spectively. This may not be unconnected to the level of (Clara et al. 2010). This also suggests the possible
exposure of wastewater to sunlight in OP as DEP is adsorption of the compounds on settling particles and
volatile. DMP, DEP, and DEHP were the phthalate centrifuged sludge. However, this may not rule out other
compounds that were least removed among the different possibilities as elimination of particulate matters could
treatment technologies, although the removal capacity either be explained by the TSS retention in biofilter, or
for these compounds were above 70% except in OP biodegradation of the compounds, or adsorption on the
where DMP was removed at a lower efficiency of biomass or volatilization of the compounds. Berge et al.
61.24%. (2012) concluded that removal of particulate matter is
The efficient performance of these treatment plants certainly linked to removal of TSS.
was attributed to their strong ability to remove The duration of settling at both the primary and
suspended solids since it was not designed to remove secondary clarifiers will no doubt have a strong influ-
micropollutants like PAEs. The high percentage reduc- ence on the removal capacity of phthalates and other
tion in turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) was related micropollutants. However, the average level of

Table 6 Pearson correlation of the six phthalates with some physicochemical properties

Correlations

DMP DEP DBP BBP DEHP DOP TDS TUR TSS

DMP 1
DEP 0.900* 1
DBP 0.987** 0.861* 1
BBP 0.804 0.978** 0.747 1
DEHP 0.888* 0.994** 0.837* 0.984** 1
DOP 0.979** 0.961** 0.955** 0.902* 0.957** 1
TDS 0.125 0.102 0.110 0.241 0.107 0.020 1
TUR 0.923** 0.986** 0.882* 0.953** 0.990** 0.974** 0.021 1
TSS 0.945** 0.963** 0.901* 0.920** 0.974** 0.981** 0.038 0.992** 1

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
299 Page 10 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

Fig. 3 Seasonal variation in PAE

removal in AS WWTP at Alice

reduction recorded for TSS and turbidity in the OP ions in the treated effluent. The average percentage
(81.32 and 68.95%) was slightly lower than respective reduction of TDS recorded for TF in Berlin was −
average reduction observed in AS (96.75 and 96.26%) 2.42%, while AS in Alice and OP in Bedford were
and TF (94.99 and 96.88%). The removal efficiency of 25.15 and 44.96%, respectively. Minor elimination of
WWTPs from a global point of view is largely linked to dissolved compounds as compared with major elimina-
the different treatment process characteristics. However, tion of particulate matter was also observed by Berge
volatilization losses mostly considered for lighter com- et al. (2012) in his work on physicochemical lamellar
pounds occur in the aeration basin and during sludge clarification and biofiltration.
dehydration (Byrns 2001; Dargnat et al. 2009).
There was a relatively low percentage reduction of Seasonal variations of phthalate removal in different
total dissolved solids (TDS) in all the treatment plants of wastewater treatment technology
which TF was significant (Table 5). The average TDS at
the final effluent of TF in Berlin was 2.42% higher than The removal efficiency of the different treatment tech-
what was recorded in the influent. This may suggest nologies AS, OP, and TF for the six target phthalates
variation in influent constituent (probably due to indus- across three seasons summer (Feb), autumn (Mar–May),
trial waste) geological difference and possible dissolu- and winter (Jun–Jul) are presented in Figs. 3, 4, and 5.
tion of soluble matter along the treatment pathway. In The average temperatures of sample water on-site for the
addition, a different dose of chlorine disinfectant is three treatment plants AS, OP, and TF are 30.67, 35.72,
another factor that may increase the amount of dissolved and 26.10 °C in summer; 24.07, 24.63, and 25.29 °C in

Fig 4 Seasonal variation in PAE

removal in OP WWTP at Bedford
Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299 Page 11 of 14 299

Fig. 5 Seasonal variation in PAE

removal in TF WWTP at Berlin

autumn; and 14.65, 14.41, and 16.32 °C in winter, phthalates across the different weather conditions. The
respectively. The results indicated a notable difference percentage removal efficiency for most of the phthalates
in removal efficiency for most PAEs across the seasons ranged between over 60 and 100% across the different
in OP processes. Figure 4 shows lower removal effi- seasons. This suggests that the performance of the AS
ciency for all the phthalates in summer in OP except for treatment plant is probably independent of temperature.
DEP and DEHP which shows no significant influence of These results were also similar to the high removal
temperature change. There was a gradual increase in the performance reported by Qiang et al. (2013) on the
removal efficiency as the temperature dropped. The OP removal of some EDCs in AS technology. It is to be
process was the least effective in the removal of PAEs in expected that microbial activity will decrease in summer
the summer. This may have been influenced by the because of the increase in temperature, but the fact that
limited aeration and poor biomass in the system the removal of the bulk of phthalates and other EDCs is
(Camacho-Munoz et al. 2012). Although only one sam- largely attributed to adsorption on particulate matter in
pling campaign was carried out in summer, the negative the primary clarifier cannot be ignored either.
percentage removal observed with DEP and DOP in OP Hashimoto and Murakami (2009) also argued that the
is probably an indication that these compounds were degradation of EDCs is more favored in AS process than
absent in the influent sample but found in the effluent. A other treatment processes by the diverse microbial col-
longer hydraulic retention time (HRT) could be an ad- onies. In addition, the increase in the bioavailability of
vantage for an improved removal of EDCs in EDCs or other micropollutants as a result of their ad-
decentralized treatment processes, although the high sorption onto activated sludge which is less important in
microbial activity, thorough mixing of microbial diver- other treatment technologies could probably give AS an
sity, and artificial aeration that increased EDCs bioavail- advantage over others.
ability compensated for short HRT in AS processes It was presumed that seasonal temperature would
(Koh et al. 2008). influence the removal capacity of the AS treatment
In a similar order but at a lower magnitude, TF also processes for EDCs since their operation was largely
shows a gradual improvement in percentage removal as dependent on microbial activities and growth rate.
temperature decreases for some PAEs (Fig. 5). The However, previous studies have shown inconsistency
removal efficiency for most of the PAEs in TF is in the in results with respect to this assumption. For example,
order summer < autumn < winter. DEP was the only Koh et al. (2009) could not detect any notable effect in
compound that showed a sharp contrast with this trend. the removal capacity of AS for EDCs at a 6 °C decrease
The order of removal efficiency for DEP was the reverse in temperature. On the contrary, Nie et al. (2012) ob-
of the others. served an enhanced removal of micropollutants (phar-
However, in the AS plant treatment technology, there maceuticals and EDCs) with an increase in temperature.
was no sharp distinction in percentage removal for most It would be wise to go by the general statement that
299 Page 12 of 14 Environ Monit Assess (2018) 190:299

suggests that EDC removal in WWTPs technology is a holistic remedial approach especially in the regulation
generally influenced by the combined performance of of the use of the prominent compounds DBP and DEHP
adsorption and biodegradation (Qiang et al. 2013). in industries. In addition to regulation, it is recommend-
AS exhibited a more stable and better performance ed that degradation processes like advanced oxidation
for PAE removal across the different weather conditions processes and bioremediation among others may be
than OP and TF. However, the only compound that studied, and WWTPs redesigned for removal by degra-
showed exclusion to this performance trend was DEP. dation of the compounds to non-toxic compounds.
It seems to be the only compound that was greatly
impacted by increases in temperature. In all the three Acknowledgments The South Africa Medical Research Coun-
treatment technologies, the removal efficiency for DEP cil (SAMRC) is gratefully acknowledged for providing the funds
increased with increased temperature. This probably to conduct this research.
supports the earlier conclusions that the compound is
volatile compared with others and has the tendency to be
lost during treatment technology (Berge et al. 2012).
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