They are all coffee, but what are the differences?

Coffee machine
Canned coffee Instant coffee (with coffee capsule)

Automatic coffee machine

(with bean grinder) Barista (with commercial coffee machine)
Where does Coffee come from? (Not Starbucks!)

South America (e.g. Brazil, Columbia)

Southeast Asia (e.g. Vietnam, Indonesia)

Africa (e.g. Ethiopia, Kenya)

 Where does Coffee come from?

Production by Continent

Vietnam
Columbia Ethiopia
Indonesia Production by Country
Brazil
(South America)
(Asia)
(South America)
(Asia)
(Central America)
(Africa)
https://nationalcoffeeblog.org/
Coffee Plant
 Coffee is native to Africa
 The genus “Coffea” covers ~ 70 species
 Plant characteristics
 the plant can grow from 3 – 12 m depending on
species
 but usually kept at 2 – 2.5 m to facilitate
harvesting
 it is evergreen, with short-stemmed leaves, and
white flowers
 starts to bloom 3 – 4 years after planting
 fruit (containing the coffee bean) ripening occurs
after 8 – 12 months after flowering
 most productive between the ages of 7 and 20
Coffea arabica
 There are two main species cultivated today
 Coffea Arabica
 accounts for ~ 70% of the world’s production
 Coffea canephora (known as Robusta)
 accounts for ~ 30% of the world’s production

http://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/What-is-Coffee Coffee tree farm

 Coffee Plant
 There are two main species cultivated today
 Coffea Arabica (considered better than robusta)
 from the original coffee trees discovered in Ethiopia (roasted)
 beans are flatter and more elongated than Robusta and lower in caffeine
 generally grown between 2,000 to 6,000 feet (610 to 1830 meters) above sea
level
 most important factor is that temperatures must remain mild
 ideally between 15 - 24 oC,

 with about 1524 mm of rainfall a year (c.f. 2017 Hong Kong total rainfall: 2572 mm)

 the trees are more disease-prone than Robusta, they require additional care and attention

 Coffea Robusta
 grown in Central and Western Africa, parts of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia and
Vietnam, and in Brazil
 Robusta bean itself tends to be slightly rounder and smaller than an Arabica bean.
 does not produce the same taste (stronger and a bit bitter taste than arabica)
 is considered inferior to that of Arabica
 primarily usually used as fillers of low-grade coffee blends and for instant coffees
 able to withstand warmer climates, which enables it to grow at far lower altitudes than
Arabica
 preferring constant temperatures between ideally between 24 - 29 oC

 more resistant to disease and parasites, which makes it easier and cheaper to cultivate
http://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/What-is-Coffee
Overall Coffee Making Process
From Seed to Cup

/mixing

Instant coffee

Health benefits and

risks of drinking coffee

Picture from National Coffee Association USA

10 Steps from Seed to Cup: http://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/10-Steps-from-Seed-to-Cup
Producing coffee
 When the fruit is ripe, it is
handpicked and collected Harvesting
 selective picking, where
only the ripe fruit is removed
 strip-picking, where all of
the fruit is removed from a
branch all at once
 Because a tree can have both
ripe and unripe berries at the
same time, one area of crop
has to be picked several times
 Harvesting is the most
labor intensive process of
coffee bean production
Structure of Coffee Cherry and Beans:
 The bright red cherries is the fruit
of the coffee tree

 The coffee bean is the seed of

coffee plant. Parts other than the
seed have to be removed before
further processing.

http://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/What-is-Coffee
Producing coffee
 To prepare the pebble-like green coffee beans for roasting,
growers process them using either the dry method or the
wet method
 Making Green Coffee from Coffee Cherries
 Once the coffee has been picked, processing must begin as quickly as possible to
prevent coffee undergo changes/deterioration, e.g.
 Fungus, mould
 Enzymatic reactions

 Depending on location and local resources, coffee cherries could be processed by

one of two methods to remove the external materials adhering to the seed (e.g.
pulp, silver skin, etc), then undergo drying for storage/transport

The Dry Method The Wet Method

Requirements This method is commonly More sophisticated and
/ Limitations used in Brazil and generally produces a higher
Africa, where sun and quality brew.
space are abundant.
Require lots of water:
80,000L for 1 ton of Arabica
Producing Green Coffee Bean
 Dry method
 Ripe coffee berries are
allowed to dry on the
ground (with strong Sun
light) before the beans are
removed by hulling
 The process takes 2-3
weeks.
Producing Green Coffee Bean
 The drying affects the final
quality of the green coffee
 A coffee that has been over-
dried will become brittle
and produce too many
broken beans during hulling
(broken beans are considered
defective beans).
 Coffee that has not been
dried sufficiently will be too
moist and prone to rapid
deterioration caused by the
attack of fungi and bacteria
 The method is cheaper and
simpler, and are used for
lower quality baths in Africa
and Brazil
 Producing Green Coffee Bean
 Wet method
 The beans are submerged
in a vat of water, soften,
external parts are
removed, and then dried
on large patios or with
modern equipment.

Wet Process: Coffee

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BUwyk7lwq8
Chemical Compositions of Green Beans

(C. robusta)

Higher caffeine content

Less coffee oil

(less flavor)

Form more bitter

products upon roasting
 Bean Processing: Roasting

https://www.rebootroasting.com

 Coffee cherry
 Fresh, complete fruit of the coffee tree
 Green bean
 Seed of the coffee cherry (not necessarily green in color)
 Roasted coffee bean
 Product obtained by roasting green coffee

ISO 3509 Coffee and coffee products — Vocabulary

 Roasting
 The aroma of green coffee is weak, roasting is
required to obtain the desirable coffee aroma
 Coffee beans are put in contact with hot surfaces/ gases to
raise their temperature to start complex physical and
chemical changes

Coffee: Recent Developments. Eds by RJ Clarke & OG Vitzhum

Blackwell Science Ltd 2001
 Roasting – Chemical reactions
Pyrolysis
Maillard reaction (~ 230oC):
(150 – 200oC): Decomposition of
Formation of coffee heat-sensitive
taste and aroma compounds, results
compounds between in formation of
sugars and amino aromatic products
acids with different
aromas

Pyrolysis
(~ 220oC):
Decomposition of
Caramelization heat-sensitive
(170 – 200oC): compounds, results
Browning of sugars, in formation of
results in darkening simple
of beans and burnt decomposition
aromas products with
different aromas
Roasting

What are the differences between

different extent of roasting?
 Roasting Process
 Two major parameters to be controlled during
roasting
 Temperature (energy for reactions)
 Time
 Roasting time (duration of reactions)
 Cooling time (quenching of reactions)

 General effects of roasting (to the coffee bean)

 Darkening of beans
 Decrease in moisture
 Formation of new taste and aroma compounds
(“bring out the flavor of the beans”)
 Loss of volatiles/ heat-sensitive compounds
 Change of overall taste from acidic/ fruity to
bitter
Operation of a coffee roaster
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ka6_1sI5hQU

Coffee: Recent Developments. Eds by RJ Clarke & OG Vitzhum

Blackwell Science Ltd 2001
Taste & Aroma Components
 Basic coffee taste
 Acidity
 Typically a highly valued quality over bitterness

 Typical acid content by weight

 11% in green beans, 6% in roasted beans (loss of overall acid content
after roasting)

 While some acid would be vaporized/decomposed during roasting,

some new acid would be formed as a result of decomposition of other
components during roasting

 Acids present in green coffee before roasting

 Tartaric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, chlorogenic acid

 Acids formed as a result of roasting

 Acetic acid, formic acid

http://www.coffeeresearch.org/science/sourmain.htm
Taste & Aroma Components
 Properties of selected acid components in coffee
 Tartaric acid
 Usually present in grapes, has an astringent aftertaste (main ingredient in super-sour
candy)
 Malic acid These acids may partly
 Present in apple and lime contribute to certain fruity
 Associate with taste of “unripe fruit” taste & aroma in coffee
 Citric acid
 Present in citrus fruits, e.g. orange, lemon

 Chlorogenic acid
 A group of similar compounds formed between quinic acid and several specific acids
 Quinic acid is a major contributor to coffee bitterness (discuss later)
 Robusta bean has a higher chlorogenic acid content than Arabica in general, i.e. will have
stronger bitter taste upon roasting Examples of Chlorogenic acid
Chemical Compositions of Green Beans

(C. robusta)

Higher caffeine content

Less coffee oil

(less flavor)

Form more bitter

products upon roasting
Relationship between Chemical Components and Taste &
Aroma of Coffee
 Basic coffee taste
 Bitter
 The constituent chemicals in coffee bean may not be the
only contributors to the bitterness (especially upon dark
roast)
 Quinic acid (one of the key bitter compounds)

 Trigonelline (maybe more relevant to lightly roasted

coffee, as it would be significantly decomposed upon
roasting)
 Caffeine (abundance too low to have significant taste)
Bitter lactones

 Hence, it is believed that some roasting products would

also contribute to the bitterness of roasted coffee
 Bitter lactones

 Decomposition of chlorogenic acids-like

compounds
Taste & Aroma Components
 Basic coffee taste
 Bitter
 Quinic acid
 has an aspirin-like bitter taste with a threshold level of
10 parts-per-million (i.e. 10 mg/L, 0.001 %),
i.e. we are sensitive to its bitter taste

 presents naturally in green coffee (0.4% w/w, 4000 ppm) , and

would also be produced by the thermal degradation of chlorogenic
acids which is the most abundant acid in coffee bean
Taste & Aroma Components
Trigonelline Nicotinic acid (a type of vitamin B)

 Basic coffee taste Roasting

 Bitter
Other decomposition products
 Trigonelline (contribute to taste & aroma)
 One of the contributors to coffee bitterness
 Decompose upon heating, is a precursor of various volatile compounds
(decomposed during roasting)

 Caffeine
 Bitter in taste, but not a major contributor to the bitterness due to the
relatively low abundance
 Heat stable and therefore does not have significant change in content after
roasting
 Taste & Aroma Components
 Making coffee less bitter
 Medium roasted coffee has a higher acid content, and a potent aroma
when compared to darkly roasted coffee. (Result in less formation of
bitter roasting products)

 The perceived bitter taste in the mouth from coffee is correlated to the
extent of extraction, i.e. the brewing process could be controlled to
extract less bitter compounds into the coffee beverage
 The extent of extraction is dependent upon the roast, the mineral content of the water,
water temperature, time, grind size, and brewing procedure [the brewing skill may save
you even you have over-roasted beans !!!]

 Or simply choose dark roasted coffee beans if you enjoy the

bitterness

Coffee Chemistry: Cause of Bitter Coffee

http://www.coffeeresearch.org/science/bittermain.htm
 Taste & Aroma Components
 Coffee Aroma (smell): Mixture of aromas of hundreds of volatile compounds
 Taste & Aroma Components

 While the combination of the aroma compounds would be mainly

attributed to
 Natural chemical composition of the green bean (species, climate dependent)
 Roasting producing chemicals (roasting conditions dependent)

 Preservation of the aroma is also equally important, since the aroma

are originated from volatile compounds. These compounds would easily
vaporize and leave the roasted bean gradually

 In addition, the roasted beans are also susceptible to absorption of

unfavorable aroma due to their low moisture and high porosity
 Taste & Aroma Components
Home coffee roaster
 Preservation of the aroma
 Roast your own coffee beans
 Coffee beans start losing the aroma as soon as they are roasted

 Consume roasted beans as soon as possible

 Optimal shelf life: 2 – 4 weeks

 Store roasted bean in sealed container and cool/dark

environment
 Prevent escape of aroma compounds
 Slow down vaporization
 Prevent entry of other compounds
 Moisture: accelerate deterioration of beans

 Air/oxygen: may oxidize the taste and aroma

compounds
 Other volatile compounds: may become undesirable
flavor
Sealed container Sealed bag
 Grind the roasted coffee JUST before use
 Grounded coffee has significantly increased surface area, which
will further enhance the vaporization of volatile compounds
 Optimal shelf life : 1 – 2 weeks Aluminum capsules
Selected types of coffee beverages

 Instant coffee

 Decaffeinated coffee
Instant coffee extract

 They are sold to consumers who do not

want to prepare their own coffee

 It is produced by drying coffee

beverage into soluble powder or freeze-
drying them into granules that can be
quickly re-dissolved in hot water.

 Many consumers determined that the

convenience in preparing a cup of
instant coffee more than made up for a
perceived inferior taste.

Why instant coffee usually has inferior

taste/aroma than freshly brew coffee?
Freeze drier used in production
 Freeze drying
 Freeze drying is a process in which the
water is first frozen, and then removed
by sublimation under a reduced
pressure condition.

 Sublimation: A substance changes from

solid to gas phase without passing
through liquid phase. https://www.spscientific.com/freeze-drying-lyophilization-basics/

Sublimation of iodine
 Sublimation of water occurs when
 Pressure < 4.58 torr or 0.006 atm
 Temp < 0.01 oC
Decaffeinated coffee
 Coffee from which caffeine has been removed by
extraction
 Reduce undesirable health effects of caffeine (detail to be
explained later)

 The process is usually performed on unroasted (green)

beans
 European standard: Caffeine content < 0.1% w/w dried coffee
matter
 Green coffee caffeine content: 1 – 2 % w/w, i.e. ~ 99% caffeine
removal

 Coffee contains over 400 chemicals that are important to the

taste and aroma of the final drink

 It is challenging to remove only caffeine while leaving the

other chemicals at their original concentrations
 taste and aroma might be weakened in decaf coffee
Decaffeination
 In principle, all decaffeination
processes consist of the several key 1
steps: 3
1. Swelling the raw beans with water in
order to solubilize the caffeine and
make them available for extraction.
2. Extracting the caffeine from the
beans with a solvent
• Supercritical carbon dioxide
2
3. Steam stripping to remove all solvent
residues
4
4. Recovering the extracted caffeine
5. Drying the decaffeinated coffee beans
to their initial moisture content 5
The Carbon Dioxide Method, the most widely
used method for commercial-grade coffee
Decaffeination
 Economical value of the extracted caffeine
Soft drinks Energy drinks

Pharmaceuticals
The Health Benefits and Risks of Drinking Coffee

 Effects of Caffeine
Effects of coffee
Active ingredient: Caffeine
 Can be used as a
stimulant drug
 unlike many other
psychoactive substances,
it is both legal and
unregulated in nearly all
parts of the world
 in North America, 90% of
adults consume caffeine Caffeine in anhydrous solid form

daily
Effects of caffeine
 Distributes into all body
compartments through blood
 Pass easily into brain
 Get into breast milk
 Crosses placenta
 Metabolized in the liver and
changed to di- and mono-
methylxanthines
 Excreted in the urine and does
not accumulate in the body
 half-life of caffeine has been
found to be around 5.2-6.8
hours for adults
Effects of caffeine
 Acts as a central nervous
system and metabolic
stimulant, temporarily
warding off drowsiness and
restoring alertness
 Mechanism: The molecule
blocks Adenosine receptor
 Adenosine is a calming
neurotransmitter. Blocking
the receptors prevents such
effects and keep the user
stimulated
 Normal Action of Adenosine

Adenosine Adenosine
Adenosine
1 Receptor

Outside Cell
Cell
Membrane Inside Cell

2 3 Signal Protein
Is Released

Adenosine Binds to Receptor

Positive Response
Signal Protein Calming effect
 Action of Caffeine
Caffeine Adenosine
1 Caffeine
Adenosine
Receptor

Adenosine
2 Caffeine 3 Cannot Bind
Binds and Receptor
Inactivates
Receptor

Signal Protein No Calming Effect

Is Not Released (Keep Simulated)
Effects of caffeine
 Caffeine is toxic at sufficiently high doses, but
ordinary consumption poses few known health risks,
even when carried on for years

 However, with heavy use, strong tolerance develops

rapidly and caffeine can produce clinically significant
physical and mental dependence (i.e. addiction)
Caffeine Intolerance Caffeine Tolerance

more
Adenosine
Receptor

Signal Proteins
Are Not Released Signal Protein Are Released
No Calming Effect Calming effect
 Effects of caffeine
 Suggested Safety Limit of daily intake
(by European Food Safety Authority, European Union)
 Adults: 400 mg per day, 200 mg per dose
 Lactating women: 200 mg per day, 200 mg per dose
 Pregnant women: 200 mg per day
 Children and Adolescents (3 – 16 years old): 3 mg/kg body weight
per day

With reference to the safety limit of daily intake for caffeine

How many cups of coffee are safe
to drink per day for you?
How many bars of chocolate are
safe to eat per day for children?

Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine EFSA Journal 2015;13(5):4102

Some key rules for perfect cup of coffee
1. Freshly roasted coffee
2. Right size of ground beans
3. Clean and dry equipment
4. Correct amount of coffee

5. Not boiling water

6. Use warm cups or mugs
7. Don’t reuse grounds.
8. Don’t reheat left-over coffee
Fair Trade

Fair Trade
Label
Big Consumption of Coffee
- Key coffee importers

World production of coffee

 Brazil makes up a third of this production and is by far the
largest producer in the coffee producing market
 The Bean Belt- bounded by the Tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn, coffee is grown within the Tropics
Conventional coffee trade
 Coffee has become a vital cash
crop for many Third World
countries
 Over one hundred million
people in developing
countries have become
dependent on coffee as their
primary source of income
 It has become the primary
export and backbone for
African countries like
Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda,
and Ethiopia, as well as
many Central American
countries
Conventional coffee trade

 To meet such a high demand and

increase profit, farmers with
large farms had to abandon
their traditional cultivation
methods

 They use new technologies to

increase yields and collection
efficiency, which allows higher
profit through volume

Many of the countries are

facing severe development
challenges
The effect of large coffee plantations

 Originally, coffee farming

was done in the shade of
trees that provided a
habitat for many animals
and insects.
 This method is commonly
referred to as the
traditional shaded
method, or "shade-grown“
The effect of large coffee plantations
 Starting in the 1970s, many
farmers switched their
production method to sun
cultivation, in which coffee is
grown in rows under full sun
with little or no forest canopy
 This causes berries to ripen more
rapidly and produce higher
yields, but requires the clearing
of trees and increase uses of
fertilizers and pesticides
 Mechanization is used during
the picking stage. Most picking
is accomplished with the help of
mechanical harvesters, collecting
the loose fruits while leaving the
plants otherwise intact.
The effect of large coffee plantations
 The heave use of
fertilizers and pesticides
damages the
environment and cause
health problems of
farmers
 Also, the method are more
prone to water and soil
runoff and damage the
soil in the long run
 Deforestation is
destroying the habitat of
many species and much
biodiversity
Middleman
Conventional Trade
 Small landholders and farmers struggle to feed their
families from the income they make from coffee alone
 They are dependant on middleman
 Transporting their harvest for trade or further processing
 Because small farmers do not get enough money to meet
their financial needs from harvest to harvest, they also
have to borrow money from the “coyote”, who may
charge high interest rate(200% p.a.) on the farmers
 The farmers don’t have up-to-date information for
correct pricing. So they may receive much lower prices.
Also, they may make wrong decisions on buying materials
and selling their harvest
Conventional coffee trade
 The international coffee market is controlled by 4
coffee companies
 Kraft foods
 Nestle
 Proctor and Gamble
 Sara lee
 These companies produce the major coffee brands:
Maxwell House, Nescafe, Folgers, and Douwe Egberts
 Nestlé's instant coffee alone is consumed at a rate of
3,900 cups of coffee every second
Principles of Fair Trade
 Better relationship between
producer, consumer and farmer
 Commercial businesses develop
better relationships with
farmers and are interested in
improving the lives of those
farmers from which they buy
from, not exploiting them
 Workers in developing countries
could get a fair wage on which
they can feed, educate and
medically provide for themselves
and their children.
 A closer link between shoppers
and producers by removing
unnecessary middleman
Principles of Fair Trade

 A trading partnership
based on dialogue,
transparency and respect
 Seeking greater equality in
international trade
 Contribute to sustainable
development by offering
better trading conditions
to marginalized producers
and workers in poor countries
Fair trade products
 Products either
 Imported and distributed
by fair trade
organizations (FTOs)
 Certified by FTOs as the
products are produced,
traded, processed and
packaged in accordance
with the standards
 Fair price
 The price must cover the costs
of production and must also
be stable
 No middleman is involved,
farmer sells directly to fair
trade importer
 The beans were bought
US$0.05 to 0.07 above
market price.
 A set minimum price is used
if the market price is too low
 Offer line of credit to farmers
by long-term contracts and
crop pre-financing
Example of fair price
Breakdown of profits
 Fair Trade
 Originally seen as charity rather than justice
 1960 – Oxfam (樂施會) shops, charitable
organization, in Europe
 1980’s – Over one thousand “third world” shops
were operating
 At first, the products were limited to handcrafts
made by third-world countries

 During 1970’s and 1980’s, small groups in Canada

pooled resources to buy green coffee beans
from Nicaragua at fair prices
 The movement then gradually shifts to trades of
agricultural products
 The sales of Fair trade products grow close to 30%
every year and worth 500 million US in 2004
 In 1992, the sales value ratio of handcraft to
agricultural goods was around 80%:20%
 In 2002, the ratio changes to 25.4%:69.4%
Fair Trade - Ethical purchasing
 If a product is certified for Other fair trade products
fair trade label, it would also
mean:
 No violating human
rights during the
production process
 The environment is
protected and conserved
 Child and slave labor are
excluded
 A safe workplace for
workers is guaranteed