Hydraulic Model Analysis

Dr. Nilupul Gunasekara

 Objectves
 Develop a beter understanding of dimensions, units,
and dimensional homogeneity of equatons
 Understand the numerous benefts of dimensional
analysis
 Know how to use the method of repeatng variables to
identfy nondimensional parameters
 Understand the concept of dynamic similarity and how
to apply it to experimental modeling

2
 Introducton

• Fluid Mechanics is the subject dealing with the

investgaton of the moton and equilibrium of fuid.
• It is a subject of enormous interest in numerous
felds in all branches of nngineering.
• In general, Liquids and Gases are termed as fuids.
 (1) Units and Dimensions

• In Fluid Mechanics, four fundamental

dimensions, namely mass, length, time and
temperature are involved.
• The absolute system of units are more commonly
known as the Internatiinal System of units or
simply the SI units.
 Units and Dimensions

• In SI system, the fundamental units are,

Term Dimensiin SI Unit
Mass [M] kg
Length [L] m
Time [T] s
Temperature [θ] K or °C
 Units and Dimensions
• Based upon fundamental units, a number of
derived units are used.
• Commonly used derived terms in Fluid
Mechanics are listed in below table.
Derived Term Dimensiins SI Units
Area [L2] m2
Volume [L3] m3
Velocity [LT-1] m/s
Acceleraton [LT-2] m/s2
Force [MLT-2] N
 Units and Dimensions
Derived Term Dimensiins SI Units
Pressure [ML-1T-2] N/m2
nnergy [ML2T-2] Nm
Power [ML2T-3] J/s
Density [ML-3] kg/m3
Coef. of Viscosity [ML-1T-1] kg/m.s
Surface Tension [MT-2] N/m
nx.1

The water strider is

an insect that can
walk on water due
to surface tension.
8
 Dimensional nquatons

• All equatons in nngineering must be

dimensionally homogeneous.
• That is, every term in an equaton must have
the same units.
 Dimensional Homogeneity
Principle
• Analytcally derived equatons are valid for any
system of units.
• Therefore, each group of terms in the
equaton must have the same dimensions.
• This rule is called the Principle of Dimensional
Homogeneity.
 Dimensional Homogeneity

• A formula which is not dimensionally homogeneous is

defnitely wrong, but a dimensionally homogeneous
formula is not necessarily correct.
• This principle is useful in checking the proper form of
the equaton.

• nx. – Dimensional Homogeneity

 (3) Dimensional Analysis
• In the dimensional analysis of a physical
phenomenon the relatonship between the
dependent and independent variables is studied
in terms of their basic dimensions to obtain the
informaton about the functonal relatonship
between the dimensionless parameters that
control the phenomenon.
• There are two commonly used methods for
dimensional analysis.
(1) Raleigh’s method
(2) Buckingham π theorem method
 Dimensional Analysis
Raleigh’s Method
• If A1 is a dependent variable and A2, A3, A4,……… An are
independent variables in a phenomenon, A1 is
expressed as,
A1 =f( A2 A3 A4……. An)
A1 = k A2a A3b A4c………
Where k is a dimensionless constant.
• The dimensions of each of the quanttes A1 A2 A3
A4……. An are writen and the sum of exponents of
each of M, L, and T on both sides are equated.
• This method is simple for a small number of
parameters.
 Dimensional Analysis

• nx. 2:- Obtain expression for F, using m,a.

• nx. 3:- The drag force FD on a sphere in laminar
fow is known to depend on its diameter (D),
velocity (V), density of fuid (ρ), and coefcient
of viscosity (μ). Obtain an expression for FD
using Raleigh’s method.
 Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham π theorem method
• The Buckingham π theorem states that if there are “m”
primary dimensions involved in the “n” variables
controlling a physical phenomenon, then the
phenomenon can be described by (n-m) independent
dimensionless groups (π1, π2, π3,….).

• In the applicaton of this method, “m” number of

repeatng variables are selected and dimensionless
groups obtained by each one of the remaining variables
one at a tme.
• Releigh’s method is used in this part of the operaton.
• This method is also known as the method of repeatng
variables.
 Dimensional Analysis
Important points to be considered in selectng the repeatng
variables.
1) They must have among themselves all the basic
dimensions involved in the problem
2) The dependent variables must not be chosen as a
repeatng variable
3) Usually, a length parameter (such as diameter or height),
a typical velocity “V” and the fuid density “ρ” are
convenient set of repeatng variables.

nx. 2:- The resistance force “F” of a ship is a functon of its

length “L”, velocity “V”, acceleraton due to gravity “g”,
and fuid propertes like density “ρ” and viscosity “μ”.
Write this relatonship in a dimensionless form.
 Dimensional Analysis
• nx. 3:- The efciency “ɳ” of a fan depends
upon the Kinematc Viscosity “ʋ” of the fuid,
the angular velocity “ω”, diameter “D” of the
rotor, and the discharge “Q”. nxpress “ɳ” in
terms of dimensionless parameters using
Buckingham π theorem.
In a general unsteady fuid fow problem with a free surface, the scaling parameters
include a characteristc length L, a characteristc velocity V, a characteristc
frequency f, and a reference pressure diference P0  P. Non dimensionalizaton of
the diferental equatons of fuid fow produces four dimensionless parameters: the
Reynolds number, Froude number, Strouhal number, and nuler number (see Chap.
10). 18
THn MnTHOD OF RnPnATING VARIABLnS
AND THn BUCKINGHAM PI THnORnM – read it yourself
How to generate the
nondimensional parameters, i.e.,
the ’s?
There are several methods that have
been developed for this purpose,
but the most popular (and simplest)
method is the method of repeatng
variables.

A concise summary of the

six steps that comprise the
method of repeatng
variables. 19
20
Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Setup for dimensional analysis of a

ball falling in a vacuum. nlevaton z
is a functon of tme t, inital vertcal
speed w0, inital elevaton z0, and
gravitatonal constant g.
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Step 5

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The mathematcal
It is wise to choose common The  groups that result from the
rules for adding and
parameters as repeatng method of repeatng variables are
subtractng
parameters since they may guaranteed to be dimensionless
exponents during
appear in each of your because we force the overall
multplicaton and
dimensionless  groups. exponent of all seven primary
division,
respectvely. dimensions to be zero.
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nstablished
nondimensional
parameters are usually
named after a notable
scientst or engineer. 24
Step 6

The method of repeatng variables cannot predict the

exact mathematcal form of the equaton.

A quick check of
your algebra is
always wise. 25
nx.4

The pressure inside a soap

bubble is greater than that
surrounding the soap
bubble due to surface
tension in the soap flm.

26
If the method of
repeatng variables
indicates zero ’s,
we have either
made an error, or
we need to reduce j
by one and start
over.
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29
DIMnNSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

In most experiments, to save tme and money, tests are

performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather
than on the full-scale prototype.

In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the

results. We use the powerful technique we studied,
called dimensional analysis.

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The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are

• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in

the design of experiments (physical and/or numerical)
and in the reportng of experimental results
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance
can be predicted from model performance
• To (sometmes) predict trends in the relatonship
between parameters
 The principle of similarity
• Three necessary conditons for complete similarity between a
model and a prototype.

(1) Geometric similarity—the model must be the same shape as

the prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale
factor.
(2) Kinematc similarity—the velocity at any point in the model
fow must be proportonal (by a constant scale factor) to the
velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype fow.
(3) Dynamic similarity—When all forces in the model fow scale
by a constant factor to corresponding forces in the prototype
fow (force-scale equivalence).
 Kinematc similarity is achieved
when, at all locatons, the speed
in the model fow is
proportonal to that at
corresponding locatons in the
prototype fow, and points in
the same directon.

In a general fow feld, complete similarity between a model and prototype is

achieved only when there is geometric, kinematc, and dynamic similarity.
33
We let uppercase Greek leter Pi () denote a nondimensional
parameter.
In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one  that
we call the dependent , giving it the notaton 1.
The parameter 1 is in general a functon of several other ’s,
which we call independent ’s.

To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be

geometrically similar, and all independent groups must match
between model and prototype.
To achieve similarity

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 The Reynolds number Re is formed by the
rato of density, characteristc speed, and
characteristc length to viscosity.

Alternatvely, it is the rato of characteristc

Geometric similarity between a speed and length to kinematc viscosity,
prototype car of length Lp and a model defned as  =/.
car of length Lm.

The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful

dimensionless parameter in all of fuid mechanics. 35
nx.2

A drag balance is a device used

in a wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body. When
testng automobile models, a moving
belt is often added to the foor of the
wind tunnel to simulate the moving
ground (from the car’s frame of
reference).
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37
nx.3

A drag balance is a device used

in a wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body. When
testng automobile models, a moving
belt is often added to the foor of the
wind tunnel to simulate the moving
ground (from the car’s frame of
reference).
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39
40
If a water tunnel is used instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-ffth scale
model, the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is

One advantage of a water tunnel is

that the required water tunnel
speed is much lower than that
required for a wind tunnel using the
same size model (221 mi/h for air
and 16.1 mi/h for water) .

Similarity can be achieved

even when the model fuid is
diferent than the prototype
fuid. Here a submarine model
is tested in a wind tunnel.
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44
Oftentmes when performing the method
of repeatng variables, the most difcult
part of the procedure is choosing the
repeatng parameters. With practce,
however, you will learn to choose these
parameters wisely.

45
A parameter that is dimensionless
(like an angle) is already a
nondimensional  all by itself—
we know this  without doing any
further algebra.

46
47
In nxamples 7–5 and 7–6 the air speed of the prototype car is 50.0 mi/h, and that of the wind
tunnel is 224 mi/h. At 25°C, this corresponds to a prototype Mach number of Ma p = 0.065, and at
5°C, the Mach number of the wind tunnel is 0.29—on the borderline of the incompressible limit.
In hindsight, we should have included the speed of sound in our dimensional analysis, which
would have generated the Mach number as an additonal . Another way to match the Reynolds
number while keeping the Mach number low is to use a liquid such as water, since liquids are
nearly incompressible, even at fairly high speeds. 48
49
50
Although the Darcy fricton
factor for pipe fows is most
common, you should be aware
of an alternatve, less common
fricton factor called the
Fanning fricton factor. The
relatonship between the two is
f = 4Cf . 51
52
7–5 ■ nXPnRIMnNTAL TnSTING, MODnLING,
AND INCOMPLnTn SIMILARITY
One if the mist useful applicatiins if dimensiinal analysis is in designing physical
and/ir numerical experiments, and in repirting the results if such experiments.

In this secton we discuss both of these applicatons, and point out situatons in which
complete dynamic similarity is not achievable.

Setup of an nxperiment and Correlaton of nxperimental Data

Consider a problem in which there are fve original parameters (one of which is the
dependent parameter).
A complete set of experiments (called a full factorial test matrix) is conducted.
This testng would require 54 = 625 experiments.
Assuming that three primary dimensions are represented in the problem, we can reduce
the number of parameters from fve to two (k = 5  3 = 2 nondimensional groups), and
the number of independent parameters from four to one.
Thus, for the same resoluton we would then need to conduct a total of only 5 1 = 5
experiments.
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For a two- problem, we plot
dependent dimensionless parameter (1)
as a functon of independent dimensionless
parameter (2). The resultng plot can be
(a) linear or (b) nonlinear. In either case,
regression and curve-ftng techniques are
available to determine the relatonship
between the ’s.

If there are more than two ’s in the

problem (e.g., a three-  problem ora
four-  problem), we need to set up a
test matrix to determine the
relatonship
between the dependent  and the
independent ’s. In many cases we
discover that one or more of the
dependent ’s has negligible efect
and can be removed from the list of
necessary dimensionless parameters.

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 Incomplete Similarity

Several examples were shown in which the non-dimensional groups are easily
obtained with paper and pencil through straightorward use of the methid if
repeating variables.
In fact, after sufcient practce, you should be able to obtain the ’s with ease—
sometmes in your head or on the “back of an envelope.”
Unfortunately, it is often a much diferent story when we go to apply the results
of our dimensional analysis to experimental data.
The problem is that it is not always possible to match all the ’s of a model to
the corresponding ’s of the prototype, even if we are careful to achieve geometric
similarity.
This situaton is called incomplete similarity.
Fortunately, in some cases of incomplete similarity, we are stll able to extrapolate
model test data to obtain reasonable full-scale predictons.

55
 Wind Tunnel Testng
We illustrate incomplete similarity with the
problem of measuring the aerodynamic drag
force on a model truck in a wind tunnel.
One-sixteenth scale.
The model is geometrically similar to the
prototype.
The model truck is 0.991 m long. Wind
tunnel has a maximum speed of 70 m/s.
The wind tunnel test secton is 1.0 m tall and
1.2 m wide.

Measurement of aerodynamic drag on a model truck

in a wind tunnel equipped with a drag balance and a
moving belt ground plane.

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To match the Reynolds number between model and prototype, the wind
tunnel should be run at 429 m/s. This is impossible in this wind tunnel.
What do we do? There are several optons:
(1) Use a bigger wind tunnel. Automobile manufacturers typically test with
three-eighths scale model cars and with one-eighth scale model trucks and
buses in very large wind tunnels.
(2) We could use a diferent fuid for the model tests. For example, water can
achieve higher Re numbers, but more expensive.
(3) We could pressurize the wind tunnel and/or adjust the air temperature to
increase the maximum Reynolds number capability.
(4) If all else fails, we could run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the
maximum speed, and then extrapolate our results to the full-scale Reynolds
number.
Fortunately, it turns out that for many wind tunnel tests the last opton is
quite viable.

57
The Langley full-scale
wind tunnel (LFST) is
large enough that full-
scale vehicles can be
tested.

For many objects, the drag coefcient levels

of at Reynolds numbers above some
threshold value. This fortunate situaton is
called Reynolds number independence. It
enables us to
extrapolate to prototype Reynolds numbers
that are outside of the range of our
experimental facility.
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 Flows with Free Surfaces
For the case of model testng of fows with free surfaces (boats and ships, foods,
river fows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam spillways, interacton of waves with
piers, soil erosion, etc.), complicatons arise that preclude complete similarity
between model and prototype.
For example, if a model river is built to study fooding, the model is often several
hundred tmes smaller than the prototype due to limited lab space.
Researchers often use a distorted model in which the vertcal scale of the model
(e.g., river depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal scale of the
model (e.g., river width).
In additon, the model riverbed slope is often made proportonally steeper than
that of the prototype.
These modifcatons result in incomplete similarity due to lack of geometric
similarity.
Model tests are stll useful under these circumstances, but other tricks (like
deliberately roughening the model surfaces) and empirical correctons and
correlatons are required to properly scale up the model data.

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 In many fows involving a liquid
with a free surface, both the
Reynolds number and Froude
number are relevant
nondimensional parameters. Since
it is not always possible to match
both Re and Fr between model and
prototype, we are sometmes
forced to setle for incomplete
similarity.

To ensure complete similarity we would need to use a liquid

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whose kinematc viscosity satsfes this equaton.
 (a) (c)

A NACA 0024 airfoil being tested

in a towing tank at Fr (a) 0.19, (b)
0.37, and (c) 0.55. In tests like
this, the Froude number is the
most important nondimensional
parameter.

(b) 61
M

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