​ DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

HW 1:

What are design considerations of machine elements ?

The first step consists of preparing a complete list of the requirements of the product.
After careful study of the requirements, we have to prepare rough sketches of different
possible mechanisms for the product.
Functionality :
The design of machine elements begins with the specification of the functions of the
element .
(i) Bearing : To support the rotating shaft and confine its motion
(ii) Key : To transmit the torque between the shaft and the adjoining machine part like
gear, pulley or sprocket.
(iii) Spring in Clock : To store and release the energy.
(iv) Spring in Spring : Balance To measure the force.
(v) Screw Fastening : To hold two or more machine parts together.
(vi) Power Screw : To produce uniform and slow motion and to transmit the force.
Determination of forces :
Free body diagram is constructed to determine the forces acting on different parts of the
machine.
(i) The external force due to energy, power or torque transmitted by the machine part,
often
called ‘useful’ load.
(ii) Static force due to deadweight of the machine part.
(iii) Force due to frictional resistance.
(iv) Inertia force due to change in linear or angular velocity.
(v) Centrifugal force due to change in direction of velocity.
(vi) Force due to thermal gradient or variation in temperature.
(vii) Force set up during manufacturing the part resulting in residual stresses.
(viii) Force due to particular shape of the part such as stress concentration due to
abrupt change in cross-section.
The force acting on the machine part is either assumed to be concentrated at some
point in the machine part or distributed over a particular area.
Material Selection :
Selection of material depends on availability , cost ,mechanical properties and
manufacturing considerations of the material.
For example :
1. The automobile body and hood are made of low carbon steels because their cold
formability is essential to press the parts.
2.The crankshaft and connecting rod are subjected to fluctuating forces and
nickel–chromium steel is used for these components due to its higher fatigue strength.
Failure Criterion :
The machine component is said to have ‘failed’ when it is unable to perform its functions
satisfactorily.
The three basic types of failure are as follows:
1) Failure by elastic deflection .
2)Failure by general yielding .
3)Failure by fracture .
Dimensions :
The shape of the machine element depends on two factors, viz., the operating
conditions and the shape of the adjoining machine element.
The geometric dimensions of the component are determined on the basis of failure
criterion. In simple cases, the dimensions are determined on the basis of allowable
stress or deflection .
Design Modifications :
The geometric dimensions of the machine element are modified from assembly and
manufacturing considerations.Revised calculations are carried out for operating
capacity, margin of safety at critical cross-sections and resultant stresses taking into
consideration the effect of stress concentration. When these values differ from desired
values, the dimensions of the component are modified. The process is continued till the
desired values of operating capacity, factor of safety and stresses at critical
cross-sections are obtained.
Drawing :
The last step in the design of machine elements is to prepare a working drawing of the
machine element showing dimensions, tolerances, surface finish grades, geometric
tolerances and special production requirements like heat treatment. The working
drawing must be clear, concise and complete. It must have enough views and
crosssections to show all details. The main view of the machine element should show it
in a position, it is required to occupy in service. Every dimension must be given. There
should not be scope for guesswork and a necessity for scaling the drawing. All
dimensions that are important for proper assembly and interchangeability must be
provided with tolerances.
2) Traditional design vs Modern Design

Craft evolution Drawing Design Synthesis

● It is a method of ● It is a method of ● It is a method of

Traditional Design . Traditional Design . Modern Design .

● No dimensional ● The dimensions ● Here we determine

drawings are drawings are the optimum shape
prepared prepared and dimensions of
in advance of its the component on
manufacture. the basis of
mathematical
analysis.

● Any modification ● In trial and error, the ● Here mathematical

in the product is process is carried model is created
costly, because we out on a drawing and we do
have to experiment board instead of mathematical
with the product shop floor. The analysis for
itself. drawings of the optimisation and
product are modified interpretation of the
and developed prior results.
to manufacture.

● There is no ● In this much of the ● Here mathematical

symbolic intellectual activity model is used to
medium to record is taken away from record the design
the design the shop floor and information of the
information of the assigned to design product.
product. engineers.

● The exact memory ● The complete ● The objective of

of the sequence of manufacturing of the Design analysis are
operations required product can be minimum cost,
to make the product subdivided into minimum weight or
is second source of separate pieces, volume, maximum
information. which reliability
can be made by or maximum life
different people.
3) What is the use of Standards in design? Write the difference between Standard and 
Code. 
 
Standard can define as a set of technical definitions and guidelines – or simply a “how 
to” instructions for designers and manufacturers. It gives all the necessary 
requirements for the product, service, and operation.Standardization is defined as 
obligatory norms, to 
which various characteristics of a product should conform. The characteristics include 
materials, dimensions and shape of the component, method of testing and method of 
marking, packing and storing of the product. 
 
● Standard parts are easy to replace when worn out due to interchangeability. This 
facilitates servicing and maintenance of machines. Availability of standard spare 
parts is always assured. The work of servicing and maintenance can be carried out even 
at an ordinary service station. These factors reduce the maintenance cost of machines. 
 
 
● Use of standard components improves the quality and reliability of the machine 
to be designed. 
 
STANDARD : 
● A standard is defined as a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes. 
● The objective of a standard is to reduce the variety and limit the number of items 
to a reasonable level. 
CODE : 
● A code is defined as a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, 
testing and erection of the product. 
● The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified level of safety. 
 
 
4) List any ten Mechanical properties of Engineering Materials and elobarate 
them in details. 
 
● Strength : S
​ trength is defined as the ability of the material to resist, without 
rupture, external forces causing various types of stresses. Strength is measured 
by different quantities. Depending upon the type of stresses induced by external 
loads, strength is expressed as tensile strength, compressive strength or shear 
strength. Tensile strength is the ability of the material to resist external load 
 causing tensile stress, without fracture. Compressive strength is the ability to 
resist external load that causes compressive stress, without failure. The terms 
yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are explained in the previous article. 
 
● Elasticity : ​It​ ​is defined as the ability of the material to regain its original shape 
and size after the deformation, when the external forces are removed. 
All engineering metals are elastic but the degree of elasticity varies. Steel is 
perfectly elastic within a certain elastic limit. The amount of elastic 
deformation which a metal can undergo is very small. During the elastic 
deformation, the atoms of the metal are displaced from their original positions 
but not to the extent that they take up new positions. Therefore, when the 
external force is removed, the atoms of the metal return to their original positions 
and the metal takes back its original shape. 
 
● Plasticity ​: Plasticity is defined as the ability of the material to retain the 
deformation produced under the load on a permanent basis. In this case, the 
external forces deform the metal to such an extent that it cannot fully recover its 
original dimensions. During plastic deformation, atoms of the metal are 
permanently displaced from their original positions and take up new positions. 
The ability of some metals to be extensively deformed in the plastic range 
without fracture is one of the useful engineering properties of materials. For 
example, the extensive plastic deformability of low carbon steels enables 
automobile parts such as the body, hood and doors to be stamped out without 
fracture. 
 
● Stiffness :​Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of the material to resist 
deformation under the action of an external load. All materials deform when 
stressed, to a more or less extent. For a given stress within elastic limit, the 
material that deforms least is the stiffest. Modulus of elasticity is the measure of 
stiffness. 
 
● Resilience :​ Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy 
when deformed elastically and to release this energy when unloaded. A resilient 
material absorbs energy within elastic range without any permanent 
deformation. This property is essential for spring materials. Resilience is 
measured by a quantity, called modulus of resilience, which is the strain energy 
per unit volume that is required to stress the specimen in a tension test to the 
elastic limit point. 
 
 ● Toughness: ​Toughness is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy 
before fracture takes place. In other words, toughness is the energy for failure by 
fracture. This property is essential for machine components which are required 
to withstand impact loads. Tough materials have the ability to bend, twist or 
stretch before failure takes place. All structural steels are tough materials. 
Toughness is measured by a quantity called modulus of toughness. 
 
● Malleability​ is defined as the ability of a material to deform to a greater extent 
before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to compressive force. The term 
‘malleability’ comes from a word meaning ‘hammer’, and in a narrow sense, it 
means the ability to be hammered out into thin sections. Malleable metals can be 
rolled, forged or extruded because these processes involve shaping under 
compressive force. 
● Ductility​ is defined as the ability of a material to deform to a greater extent 
before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to tensile force. In other words, 
ductility is the permanent strain that accompanies fracture in a tension test. 
Ductile materials are those materials which deform plastically to a greater extent 
prior to fracture in a tension test.The ductility of metal decreases as the 
temperature increases because metals become weak at increasing temperature. 
 
● Brittleness​ is the property of a material which shows negligible plastic 
deformation before fracture takes place. Brittleness is the opposite to ductility. A 
brittle material is that which undergoes little plastic deformation prior to fracture 
in a tension test. Cast iron is an example of brittle material. In ductile materials, 
failure takes place by yielding. Brittle components fail by sudden fracture. A 
tensile strain of 5% at fracture in a tension test is considered as the dividing line 
between ductile and brittle materials. 
● Hardness​ is defined as the resistance of the material to penetration or 
permanent deformation. It usually indicates resistance to abrasion, scratching, 
cutting or shaping. Hardness is an important property in the selection of material 
for parts which rub on one another such as pinion and gear, cam and follower, 
rail and wheel and parts of ball bearing. Wear resistance of these parts is 
improved by increasing surface hardness by case hardening.