Chemical processes in forensics

Forensic scientists help link crime scenes with the criminals responsible. Trained scientists can
analyze fingerprints and DNA, identify drugs or fibers at a crime scene and match bullets to the
gun that fired them. The government uses forensics to investigate crimes and terrorist incidents
and to check for traces of chemical or nuclear weapons. Chemical processes are among forensic
scientists' most useful tools.
Mass Spectroscopy
In a technique developed at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, scientists use a laser to
vaporize chemical particles or fibers, the lab's website states. A spectrometer sorts the
components of the sample based on their molecular weight, then the operator identifies them.
Human and animal hair absorbs traces of chemicals from the body, so by vaporizing a hair, the
operator can identify illegal drugs someone has ingested. Hair from a drug-dealer's dog might
provide proof the dog was exposed to drug-making chemicals.
Gas Chromatography
Forensic scientists use gas chromatography to analyze liquids. A chromatograph is a machine that
boils liquid, breaking it down into gas; the gasses separate based on their boiling point, which
enables the operator to identify them individually as they pass through a detector. This process
can be used to identify seized drugs.
Electrophoresis
Forensic scientists can use electrophoresis to break down blood, saliva or semen so that the
molecules can be analyzed by treating them with enzymes. Electrophoresis uses an electric field
to separate biological molecules based on their electric charge, according to the biology
department of Gustavus Adolphus College.
The Griess Reagent Test
When someone shoots a gun, it leaves traces of powder on their skin and clothes. Forensic
scientists used to coat a suspect's hand with melted paraffin to pick up the gunshot residue, but
this wasn't always reliable. Today, the National Institute of Justice states, a compound known as
the Griess reagent provides a more accurate test. The reagent reacts with burned nitrites in the
powder residue and turns them bright orange.
Charcoal strips
When forensic scientists investigate arson cases, it's important for them to identify the "accelerant"
used to make the fire burn hot and fast--for example, kerosene or gasoline. One method,
according to the Enotes website, is to place charcoal strips on the debris. The strips absorb the
accelerants, the scientists dissolve the strips and then analyze the chemicals left behind.
What Cells Would You Use to Extract DNA From a Living Person?
Most cells in the human body contain DNA, so if you wanted to extract DNA from a living person, what
you'd really need is that person’s cooperation. For example, if you are curious to know whether you inherited
your unusually high number of Neanderthal genetic variants from Mom or Dad, you could ask one or both of
them to get a DNA kit. Your parents would then spit in a tube or swab their cheek to provide a cell sample for
DNA analysis at a commercial lab. Many other cells in the body can also be used for DNA testing.

What Is Cellular DNA?

Nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is located in the nucleus of a cell and holds the
blueprint of an organism. DNA directs all activities taking place in the cell. Living cells also
contain a small amount of DNA in the mitochondria, the cell’s energy producer.
Mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother and used to trace maternal lines in
ancestry.
DNA is a molecule comprised of nucleotides: phosphate, sugar and four nitrogen bases.
The bases include adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C) linked together
in long chains forming the DNA double helix. The order of the bases on the chain carries
biological instructions for inherited traits, cell growth and overall functioning.
Uniqueness of Cellular DNA
The National Human Genome Research Institute indicates that the human genome
contains about 3 billion nucleotide bases and 20,000 genes. Given the infinite number of
possible pairing of bases, DNA is different in every person, with the exception of identical
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twins. Not all cells in a living person have a nucleus, which limits their use for DNA
analysis. Flakes of skin, strands of hair and nail clippings are dead cells that no longer
have a nucleus, for instance.
DNA Profiling: Definition
A segment of repeating DNA at a specific location on a gene is called a genetic marker.
Humans inherit one copy of repeating DNA sequences from each parent. A DNA profile is
developed by chemically analyzing and identifying the genetic codes at each marker in
nuclear DNA. Closely related individuals share similar DNA profiles. According to
the National Institutes of Standards and Technology, the odds of two unrelated people
showing the same patterns at 13 or more markers on their DNA profile “is less than one in
a trillion.”
DNA Profiling Process
Determining which type of blood cell is used for DNA profiling depends on whether the
cells have a nucleus. Maturing red blood cells destroy their own nucleus to increase
oxygen capacity. However, other types of cells in blood have a nucleus, which is why
blood and body fluid evidence is carefully collected and analyzed.
Hair samples are most useful when a strand of hair – comprised of keratinized dead hair
cells – has an attached root. For example, if there was a fight and somebody’s hair was
pulled out by the roots, nuclear DNA could be extracted from cells in tissue of the hair
root.
DNA Fingerprinting in Crime Fighting
Each individual has a unique set of hands and fingerprints determined by DNA. Forensic
technicians hunt for fingerprint and DNA evidence to establish the identity of victims and
perpetrators. Through the DNA profiling process, forensic scientists compare the DNA
profiles of two individuals looking for a match. For example, they might match the DNA
profile of a suspect in custody with the stored DNA of a previously convicted offender.
According to the National Institute of Justice, only certain types of cells in the human body,
like white blood cells, provide enough usable DNA to help identify or rule out a suspect.
Strict protocols apply to the collection, storage and analysis of DNA for purposes of
criminal investigation. The NIJ suggests items and locations where possible sources of
DNA from a living person can be found.
Examples of possible DNA at crime scenes include:
Sweat and skin cells on a gun handle.
Hair roots on hats, brushes and pillows.
Mucus and ear wax on tissues.
Saliva on cigarette butts, cans and bottles.
Blood and body fluid stains on carpet.
Chemicals Used in Forensic Science
Forensic science uses technological and chemistry to gather and analyze evidence about crimes.
The field includes tasks such as collecting fingerprints or testing for chemicals in blood and body
tissues. Forensic scientists have a standard repertoire of chemical agents for their work. These
agents can reveal evidence that may be hidden to the naked eye and provide clues to what
happened at a crime scene. Thanks to these chemicals, and those who use them, police agencies
around the world have solved many crimes.
Fingerprinting Chemicals
Forensic scientists rely on four primary chemicals to reveal and collect fingerprints: iodine,
cyanoacrylate, silver nitrate and ninhydrin. These chemicals react to substances within the
fingerprint, such as oil and sweat, making the print change color so analysts can see it better.
Forensic scientists usually use iodine and cyanoacrylate — better known under the brand name
Super Glue — by heating them to create fumes. They use silver nitrate and ninhydrin as a spray or
dip. Other chemicals used for fingerprinting are diazafluoren 1, or DFO-1; rhodamine; ardrox; sudan
black; thenoyl europium chelate, or TEC; and acid fushin. These chemicals help develop fingerprints

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on more porous surfaces or enhance prints already produced by other chemicals, by dying and
stabilizing the prints.
Blood Evidence
Fluorescein causes a chemical reaction between oxygen and the hemoglobin present in blood. This
chemical is useful for fine blood stains and smears which may appear in different crime scenes.
Another chemical used for blood evidence is luminol. Like other blood-test chemicals, it reacts with
iron in the blood. Luminol can reveal blood evidence even if someone has tried to clean the blood
up.
The forensic scientist sprays these chemicals on the suspect area and observes the area to see if
fluorescence occurs.
Luminol has limited use in forensic science, in that other chemicals like bleach can produce the
same fluorescence as blood.
Other Agents
Forensic scientists use common chemicals like hydrogen peroxide and alcohol in combination with
the other chemicals at their disposal to produce better test results or speed reaction times. They
also can use these chemicals as disinfectants; for instance, bleach can sterilize work areas or
forensic tools.
Forensic scientists also may use acids to perform work like revealing etchings on metal. The fact
that forensics requires the use of so many chemicals is why anyone interested in a career in forensic
science must take chemistry courses. Many universities offer classes in forensic science as well.
Types of Forensic Tests
The first North American forensics laboratory was founded in Montreal in 1914. According to
librarians at Michigan State University it was a model for subsequent forensics labs, even the FBI
forensics lab. Since the early days, the science of forensics has grown to a sophisticated discipline
that helps the legal system protect victims and prosecute offenders. The field has a number of
specialties, such as pathology, toxicology and psychology. All include dozens of tests to verify their
examination of evidence.
Anthropological
Anthropological examinations help discover the nature of bone fragments. Tests of a person's bones
can reveal his race, sex, age and stature. Forensic scientists take X-rays of the bones to compare
them to X-rays of a missing person to verify identify. The nature of damage to bones, such as impact,
bullet wounds and breakage can also be determined by anthropological exams.
Electronic Device
Forensics test can tell much about the communications and movements of victims, witnesses and
perpetrators by examining commercial electronic devices. Forensic scientists conduct examinations
of computers, cell phones, hand-held computers and cameras. These tests may entail
disassembling and monitoring of computer chips or tracing the digital trail on online communications.
Bullet Jacket Alloy
When bullets fragment, or the bullet or gun cannot be found, scientists perform elemental analysis
of bullet jackets to learn about the bullet and possibly the gun that fired it. They do this by testing
for the alloys used to make the jacket. The tests can tell how many shooters were involved, and
where the bullet was manufactured. They may indicate the angle of the shot.
Cryptanalysis
Code breaking is an examination that analyzes encoded and enciphered documents to understand
hidden information. Such documents are often used by criminal organizations and terrorists.
Forensic scientists use cryptanalysis on written codes or those created digitally.
DNA
A well-known forensics test is DNA testing. The testing is done in labs and can connect body tissue,
blood and other fluids with an individual. DNA tests can determine the source of bone and hair and
nails. DNA testing compares samples taken from an individual or a close relative to samples from
evidence, and are highly reliable.
How to Find Fingerprints With a Black Light
Fingerprinting is the heart of criminal investigations, because everyone has a unique set of prints
that remain with them, unchanged, throughout their lifetime. Because oils and residues typically
reside in the skin, fingerprints are easily transferable to almost any surface you touch. Some
surfaces create more of a challenge when detecting fingerprints, such as a highly contrasting printed

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page or porous surfaces. Using ultraviolet light — also called a black light — with fluorescent
powders or solutions helps to bring out the prints and allow them to be photographed.
Spray or immerse the object to be fingerprinted in a fluorescent solution for five seconds to two
minutes, depending on the solution. A good choice for standard black lights are ardrox, basic yellow
40 and thenoyl europium chelate, because they react to lower wavelength ultraviolet lights. Follow
specific instructions for the chemical used.
Lower the ambient light in the area.
Put on your ultraviolet protective goggles.
Shine the black light on the object to look for fingerprints. The prints should glow from the reaction
between the fluorescent solution and the black light.
Place the yellow or 2-A haze barrier filter on your camera to enhance detail.
Photograph the prints in close detail for later analysis.

Forensic chemistry
Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal setting.
A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime
scene.[1] Specialists in this field have a wide array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown
substances. These include high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thin layer
chromatography. The range of different methods is important due to the destructive nature of some
instruments and the number of possible unknown substances that can be found at a scene. Forensic
chemists prefer using nondestructive methods first, to preserve evidence and to determine which
destructive methods will produce the best results.
Along with other forensic specialists, forensic chemists commonly testify in court as expert
witnesses regarding their findings. Forensic chemists follow a set of standards that have been proposed
by various agencies and governing bodies, including the Scientific Working Group on the Analysis of
Seized Drugs. In addition to the standard operating procedures proposed by the group, specific agencies
have their own standards regarding the quality assurance and quality control of their results and their
instruments. To ensure the accuracy of what they are reporting, forensic chemists routinely check and
verify that their instruments are working correctly and are still able to detect and measure various
quantities of different substances.
Role in investigations
Forensic chemists' analysis can provide leads for investigators, and they can confirm or refute their
suspicions. The identification of the various substances found at the scene can tell investigators what to
look for during their search. During fire investigations, forensic chemists can determine if
an accelerant such as gasoline or kerosene was used; if so, this suggests that the fire was intentionally
set.[3] Forensic chemists can also narrow down the suspect list to people who would have access to the
substance used in a crime. For example, in explosive investigations, the identification of RDX or C-
4 would indicate a military connection as those substances are military grade explosives.[4] On the other
hand, the identification of TNT would create a wider suspect list, since it is used by demolition companies
as well as in the military.[4] During poisoning investigations, the detection of specific poisons can give
detectives an idea of what to look for when they are interviewing potential suspects.[5] For example, an
investigation that involves ricin would tell investigators to look for ricin's precursors, the seeds of
the castor oil plant.[6]
Forensic chemists also help to confirm or refute investigators' suspicions in drug or alcohol cases. The
instruments used by forensic chemists can detect minute quantities, and accurate measurement can be
important in crimes such as driving under the influence as there are specific blood alcohol content cutoffs
where penalties begin or increase.[7] In suspected overdose cases, the quantity of the drug found in the
person's system can confirm or rule out overdose as the cause of death.
Methods[edit]
Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments to identify unknown substances found at a
scene.[25] Different methods can be used to determine the identity of the same substance, and it is up to
the examiner to determine which method will produce the best results. Factors that forensic chemists
might consider when performing an examination are the length of time a specific instrument will take to
examine a substance and the destructive nature of that instrument. They prefer using nondestructive
methods first, to preserve the evidence for further examination.[26] Nondestructive techniques can also be
used to narrow down the possibilities, making it more likely that the correct method will be used the first
time when a destructive method is used.[