LABORATORY WORK BOOK

Circuit Analysis I

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of the Punjab, Lahore
Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Do’s:

1. Be regular to the lab

2. Know the theory behind the experiment before coming to the lab
3. Identify the different leads or the pins of the components before making
connections.
4. Know the biasing voltage required for different circuits and connect the power
supply voltage and ground terminals to the respective points.
5. Know the current and voltage rating of the components before using them in
the experiment.
6. Check the components before using them in the experiment.
7. After the completion of the experiments return the apparatus and components.
8. Arrange the chairs/stools and equipment properly before leaving the lab.

Don’ts:

1. Do not exceed the voltage and current ratings.

2. Do not interchange the components while power supply is ON.
3. Avoid loose connections and short circuits.
4. Do not throw connecting wires and components on floor.
5. Do not mix faulty ICs / other components with functional
ICs/components.
6. Do not panic if you do not get the output.

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 Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

CONTENTS

Sr.
List of Experiments
No.
To study the equipment used in Electronic laboratory
a) Bread Board
b) Multimeter
1
c) Power Supply
d) Function Generator
e) Oscilloscope
2 To find and measure the value of Resistors through color-code and multimeter

3 To find the equivalent Resistance of series-parallel circuit

To find the equivalent Resistance of given circuit through star-delta conversion
4
method
5 To find the value of current of given circuit by applying current division rule
1. Applying mesh analysis technique to find different loop currents and common
6 branch current
2. To verify that mesh analysis is extension of Kirchhoff’s voltage law

1. Applying nodal analysis technique to find voltages at different circuit points

7
2. To verify that nodal analysis is extension of Kirchhoff’s Current law

8 To provide practical demonstration of superposition theorem

1. To provide practical demonstration of Thevenin theorem

9
2. Demonstrating the equivalent of Thevinen circuit and the original circuit
1. To provide practical demonstration of Norton theorem
10
2. Demonstrating the equivalent of Norton circuit and the original circuit
11 To find the initial voltage across the capacitor and time constant

12 To find the initial current through the inductor and time constant

To calculate the resistor-capacitor time constant for a typical series resistor-

13
capacitor circuit
14 To analyze the properties of a capacitive voltage divider

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 1

OBJECTIVE:

To study the equipment used in Electronic laboratory

A. Bread Board
B. Digital Multimeter
C. Power Supply
D. Function Generator
E. Oscilloscope

PROCEDURE:

 See User / Operational Manual for laboratory equipment details.

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 2

OBJ ECTIVE:

To find and measure the value of Resistors through colour-code and

multimeter

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

2. Resistors: 1kΩ, 4.7kΩ, 5.6kΩ, 10kΩ, 100kΩ

THEORY:

Most commercial and industrial electronic equipment is the combination of

resistors in different circuit configurations. The ohm’s the unit of electrical resistance,
and is equal to the resistance of a conductor such that a constant current of one
ampere in it produces a voltage of one-volt between its ends. The ohm named in
honor of George Simon Ohm. Because resistance is a physical property, it can be
predicted and measured either in the manufacture of resistors or in the effect it has on
a circuit. There are three common types of resistors: carbon composition, wire wound,
and film (metal or carbon). Resistors are either fixed or variable in value.

PROCEDURE:

1. Determine the Ohmic value and tolerance of resistors by using color bands
as shown in fig. 2.1.
2. Calculate the resistance value using colour code chart shown in Table 1.

Fourth colour band Tolerance

Third colour band Multiplier

Second colour band

First colour band

Fig 2.1

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Table 1

Significant Figure
Multiplier (Third Tolerance (Fourth
Color (First and second
Band) Band)
Band)
Black 0 1 1%
Brown 1 10 2%
Red 2 100 -
Orange 3 1,000 -
Yellow 4 10,000 -
Green 5 100,000 -
Blue 6 1,000, 000 -
Violet 7 - -
Gray 8 -
White 9 -
Gold - 0.1 5%
Silver - 0.01 10%
No Color - 20%

3. Measure the resistances by using DMM and note the value of actual
resistances.

Table 2
Values 1kΩ 4.7kΩ 5.6KΩ 10kΩ 100KΩ

Calculated

Measured

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 3

OBJECTIVE:

To find the equivalent Resistance of Series-Parallel circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

2. Breadboard
3. Resistors: 1kΩ, 5.6kΩ, 10kΩ, 15KΩ, 22kΩ
4. Jumpers

THEORY:

Most circuits in commercial and industrial electronics equipment are

combinations of series and parallel circuits. These are referred to as series parallel
circuits and they range from simple resistive circuits to complex networks. The rules
for solving a series-parallel circuit are a combination of rules used to solve series and
parallel circuits separately.

All circuits, whether the components, are arranged in series, parallel, or

combinations of series parallel, appear as a single load to the power source. During
your investigation into series and parallel circuits, whether you realized it or not, you
combined individual resistances into what was seen by the power source as a single
resistance. Although series-parallel circuits are somewhat more complex, the
procedure is the same; keep combining resistances until a single resistance, R T, is
determined which represents the total circuit resistance. Consider the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.1 (a) where resistors R1 and R2 are in series with the parallel circuit consisting
of resisting R3 in one branch and resistors R4 and R5 in series in the other branch.

To reduce any circuit to a single representative resistance, you start with the
components furthest from the power source; in this case, resistors R4 and R5 because
the are in series, they must be added. The circuit is redrawn in (b). The next step is to
calculate the -equivalent resistance of resistors R3 and R4 + R5 in parallel. The
circuit, shown in (d)

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Fig 3.1

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the resistances used in Fig 3.2 by using DMM and note the value of
actual resistances.

Fig 3.2 Circuit Diagram

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

2. Connect the series-parallel circuit on breadboard as per Fig 3.2 and observe
the equivalent resistance Req.
3. Now calculate the Req by applying series-parallel resistance equivalence
theory.
4. Note that the observed value and calculated value of the equivalent resistance
Req are equal or not.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 4

OBJECTIVE:

To find the equivalent Resistance of given circuit through star-delta

conversion method

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

2. Breadboard
3. Resistors: 5.6kΩ, 10kΩ, 15KΩ, 22kΩ, 27KΩ
4. Jumpers

THEORY:

In many circuits, resistors are neither in series nor in parallel, so can’t the rules for
series or parallel circuits described in previous chapters be applied. For these circuits,
it may be necessary to convert from one circuit form to another to simplify the
solution. Two typical circuit configurations that often have these difficulties are the
wye (Y) and delta (∆) circuits. They are also referred to as tee (T) and pi (Π) circuits,
respectively.

Delta and wye circuits:

Fig 4.1

And the equations for converting from delta to wye:

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

The equations can be presented in an alternate form based on the total resistance (Rd)
of R1, R2, and R3 (as though they were placed in series):

Rd = R1+R2+R3
and:
RA = (R1*R3) / Rd
RB = (R2*R3) / Rd
RC = (R1*R2) / Rd

Wye and delta circuits:

Fig 4.2

And the equations for converting from wye to delta:

An alternate set of equations can be derived based on the total conductance (Gy) of
RA, RB, and RC (as though they were placed in parallel):

Gy = 1/RA+1/RB+1/RC
and:
R1 = RB*RC*Gy
R2 = RA*RC*Gy
R3 = RA*RB*Gy

The first example uses the delta to wye conversion to solve the well-known
Wheatstone bridge.

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Fig 4.3 Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the resistances used in Fig 4.3 using DMM and note the value of
actual resistances.
2. Connect the series-parallel circuit on breadboard as per Fig 4.3 and observe
the equivalent resistance Req.
3. Now calculate the Req by applying star to delta resistance equivalence
theory.
4. Note that the observed value and calculated value of the equivalent resistance
Req are equal or not.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 5

OBJECTIVE:

To find the value of current of given circuit by applying current division

rule

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

2. Breadboard
3. Resistors: 2.2kΩ, 5.6kΩ, 10kΩ
4. Jumpers
5. Power supply

THEORY:

In electronics, a current divider is a simple linear circuit that produces an

output current (IX) that is a fraction of its input current (IT). Current division refers to
the splitting of current between the branches of the divider. The currents in the
various branches of such a circuit will always divide in such a way as to minimize the
total energy expended. This can be shown by calculus.

The formula describing a current divider is similar in form to that for the
voltage divider. However, the ratio describing current division places the impedance
of the unconsidered branches in the numerator, unlike voltage division where the
considered impedance is in the numerator. This is because in current dividers, total
energy expended is minimized, resulting in currents that go through paths of least
impedance, therefore the inverse relationship with impedance. On the other hand,
voltage divider is used to satisfy Kirchoff's Voltage Law. The voltage around a loop
must sum up to zero, so the voltage drops must be divided evenly in a direct
relationship with the impedance.

To be specific, if two or more impedances are in parallel, the current that

enters the combination will be split between them in inverse proportion to their
impedances (according to Ohm's law). It also follows that if the impedances have the
same value the current is split equally.

Fig 5.1

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the resistances used in Fig 5.2 using DMM and note the value of
actual resistances.

Fig 5.2 Circuit Diagram

2. Connect the above circuit on breadboard as per Fig 5.2 and observe the
current passing through different branches in the network.
3. Now calculate the branch currents by applying current division rule.
4. Note that the observed value and calculated value of the branch currents are
equal or not.

Table 1
Values IT I1 I2

Calculated

Measured

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 6

OBJECTIVE:

1. Applying mesh analysis technique to find different loop currents

and common branch current
2. To verify that mesh analysis is extension of Kirchhoff’s voltage law

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ, 2.7KΩ, 5.6KΩ, 10KΩ, 12KΩ

THEORY:

Mesh is loop which doesn’t have any sub loops. Mesh analysis is a technique
used primarily when we are interested in loop current rather than node voltages as in
nodal analysis. It is an extension of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). According to
KVL “sum of all voltages around the loop is zero”. Selection between nodal and mesh
analysis is solely based on which technique reduces the number of simultaneous
equations. Circuit shown in fig.1 can be best solved with nodal analysis where it
results in 2 rather than 3 equations for mesh analysis.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the values of given resistors and fill in the corresponding columns of
Table.1
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1
3. Measure the currents through R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 in such a way that multi-
meter reads positive value and mark arrow` from red probe of the multi-meter
to black one. Fill the values in Table 2 and also mark current divisions i.e.
4. Calculate I1, I2 and I3 and fill in corresponding columns of Table 3. Mark
proper directions (only for positive current values) as per sign.
5. Compare Table 2 and Table 3 and give your comment.

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Fig 6.1 Circuit Diagram

Table 1
Values 1KΩ 2.7KΩ 5.6KΩ 10KΩ 12KΩ

Calculated

Measured

Table 2
Values IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR5

Calculated

Measured

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 7

OBJECTIVE:

1. Applying nodal analysis technique to find voltages at different circuit

points
2. To verify that nodal analysis is extension of Kirchhoff’s Current law

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ, 2.7KΩ, 5.6KΩ, 10KΩ, 12KΩ

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the values of given resistors and fill in the corresponding

columns of Table.1
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 7.1
3. Measure the voltages V1 and V2 and fill in the corresponding columns of
Table 2. Calculate the Voltage Values.
4. Measure the currents through R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 in such a way that
multi-meter reads positive value and mark arrow from red probe of the
multi-meter to black one. Fill the values in Table 3.
5. Calculate I1, I2 and I3 and fill in corresponding columns.
6. Compare Table 2 and Table 3 and give your comment.

Fig 7.1 Circuit Diagram

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Table 1
Values 1KΩ 2.7KΩ 5.6KΩ 10KΩ 12KΩ

Calculated

Measured

Table 2
Values V1 V2

Calculated

Measured

Table 3
Values IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR5

Calculated

Measured

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 8

OBJECTIVE:

To provide practical demonstration of superposition theorem

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ, 2.7KΩ, 5.6KΩ, 10KΩ, 12KΩ

THEORY:

Superposition principle states that, “the response (a desired current or voltage)

in a linear circuit having more than one independent source can be obtained by adding
the responses caused by the separate independent source acting alone”.

Independent effect of the individual source is obtained by killing all other

independent sources in the circuit except the one whose effect is to be obtained. When
all individual effects are obtained, all sub-effects added to get the resultant value
which will be equivalent to the over all effect produced when all resources are active
simultaneously.

Fig 8.1: Circuit Diagram

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the values of given resistors and fill in the corresponding columns of
Table1
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 8.1
3. Move SW1 to position 3 and measure V11 (Voltage at node 1 due to source V1)
and V21 (Voltage at node 2 due to source V2) and fill corresponding columns in
Table 2. All remaining switches should be at position 1.
4. Repeat above step for SW2 and SW3 and measure corresponding values V 12
and V13 and fill in corresponding columns of Table 2.
5. What conclusions you draw from the readings of Table 2.
6. Repeat Step 3, 4 and 5 for node 2 and fill the values in corresponding columns
of Table 3.
7. Comment the results.
8. Move all switches to position 3 simultaneously and measure voltages V1 and
V2 and record in the corresponding columns of Table 2 and Table 3.
9. Give comments on your results.

Table 1
Values 1KΩ 2.7KΩ 5.6KΩ 10KΩ 12KΩ

R (Nominal)

R (Actual)

Table 2
Values V11 V21 V12 V22 V13 V23
Measured
calculated

Table 3
Values V1 V2 V1 = V2 =
V11+V12+V13 V21+V22+V23
Measured
calculated

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 9

OBJECTIVE:

1. To provide practical demonstration of Thevenin theorem

2. Demonstrating the equivalent of Thevinen circuit and the original circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 5.6KΩ, 10KΩ, 15KΩ

THEORY:

Thevenin theorem states that “Given any linear circuit, it can be rearranged to
form two networks A and B. If now network B is disconnected than voltage across
open terminals of network A is termed as Voc (open circuit voltage) and when both
network. The terminals are shorted out; the current through them is called Isc (Short
circuit current). The whole network A can be replaced by a voltage source equal to
Voc (Thevenin voltage) and resistor in series as Rth (Rth=Voc/Isc ). The remaining
circuit be is connected with the series circuit as earlier with network A”. This whole
scheme is represented in Fig.1a, Fig.1b, Fig.1c and Fig.1d.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the values of given resistors and fill in the corresponding columns of
Table 1
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1a
3. Measure voltage VL and IL and record in Table2 corresponding row.
4. Measure Voc and I sc as shown in Fig.1b and Fig. 1c
5. Calculate the above values for actual values and fill in the corresponding
columns of Table 3
6. Give your comments for Table 3 entries.

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

Fig 9.1 Circuit Diagram

Table 1
Values 5.6KΩ 10KΩ 10KΩ 15KΩ
Calculated
Measured

Table 2
Values VL IL
Original Circuit (Fig. 1a)
Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit (Fig. 1d)

Table 3
Values VOC ISC
From Fig. 1b & 1c

Calculated (Actual)

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................
…………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 10

OBJECTIVE:

1. To provide practical demonstration of Norton theorem

2. Demonstrating the equivalent of Norton circuit and the original
circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ

THEORY:

Norton’s Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several energy
sources and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in
parallel with a Single Resistor". In some ways Norton's Theorem can be thought of as
the opposite to "Thevenins Theorem", in that Thevenin reduces his circuit down to a
single resistance in series with a single voltage. Norton on the other hand reduces his
circuit down to a single resistance in parallel with a constant current source. As far as
the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited
and IS is the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.

Figure 10.1: Norton’s equivalent circuit

The value of this "constant current" is one which would flow if the two output
terminals where shorted

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

PROCEDURE:

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as

follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current
sources.
3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Fig 14.1 Circuit Diagram

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………................................

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 11

OBJECTIVE:

To find the initial voltage across the capacitor and time constant

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ
5. Capacitors: 2.2 μF

PROCEDURE:

1. Build the circuit shown in the Figure 11.1.

Fig 11.1 Circuit Diagram

2. For t < 0, the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc. Find the
capacitor voltage Vc (0) by connecting the Voltmeter probes across the
terminals.
Vc (0) = -----------------------
3. For t >0, the switch is opened, and we have the source free RC circuit. Find
Rth = -------------------------
Time Constant (τ = RC) = -------------------
4. Find the initial energy stored in the capacitor (Wc(0) = CVC2 (0) )
Wc (0) = ----------------------
5. Determine the voltage response V(t)
V (t) = -----------------------

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 12

OBJECTIVE:

To find the initial current through the inductor and time constant

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Resistors: 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ
5. Inductor: 1mH
6. Jumpers

PROCEDURE:

1. Build the circuit shown in the Figure 12.1.

Fig 12.1 Circuit Diagram

2. For t < 0, the switch is closed; the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The
1KΩ resistor across the inductor is short-circuited. Find the inductor current
IL(0) by connecting the Ammeter probes.

IL(0) = ----------------------

3. For t >0, the switch is opened, and we have the source free RL circuit. Find
4. Determine the current response

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 13
OBJECTIVE:

To calculate the resistor-capacitor time constant for a typical series

resistor-capacitor circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Capacitors: 1μF

PROCEDURE:

Fig 13.1 Circuit Diagram

1. Connect the circuit with Sl and S2 open.

2. Close Sl and S2.
3. Measure V.
4. Use input resistance of DMM to calculate time constant RC.
5. Open S1 and record voltage at each time constant in table.
6. Give your Comments about the results.

Table 1
T = RC Vc = Vs – Vm Vc Calculated
1
2
3
4
5

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

EXPERIMENT 14

OBJECTIVE:

To analyze the properties of a capacitive voltage divider

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Breadboard
2. DC Power Supply
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
4. Capacitors: 0.1μF, 0.47μF
5. Jumpers

THEORY:

The output of the capacitive voltage divider in the figure shown will be some
fraction of the input voltage. This fraction is referred to as the voltage division ratio
and it is a function of the size of the capacitors used in the circuit. The voltage
division ratio for this circuit is given by the next expression

Vi = Vin*(C1 / C1 + C2)
To obtain the output voltage you should multiply the voltage division ratio by the
input voltage.

PROCEDURE:

Fig 14.1 Circuit Diagram

1. Build the circuit shown in the figure1

2. Connect the sine-wave signal of the function generator to the circuit. Set
up Vi to the maximum value. Measure and record this value.

VI ---------------------

3. Using the capacitors values given in the Figure l calculate the voltage
division ratio. Record this value:
Voltage Division Ratio---------------------

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Circuit Analysis I Laboratory Work Book

4. Calculate the output voltage using the input voltage that you measured in
step 2 and the voltage division ratio that you found in the previous step.
Record this value:
Vo = ----------------

5. Measured the voltage across C2. This is the output voltage of the voltage
divider. Record this value:

Vo = ----------------

6. Analyze the results obtained in this experiment and explain any

discrepancies.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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