THERMODYNAMICS LAB REPORT

By

Haroon khan

Batch 18

Reg NO:18PWMEC4566

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sir

Engr Shafi ud Din

Department of Mechanical Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PESHAWAR
 LAB:(01) REPORT
Introduction to Thermodynamics Lab and to study the Layout of Lab.

Objective: To know about types of Machines used in thermodynamics lab.

Injection-Pump Disk and Drum

Testing Machine Braking System
Pentro-metre

Turbo-Charger
Assembling Apparatus

Transmission System
Cut-Section of
Diesel Engine

Automatic
Cut-Section of
Petrol Engine
Adiabatic-Bomb
Calorimeter

Wrankle
Rotary Engine
Calorimetre
Junker-Gas

Auto-Mobile
Gear-Box

Air Fuel Measuring

Entrance (Door) Equipment
 LAB:(02) REPORT
Introduction to the Basic Components of I.C Engine.

Objectives:

 To know about Internal combustion engine.

 To know about its main function and area of uses.
 To know about its main working components.

Theoretical Background:

An Engine is a machine designed to covert heat energy into mechanical energy. Heat
Engines burn fuel to create heat, which is then converted to mechanical energy, thus we can say
that an engine is basically a machine that converts Power into motion.

e.g. The Power obtained from burning fuel results in the locomotion/movement of an
automobile.

Types of Heat Engine

In heat engines combustion take place for creation of heat, based on combustion heat
engines are of two types.

1. IC Engine: The engines in which the combustion takes place internally are called IC
or Internal combustion engines.
2. EC Engine: The engines in which combustion take externally are called EC or external
combustion engines

Here we will only discuss an IC engine.

Main components of an IC Engine

The following are the main components of an IC Engine.

1. Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and
fro. It should have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and
temperature above 2000o C. The ordinary engine is made of cast iron and heavy-
duty engines are made of steel alloys or aluminum alloys. In the multi-cylinder
engine, the cylinders are cast in one block known as cylinder block.
2. Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which
inlet and exhaust valve; spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos
gasket is provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an
airtight joint.

3. Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod.
Usually made of aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property and
greater strength at higher temperature.

4. Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer
surface of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at
high temperature.
 2 Types of Rings: compression and oil rings.

Compression ring: Compression ring is upper ring of the piston which provides
airtight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion.

Oil Ring: Oil ring is lower ring which provides effective seal to prevent leakage of
the oil into the engine cylinder.

5. Connecting rod: It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion
of the crank shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is
connected with the piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is
connected with the crank with crank pin. The special steel alloys or aluminium

alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.

6. Gudgeon pin or piston pin: These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted
through the piston bosses and the small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting
rods to swivel. It connects the piston to connecting rod. It is made hollow for
lightness.
7. Spark plug: It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is
to conduct a high potential from the ignition system into the combustion chamber to
ignite the compressed air fuel mixture. It is tted on cylinder head
8. Injector: Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel
into combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder
head.
9. Engine bearing: Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are
needed. Bearings are used to support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported
by bearing.
10. Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary
motion with the help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the

manufacturing of the crankshaft. It consists of eccentric portion called crank.

11. Crank case: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and serves as sump
for the lubricating oil.
12. Pushrod: Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of
cylinder. It carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the
cylinder head
13. Dip Stick: Dip Stick is used to measure the level of mobile oil.
14. Oil Pan: The oil pan is plastic or metal. It is shaped to fit on the bottom of the
block. A gasket is installed between the pan and the block to seal the joint and
prevent oil leaks. The bottom of the block plus the oil pan form crankcase. They
enclose or encase the crankshaft. The oil pan holds from 3 to 9 quarts (3 to 8 L) of
oil depending on the engine. An oil pump sends oil from oil pan to the moving
engine parts.

15. Oil Pump: The oil pump takes engine oil from oil pan and circulates it under
pressure to the rotating bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft of the engine.

16. Water Pump: Water pumps are simple devices. They force coolant through
the engine block, hoses and radiator to remove the heat the engine produces. It is
most commonly driven off the crankshaft pulley or in some cases the pump is gear-
driven off the crankshaft.

17. Camshaft: The main function of the camshaft is to open and close the valves at the
appropriate time.
 Cam: The cam is operated by means of gear arrangement driven by the flywheel.
The cam converts rotary motion into linear motion that operates the rocker arm. The
motion of the rocker arm operates the valves. Sometimes two camshafts are provided
to operate inlet valve and exhaust valve separately.

18. Valves: Valves play a major role in allowing the air fuel mixture into the cylinder
(inlet valve) for combustion and releasing the exhaust gases from the cylinder after
combustion (outlet valve).

19. Manifolds: There are two types of manifolds

Inlet manifold: It is a pipe like structure that connects the carburetor with the inlet ·
valves. The air fuel mixture from the carburettor passes through the inlet manifold to
the inlet valves.
 Exhaust manifold: This pipe like structure connects the outlet valve to the
atmosphere. The exhaust gas from the cylinder passes through the exhaust manifold
into the atmosphere.

20. Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft; whose function is to maintain
its speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke,
which is returned during another stroke.
 LAB:(03a) REPORT
Demonstration of two and four strokes I.C Engine, Difference between Petrol
and Diesel Engine

Objective:

 To learn about basic terms regarding piston-cylinder arrangement.

 To learn the working of Four Stroke Engine
 To learn the engine operation of Four Stroke Engine.

Theoretical Background:

The terms will be used frequently during the study of the operation of Four Stroke Engine are as:

1. Stroke:

Stroke is the displacement that a piston covers from TDC to BDC and is denoted by (L).

2. TDC:

TDC stand for “Top Dead Center”. When the piston is at top of its stroke, it is at point or
level of TDC.

3. BDC:

BDC stands for “Bottom Dead Center”. When the piston is at bottom of its stroke, it is at
point or level of BDC.

4. Bore:

Bore is the diameter of an engine cylinder and is denoted by (D).

5. Stroke Bore Ratio:

 Stroke Bore Ratio is the ratio of the displacement that piston covers

from TDC to BDC to the diameter of an engine cylinder (Bore). It is a numerical value.

Mathematically:

Stroke L
Stroke Bore Ratio = =D
Bore

6. Compression Ratio:

Compression ratio is the ratio of volume of cylinder at the beginning of compression

stroke to the volume of the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke.

Mathematically:
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒+𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = +1
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

For Diesel, Ratio is up to 22 : 1.

For Petrol, Ratio is up to 8 : 1.

7. Swept Volume:

Swept volume is the volume displaced by piston in a single stroke or one stroke.

Mathematically:

𝑉𝑠 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

8. Clearance Volume:

The volume of a cylinder at the end of piston stroke is known as clearance volume.
 The actions in the spark-ignition engine is divided into four parts.

(1) Intake Stroke.

(2) Compression Stroke.

(3) Power Stroke.

(4) Exhaust Stroke.

1) Intake Stroke:

During the intake stroke of a spark

ignition engine, the piston is moving
down. The intake valve is open. Air-
fuel mixture flows through the intake
port and into the cylinder. The fuel
system supplies the mixture.

Note that as the piston moves down,

air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder.
This is because the piston creates a
partial vacuum above it. With the
intake valve open, atmospheric
pressure forces the air-fuel mixture
into the cylinder to fill the vacuum.

As the piston passes through BDC,

the intake valve closes. This seals off
the upper end of the cylinder.

2) Compression Stroke:

After the piston passes BDC, it starts moving up. Both valves are closed. The upward
moving piston compresses the air-fuel mixture into a smaller space, between the top of
 the piston and the cylinder head. This space is the combustion chamber. The mixture is
compressed into 1⁄8 or less of its original volume. This is like taking a quart of air and
squeezing it into about half a cup. The amount that the mixture is compressed is the
compression ratio. It is the ratio between the original volume and the compressed volume
in the compression chamber. If the mixture is compressed to 1⁄8 of its original volume,
then the compression ratio is 8 to 1 (written 8:1).

3) Power Stroke:

After the piston nears TDC at the end of

the compression stroke, an electric spark
jumps the gap at the spark plug. The
heat from the spark ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture.
The air-fuel mixture then burns rapidly,
producing high temperatures of up to
6000 ◦F. These high temperatures
produces very high pressure which
pushes down on the top of the piston.
The connecting rod carries this force to
the crankshaft, which turns to move the
drive wheels.

4) Exhaust Stroke:

As the piston approaches BDC on the

power stroke, the exhaust valve opens.
After passing through BDC, the
piston moves up again. The burned
gases escape through the open exhaust
port. As the piston nears TDC, the
intake valve opens. When the piston
 passes through TDC and starts down again, the exhaust valve closes. Another intake
stroke begins and the whole cycle – intake, compression, power and exhaust –repeats.
This goes on continuously in all engine cylinders as the engine runs.

Working:

In four stroke engines, all these strokes occur simultaneously after one another. First
starts with intake take stroke and then continuous and end at the final stroke or exhaust
stroke in one cylinder. In four stroke engine one power stroke is generated after 720-
degree revolution of a piston. If we have four cylinders then the firing order for the power
stroke is 1342. It will never happen that power strokes occur simultaneously in all
cylinders. The firing order is set specific and particular in a four-stroke engine. As shown
in table below.

Cylinder 1 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4 Cylinder 2

Power Stroke Compression Intake Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Stroke

Exhaust Stroke Power Stroke Compression Intake Stroke

Stroke

Intake Stroke Exhaust Stroke Power Stroke Compression Stroke

Compression Intake Stroke Exhaust Stroke Power Stroke

Stroke

Advantages:

Following are the advantages of such order:

• Crankshaft runs smoothly.

• We get a continuous flow of power.

• Energy will not be lost. Fuel economy is better.

• Environmental friendly.

• Having proper lubrication system.

• Having proper cooling system.

• Air-fuel mixture is properly burnt.

 LAB:(03b) REPORT

Demonstration of two stroke engine.

Objective:

 To know about working of a two-stroke engine.

 To learn about the relationship of stroke with engine.

Theoretical Background:

Here in two stoke engine all the four events are performed in two stokes.

a. Upward stoke
b. Downward stoke

 Upward stoke: In upward stroke, suction and compression takes place.

 Downward stoke: In downward stroke, power and compression takes place.

Valves are replaced by ports i.e. Inlet port, exhaust port and transfer port.

Crankcase is airtight.

Working:

In a two-stroke engine, the four events i.e. suction, compression, power and exhaust take
place in two strokes. Here, there are two strokes i.e. upward stroke and downward stroke. In
upward stroke, suction and compression takes place. In downward stroke, power and
exhaustion takes place. Valves are replaced by ports i.e. Inlet port, exhaust port and transfer
port and crankcase are airtight. The two strokes are discussed below.

a) Upward Stroke:
Piston moves upward. Inlet port opens and air-fuel mixture is drawn into the chamber. Exhaust
and transfer port remain closed. At the end, stroke suction and compression are completed.

b) Downward Stroke:

Piston moves downward. First exhaust port opens followed by transfer port. Combusted air-
fuel mixture exhausts through exhaust port. At this instant partially compressed air-fuel
mixture comes through transfer port. At the end of this stroke, power and exhaust is completed.

Advantages:

 Produces more power than 4-stroke Engine. (4 stroke –

 Simple in construction.
 Can be oriented in any direction.
 Light weight.
 Cheap as compare to 4-stroke.

Disadvantages:

 Produces more noise.

 Fuel consumption is expensive.
 It is not environmental friendly. (With combustion NOx, SOx and COx are produced
which are not environmental friendly)
 Does not have a proper lubrication system.
 Does not have a proper cooling system.
 Air-fuel mixture is not properly burnt.
 LAB:(04) REPORT
Demonstration of Ignition system of an I.C Engine

Objective:

 To learn the concept of Ignition system and the names along with functions of its
components.
 To know how these components, combine to produce spark.

Theoretical Background:
First, we discuss about the ignition system in detail.

Ignition System:
The system used for igniting air mixture due to which power is produced and further
components of engine run is known as an Ignition System.

Function of Ignition System:

Basically, it has two functions:

1. It must control spark and timing of spark plug firing,

2. It must increase the battery voltage to the required level and the requirement is 20 000
Volts.

Purpose of Ignition System:

The purpose of the ignition system is to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture in the
engine combustion chambers. This should occur at proper time for combustion to begin. To start
combustion, the ignition system delivers an electric spark that jumps a gap at the combustion-
chamber ends of the spark plugs. The heat from this arc ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture.
The mixture burns, creating pressure that pushes the pistons down the cylinders so the engine
runs.

Types of Ignition System:

Generally, there are two types of Ignition Systems:
 1. Contact Point Ignition System,
2. Electronic Ignition System.

Components of Ignition System:

The components of ignition system are as follows:

1. Battery:

It is a source of electrical energy, having two leg terminals i.e. positive and
negative.

2. Ignition Switch:
It basically connects or disconnects the flow of electricity across the terminals. The
ignition switch connects the ignition coil to the battery when the ignition key is ON. When
the key is turned to START, the starting motor cranks the engine for starting.

3. Ignition Coil:

The ignition coil is a step-up transformer that raises the battery voltage to a higher
voltage that may reach 25,000 volts. In some electronic ignition systems, the voltage may go
up to 47,000 volts or higher. The high voltage causes sparks to jump the gap at the spark
plugs.

As the ignition coil is a step-up transformer, we say that the number of secondary
windings (thousands) are greater than the number of primary windings. It must be noted that
one end of primary windings is connected to contact breaker.

4. Ballast Resistor:
It is placed between ignition coil and the ignition switch, to allow current when heated.

5. Contact Breaker:
It is a type of electrical switch or switching device. It is found in distributers of ignition
system. The purpose of a contact breaker is to interrupt the current flowing in the circuit of
ignition coil.

6. Condenser:
A condenser is used to avoid burning.
 7. Spark Plug:
The spark plug produces a high spark when receives a high voltage of about 20 000 volts.
It has two electrodes i.e. central electrode and ground electrode.

Due to gas ionization between central electrode and ground electrode, the medium act is a
conductor and thus the spark jumps from central electrode to ground electrode.

8. Distributer:

As the name indicates, it distributes electricity, from coil to the spark plug. It has three
parts i.e. the Distributor cam, Breaker points and condenser.

It is having two main functions/jobs:

 It is acting contact points which act as fast-acting switch,

 It distributes the high voltage surge to the spark plug in correct firing order.
Distributor cap and rotor are also its parts.

Spark Production:
The ignition system consists of two separate but related circuits: the low-voltage primary
circuit and the high-voltage secondary circuit. The ignition coil has two windings. The primary
windings of a few hundred turns of heavy wire is part of the primary circuit. The secondary
winding of many thousand turns of fine wire is part of the secondary circuit. When the ignition
key is ON and the contact points closed, current flows through the primary windings. This
produces a magnetic field around the primary windings in the coil.

When the contact points open, current flow stops and the magnetic field collapses. As it
collapses, it cuts across the thousands of turns of wire in the coil secondary winding. This
produces a voltage in each turn. These add together to produce the high voltage delivered
through the secondary circuit to the spark plug, thus producing the spark.
 LAB:(05) REPORT
Demonstration of Cooling System of Engine.

Objective:

 To keep the engine running at its most efficient operating temperature.

 To know about types of cooling system.
 To learn about the water-cooling system.
 To know about the air-cooling system.

Theoretical Background:
Cooling system is designed to remove 30-35% of total heat. Remaining heat is lost in
friction and carried away by exhaust gases. About 20-25% of total heat generated is used for
producing brake power (useful work).

Types of Cooling Systems:

There are mainly two types of cooling systems:

1. Air cooling system.

2. Water cooling system.

Water Cooling System:

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head,
valve seats etc. The water when circulated through jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This
hot water will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow
developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through
the water jackets.

Components Water Cooling System:

The water-cooling system mainly consists of the following:

a) Radiator.
b) Thermostat valve.
c) Water pump.
d) Radiator Cap.
e) Water Jackets.
f) Fan.
g) Antifreeze mixtures.

a. Radiator:

It is basically a heat exchanger which transfers heat from engine to the environment. It
has an upper and a lower tank. The upper tank is connected to outlets of water jackets
through hose pipes and the lower tank is connected to the inlets of water jackets through
lower hose pipe involving water pump. Radiators are normally made up of Copper and Brass
and their joints are made by soldering. Its surface area is increased by installation of fins.

b. Thermostat Valve:
A thermostatic valve called a thermostat controls coolant flow. When the engine is cold,
the thermostat closes to prevent coolant circulation to the radiator. This keeps all heat in the
engine, so it warms up quickly. The thermostat is a heat-operated valve that controls coolant
temperature. It does this by controlling coolant flow from the engine to the radiator. The
thermostat is in the coolant passage between the cylinder head and the radiator. The valve in
the thermostat opens and closes as coolant temperature changes.
c. Water pump:
Normally this pump is of impeller type which sucks water from lower part of radiator and
pumps it onward. These are driven by belt and pulley mechanism.

d. Radiator Pressure Cap:

It is having a spring valve loaded mechanism which upon reaching the pressure up to a
specific limit opens (15 psi). Cooling systems are sealed and pressurised by a radiator
pressure cap. Sealing reduces coolant loss from evaporation and allows the use of an
expansion tank. Pressurizing raises the boiling temperature of the coolant, thereby increasing
cooling efficiency.
e. Water Jackets:
The water jackets are open spaces inside engine block i.e. between the cylinder walls and
outside the shell of the block and head. Coolant from the water pump flows first through the
block water jackets. Then the coolant flows up through the cylinder-head water jackets and
back to the radiator. (The water flowing through the jackets absorbs this heat and gets hot.
This hot water will then be cooled in the radiator).

f. Fan:
It is driven by the engine output shaft same belt that drives the pump. It is provided
behind the radiator and it draws the air by passing it through the radiator, which lowers the
temperature of coolant.
 g. Anti-Freeze Mixture:
In western countries if the water used in the radiator freezes because of cold climates,
then ice formed has more volume and produces cracks in the cylinder blocks, pipes, and
radiator. So, to prevent freezing antifreeze mixtures or solutions are added in the cooling
water. The ideal antifreeze solutions should have the following properties:

I. It should dissolve in water easily.

II. It should not evaporate.
III. It should not deposit any foreign matter in cooling system.
IV. It should not have any harmful effect on any part of cooling system.
V. It should be cheap and easily available.
VI. It should not corrode the system.
 LAB:(06) REPORT
Demonstration of Lubrication System of an Engine.

Objective:

 To explain the purpose of the lubricating system.

 To identify the main components of lubricating system.
 To describe the lubrication system of modern internal combustion engines.
 To describe the theory and operation of lubrication system.
 To explain the terms viscosity and viscosity index
 To describe the types of lubricating oil.

Theoretical Background:
Lubricating systems are used to introduce oil, grease and other lubricants to moving
machine parts. The lubricants reduce friction between parts, and therefore increase the longevity
of all components. Without lubrication, most machines would overheat or suffer extreme
damage.

Functions of Lubricating System:

The functions of an engine lubrication system are as follows:

a. Reduces friction and wear tear between moving parts.

b. Helps transfer heat and cool engine parts i.e. it keeps the engine parts running, as a result
heat generated is distributed and cooling is produced.
c. Clean the inside of the engine by removing contaminants i.e. metal, plastic, rubber etc.
d. Absorbs shocks between moving parts to quite engine operation to increase engine life.
e. It prevents corrosion.
f. It facilitates gas tight environment in cylinder-piston arrangement.

Types of Lubricating System:

There are two types of lubrication systems:

a. Splash type lubrication system (used in two stroke engine)

b. Full Pressure type lubrication system (used in four stroke engine).
Components of Lubricating System:

I. Oil Pump:
It pumps the oil from sump to all engine parts. Gear type pump is used, and it uses
meshing of gears by displacing viscous fluids.

II. Oil Pickup and Strainer:

Basically, it collects and filters oil from sump due to suction created by pump. The oil
pickup is a tube that extends from the oil pump to the bottom of the oil pan.

III. Oil Filter:

When oil passes through it, it removes dust particles present in the oil. Supplies clean oil
to the oil line. Pressurized oil travels through oil parts. Oil from main hole travels through
holes drilled in crankshaft.

IV. Sprout:
An oil sprout connected with the oil lines sprays oil upwards to lubricate piston. After
lubrication, oil begins to flow through a separate passage to sump.

V. Sump:
It is a vicinity or a place where oil stays.
Properties of Lubricating Oil:
The properties needed by an engine lubricating oil include:

Proper Viscosity:
Viscosity is a measure of an oil’s resistance to flow. A low-viscosity oil is thin and flows
easily. A high-viscosity oil is thicker. It flows more slowly. Engine oil should have the proper
viscosity, so it flows easily to all moving engine parts. The oil must not be too thin. Low
viscosity reduces the ability of the oil to stay in place between moving engine parts. If the oil is
too thin (low viscosity), it is forced out from between the moving parts, this resulting in rapid
wear. On the other hand, if the oil is too thick (high viscosity), it flows too slowly especially
when the engine and oil are cold. This also causes rapid engine wear. The engine runs with
insufficient oil when first started. Also, in cold weather, a high-viscosity oil may be so thick that
it prevents normal cranking and starting. A single viscosity oil gets thick when cold and thin
when hot.

Viscosity Index:
This is a measure of how much the viscosity of an oil changes with temperature. A single
viscosity oil can be too thick at low temperatures and very thin at high engine temperatures.
Viscosity Index (VI) improvers are added to engine oil so its viscosity stays nearly the same, hot
or cold.

Viscosity Numbers:
There are several grades of single viscosity oils. They are rated for winter or for other
than winter. Winter grade oils are: SAE 0W, SAE 5W, SAE 10W, SAE 15W, SAE 20W and
SAE 25W. The SAE stands for ‘Society of Automotive Engineers’, which developed the grading
system. The W stands for winter. For other than winter use, single-viscosity oil grades are SAE
20, SAE 30, SAE 40 and SAE 50. The higher the number the thicker the oil.

Multiple-Viscosity Oil:
Many engine oils have a viscosity-index improver added. It allows the oil viscosity to
remain relatively unchanged, hot or cold. A multiple viscosity (“multi-viscosity”) oil graded
SAE 5W 30 has the viscosity of an SAE 5W oil when cold and an SAE 30 oil when hot.
Automotive manufacturers recommend multi-viscosity oil for most driving conditions.
 LAB:(07) REPORT
Demonstration of Braking System.

Objective:
 To explain the working principle of the braking system.
 To describe the effect of force transferred to the wheel from the pedal
 How is the force multiplied so that we stop heavy masses such as a car?

Theoretical Background:
The braking system of an automobile has two types:

i. Service Brakes:
The service brakes, operated by a foot pedal, which slow or stop the vehicle. These are
hydraulically operated.

ii. Parking Brakes:

The parking brakes, operated by a foot pedal or hand lever, which hold the vehicle
stationary when applied. These are mechanically operated and are also known as Emergency
Brakes.

Most automotive services brakes are hydraulic brakes. They operate hydraulically by
pressure applied through a liquid. All these braking systems depend on friction between
moving parts and stationary parts for their stopping force.

Hydraulic System Configuration:

There are two types of Hydraulic System configuration:

1. Diagonal Split – used by front wheel drive cars,

2. Front/Rear hydraulic split – used by rear wheels drive cars.

Working Principle:
It works on the principle of pascal’s law.
Pascal’s Law:
It states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere.

Components of Braking System:

The Major components of any braking system are as under:

1. Brake Pedal.
2. Power Brake Booster.
3. Master Cylinder.
4. Hydraulic Lines.
5. Disc Brake.
6. Drum Brake.

1. Brake Pedal:
This is the component of a car on which force is applied for braking.

2. Power Brake Booster:

Most vehicles have power-assisted braking, or power brakes or power brake booster.
Only a relatively light pedal force is required to slow or stop the vehicle. The assist is
provided by either a hydraulic brake booster or a vacuum brake booster.

3. Master Cylinder:
In automotive engineering, the master cylinder is a control device that converts non-
hydraulic pressure (commonly from a driver’s foot) into hydraulic pressure.

4. Hydraulic Lines:
Hydraulic Lines are basically tubes or pipes through which brake fluid, typically ethylene
glycol flows. This fluid is a source which transfers pressure from controlling mechanism to
braking mechanism.

5. Drum Brake:

The drum brake has the following components:

 Wheel cylinder,
 Return spring,
 Self-adjustment system,
 Brake shoes,
 Brake drum.
When the driver depresses the brake pedal, brake fluid flows from a pressure chamber in
the master cylinder through brake lines to the wheel cylinder. It converts the hydraulic
pressure from the master cylinder into mechanical movement. The wheel cylinder has two
pistons, with seals or cups, and a spring in between. As the pressure increases, the pistons
overcome the brake-shoe return springs and push the shoes outward into contact with the
drum. The braking transfers more of the vehicle weight on the front wheels.

6. Disc Brake:

The disc brake has a metal disc or rotor instead of a drum. It uses a pair of flat,
lined shoes or pads that are forced against the rotating disc to produce braking. The pads
are held in calliper that straddles the disc. The calliper has one or more pistons, with a seal
and dust boot for each.
 LAB:(08) REPORT
Demonstration of Fuel System of an IC Engine.

Objective:

 To supply engine with combustible mixture of air and fuel in fixed proportion.
 To know about the different types of fuel systems.
 To describe the functions of major components of any fuel system.
 To study the mode of action of a carburettor.

Theoretical Background:
The fuel system is made up of the fuel tank, pump, filter, and injectors or carburetor, and
is responsible for delivering fuel to the engine as needed. Each component must perform
flawlessly to achieve expected vehicle performance and reliability.

Components of Fuel System:

a) Fuel Injector/ carburetor

b) Intake Valve
c) Piston
d) Combustion Chamber
a) Fuel Injectors/Carburettors:
The fuel injector is the last stop for fuel in your engine before it goes inside the
combustion chamber. It is basically an electrically
operated gate that opens just long enough to meter the
perfect amount of fuel to run the engine.

Carburettors were the usual method of fuel delivery for

most vehicles up until the late 1980s. Most carburettors
are manual non-electric devices that are used for
mixing vaporized fuel with air to produce a
combustible or explosive mixture for internal
combustion engines. Carburettors have been mostly
supplanted by electronic fuel injection.

b) Intake Valve:

The valve opens to allow the air/fuel mixture to be drawn into the combustion
chamber. Deposits on the intake valves can restrict or change the flow of the air/fuel mixture
into the combustion chamber. Fuel can stick to deposits on the intake valve and not enter the
combustion chamber when needed. The right fuel additive can help reverse these effects and
restore lost performance.

c) Piston:

The piston travels up and down and converts the pressure from combustion into
movement. Detergent additives that can help remove or reduce deposits have been shown to
be effective in reducing or eliminating deposit-related drivability and performance loss.

d) Combustion Chamber:

This is where burning of the air/fuel mixture happens. Deposits in the combustion
chamber can affect heat transfer and air/fuel compression. Excess heat can cause premature
ignition and knocking.

Some vehicles contain knock sensors that are used to determine engine knock or pre- or
post-detonation. With these sensors, the computer will detune the engine to eliminate this
symptom, which has an adverse effect on performance. Fuel system deposits will cause
knocking, which is why it is so important to keep your fuel system clean.
 LAB:(09) REPORT
Demonstration of Transmission System.

Objective:

 To know about the transmission system of an IC engine. How it works.

Theoretical Background:
Transmission system in a vehicle helps to transmit mechanical power from the car engine
to give kinetic energy to the wheels. It is an interconnected system of gears, shafts, and other
electrical gadgets that form a bridge to transfer power and energy from the engine to the wheels.

Types of Automotive Transmission:

There are two types of automotive transmission system which are as under:

1. Automatic Transmission System

2. Manual Transmission System

1. Automatic Transmission System:

Automatic transmission is that type of transmission that automatically changes the gears
about speed of the vehicle. The primary components of automatic transmission include
planetary gear sets, hydraulic system, seals and gaskets, torque converter, governor,
modulator and computer.

2. Manual Transmission System:

In manual transmission system, driver drives the vehicle with the help of a hand-operated
gearshift and a foot operated clutch. The other auto transmission parts used in automobile
transmission system are flywheel, flywheel ring gears and pressure plate.

Working of Transmission System:

Transmission is the powertrain that converts the engine’s force into a controlled source of
power. It acts as a mediator between the engine and the wheels and converts the high power the
engine produces into torque (rotational force), which is then transferred to the axles which in turn
rotates the wheels. So, without the transmission, your car would literally be a hunk of junk.
 The engine of our car creates power and sends it to the crankshaft, but the power
produced is too high and too variable to produce a usable speed for the driver. The engine
operates at a high rotational speed (anywhere from 600 to 7000 RPMs), while the wheels rotate
at a slower rate (anywhere from 0 to 1800 RPMs).

Gear Ratio:
A transmission uses toothed gears that interact with each other in order to produce
torque, and the gear ratio refers to the gears’ relation to each other. Say you have an input gear
with 20 teeth that interacts with an output gear that has 10 teeth. In order to spin the gear with 20
teeth once, the 10-tooth gear must make two full rotations. A gear ratio is calculated by taking
the number of teeth on the output gear and dividing it by the input gear. Thus, the gear ratio in
this example is 1:2 but it’s usually simplified to 0.5:1 in order to tell how many times the output
gear must rotate for the input gear to make one full rotation.

This is the gear ratio in transmission system of an internal combustion in a vehicle.

Gear Ratio
1st gear: 2.97:1
2nd gear: 2.07:1
3rd gear: 1.43:1
4th gear: 1.00:1
5th gear: 0.84:1
6th gear: 0.56:1
Reverse: 3.38:1
Differential:
A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that the rotational
speed of one shaft is the average of the speeds of the others, or a fixed multiple of that average.

In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate
faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making
the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the
other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational
speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the
speed of the other.