Highway Capacity Manual 2000

EXHIBIT 16-17. SENSITIVITY OF D ELAY TO ANALYSIS PERIOD (T) (for v/c ≈ 1.0)
(SEE FOOTNOTE FOR ASSUMED VALUES)
Sensitivity to T 160
140
120
100
Delay (s/veh) 80
60
40
20
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5
Duration of Analysis Period (T) (h)
Note:
Assumptions: cycle length = 100 s , g/C = 0.4, v/s = 0.44 , k = 0.5, I = 1, s = 1800 veh/h.

III. APPLICATIONS
Guidelines on inputs and
estimated values are in The methodology for analyzing signalized intersections considers the details of each
Chapter 10 of four components: flow rates at the intersection (vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle),
signalization of the intersection, geometric design or characteristics of the intersection,
and the delay or LOS that results from these. The methodology is capable of treating any
of these four components as an unknown to be determined once the details of the other
three are known. Thus the method can be used for each of four operational and design
analysis types, each having a target output, with the remaining parameters known or
assumed for use as inputs:
• Operational (LOS): Determine LOS when details of intersection flows,
signalization, and geometrics are known.
• Design (vp): Determine allowable service flow rates for selected LOS when the
details of signalization and geometrics are known.
• Design (Sig): Determine signal timing (for an assumed phase plan) when the
desired LOS, details of flows, and geometrics are known.
• Design (Geom): Determine basic geometrics (number and allocation of lanes)
when the desired LOS and details of flows and signalization are known.
Planning analysis is intended for use in sizing the overall geometrics of the
intersection or in identifying the general sufficiency of the capacity of an intersection. It
is based on the sum of critical lane volumes and requires minimum input information. In
this chapter, a quick estimation method is denoted as Planning (Xcm) and is explained in
Appendix A of Chapter 10.
Planning analysis is a link to operational and design analyses through the same basic
computational methodology. However, the level of precision inherent in the operational
analysis exceeds the accuracy of the data available in a planning context. The
requirement for a complete description of the signal timing plan is also a burden,
especially when the method is being applied in transportation planning situations.
Therefore, the concept of planning analysis is to apply the required approximations to the
input data and not to the computational procedures. For planning purposes, the only site-
specific data that should be needed are the traffic volumes and number of lanes for each

Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections 16-26

Methodology
 Highway Capacity Manual 2000

movement together with a minimal description of the signal design and related operating
parameters.

COMPUTATIONAL STEPS
Exhibit 16-18 gives the five types of analysis. Although the methodology is capable
of computations for all five, the specific procedures and worksheets are designed for the
first of these (i.e., a solution for LOS). In the development of alternative signal and
geometric designs, it is often necessary to consider changes simultaneously in both.
Rarely can signalization be considered in isolation from geometric design and vice versa.
Thus, the most frequent type of analysis would consider such alternatives on a trial-and-
error basis and would not attempt to hold one constant and solve for the other.

EXHIBIT 16-18. TYPES OF ANALYSIS COMMONLY PERFORMED

Type Given Objective Comments/Assumptions Required
Operational Volume LOS None
(LOS) Signal timing
Geometrics
Design (vp) Signal timing Maximum service flow Requires iterative procedure, with
Geometrics rate complex interactions possible
Desired LOS
Design Volume Signal timing Initial estimate of signal timing
(Sig) Geometrics needed to perform iterative solution
Desired LOS
Design Volume Geometrics Initial assumptions on geometrics
(Geom) Signal timing needed to perform iterative solution
Desired LOS
Planning Volume X cm Most inputs are estimates
(Xcm) Signal timing

Operational analysis is divided into five modules: input, volume adjustment,

saturation flow rate, capacity analysis, and LOS. The computations for each of these
modules are conducted or summarized on the appropriate worksheet.
In addition to the module-related worksheets, supplementary worksheets are
provided to handle computations that are more complex. An overview of the information
flow among all worksheets is presented in Exhibit 16-19, which also shows the proper
treatment of all combinations of left-turn lanes and phasing. A given lane group may
have
• Left turns from an exclusive lane, Left-Turn
Adjustment
• Left turns from a shared lane, or Cases
• No left turns at all. Lane
When left turns are present, the signal phasing may provide Phasing LT LT
Excl Share
• Permitted left-turn operation,
Protected 1 4
• Protected left-turn operation, or Permitted 2 5
• A combination of protected and permitted left turns. Prot/Perm 3 6
There are six different possibilities, each of which must be handled in a slightly different
manner using the worksheets.

Input Parameters
The input parameters are the geometric, volume, and signalization characteristics One set of worksheets is used
for each analysis period
needed to perform computations. When an existing intersection is under study, most of
these data will be obtained from field studies. When future conditions are under
consideration, traffic data will be forecast and geometric and signal designs will be based
on existing conditions or will be proposed. The Input Worksheet is shown in Exhibit
16-20.

16-27 Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections

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EXHIBIT 16-19. FLOW OF WORKSHEETS AND APPENDICES TO PERFORM OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS

Volume
Create adjustment Input
de facto LT
lane
worksheet Worksheet Start

Saturation
flow rate
worksheet
to fRT

Shared Exclusive
LT Lane

Perm LT Prot/Perm No LT Perm LT Prot/Perm

Protection in lane Protection
group
Prot Prot

Case 5 Case 4 Case 2 Case 1 Case 3

fLT = 1.0 Exhibit C16-1 Exhibit C16-1
Exhibit C16-1 Exhibit C16-1 Exhibit C16-1
Supplemental Supplemental
worksheets for worksheet for effects
effects of peds on of peds and bicycles
Supplemental LT, fLpb (App. D) on RT, fRpb (App. D)
worksheet Supplemental
for fLT Case 6 Protected phase
worksheet Case 1
(App. C) Exhibit C16-1 for fLT Exhibit C16-1
(App. C)

Yes PL ≥ 1 No
and N>1?

Protected Permitted phase

Alternative for d1 phase supplemental
protected + permitted saturation flow worksheet
worksheet Exhibit rate for fLT
C16-9 or C16-10

Supplemental effect
of initial queue on Capacity and LOS Permitted
control delay - d3 Worksheet saturation flow
(App. E) rate (App. C)

Back-of-Queue Capacity and No Queue carryover at Yes Analyze next

Worksheet LOS Worksheet end of period? period

The upper third of the worksheet contains a schematic intersection drawing on which
basic volume and geometric data are recorded. The details of lane geometrics should be
shown within the intersection diagram. Details should include
• Number of lanes,
• Lane widths,
• Grade (plus sign is upgrade),
• Traffic movements using each lane (shown by arrows),
• Existence and location of curb parking lanes,
• Existence and location of bus stops,
• Existence and length of storage bays, and
• Other features such as channelization.
When geometric conditions are not known, a design should be proposed based on
state or local practice. Chapter 10 may be consulted for assistance in establishing a
design for analysis. When separate left-turn lanes exist, the procedures assume that the
storage length is adequate. This assumption should be checked against the criteria in
Chapter 10.
The middle portion of the worksheet consists of a tabulation of volume and timing
data for each movement. Hourly volume or 15-min flow rate and volume-related
parameters are entered into the tabulation in the middle of the worksheet. Separate
entries are required for each approach and for each movement if appropriate. Note that
RTOR volume should be removed from the total RT volume before the RT volume is
entered on the worksheet.

Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections 16-28

Applications
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EXHIBIT 16-20. INPUT WORKSHEET

INPUT WORKSHEET
General Information Site Information
Analyst _______________________________ Intersection _____________________________
Agency or Company _______________________________ Area Type " CBD " Other
Date Performed _______________________________ Jurisdiction _____________________________
Analysis Time Period _______________________________ Analysis Year _____________________________
Intersection Geometry

grade=
= Pedestrian Button
Street

= Lane Width
Show North Arrow
= Through
grade=

= Right

= Left

= Through + Right

grade= = Left + Through

Street
= Left + Right

= Left + Through + Right

grade=

Volume and Timing Input

EB WB NB SB
LT TH RT1 LT TH RT1 LT TH RT1 LT TH RT1
Volume, V (veh/h)
% heavy vehicles, % HV
Peak-hour factor, PHF
Pretimed (P) or actuated (A)
Start-up lost time, l1 (s)
Extension of effective green time, e (s)
Arrival type, AT
Approach pedestrian volume,2 vped (p/h)
Approach bicycle volume,2 vbic (bicycles/h)
Parking (Y or N)
Parking maneuvers, Nm (maneuvers/h)
Bus stopping, NB (buses/h)
Min. timing for pedestrians,3 Gp (s)
Signal Phasing Plan
D Ø1 Ø2 Ø3 Ø4 Ø5 Ø6 Ø7 Ø8
I
A
G
R
A
M
Timing G= G= G= G= G= G= G= G=
Y= Y= Y= Y= Y= Y= Y= Y=
Permitted turns Cycle length, C = _____ s
Protected turns Pedestrian
Notes
1. RT volumes, as shown, exclude RTOR.
2. Approach pedestrian and bicycle volumes are those that conflict with right turns from the subject approach.
3. Refer to Equation 16-2.

For percent heavy vehicles and peak-hour factor, an average value for an entire
approach can be used for all movements. For arrival type, either a value for P or the
designation of type (1 to 6) is entered. Each approach movement is identified as pretimed
(P) or actuated (A), and start-up lost time (l 1) and extension time (e) for each approach
movement are entered. For pedestrians and bicycles, the volumes are those occurring in
the crosswalk that conflicts with right turns from the subject approach.

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When data for some of these variables are not available or forecasts cannot be
adequately established, default values may be used. Guidelines on the use of defaults are
presented in Chapter 10 of this manual.
The sequence of signal phases is diagrammed in the eight boxes at the bottom of the
input worksheet. Each box is used to show a single phase or subphase during which the
allowable movements remain constant. For each phase, the actual green time (G) and the
actual yellow-plus-all-red time (Y) are shown. For most cases, an assumed or existing
signal design will be used. For some analyses, however, the signal timing and phasing
will not be known. Setting timing and phasing for the purposes of analysis will influence
the determination of lane groups. This portion of the signal design may be established on
the basis of state or local practice. For additional suggestions on establishing the type of
control and phase sequence, Appendix B should be consulted.
Appendix B provides The timing of the signal will not be known when signal timing design is to be
recommendations for
establishing signal established. It may or may not be known when actuated signals are in place, depending
design on whether average phase durations were observed in the field. Estimates, however,
cannot be computed until the first half of the capacity analysis module is complete. Other
computations may proceed without this information. Appendix B contains
recommendations for establishing phase times based on an assumed signal type and phase
sequence and for estimating the average phase lengths of actuated signals when
observations are not available.
The establishment of signal timing will usually involve iterative computations. It is
preferable, therefore, to specify a complete signal timing for analysis using trial-and-error
computations to determine an appropriate final timing. As an alternative, the timing plan
may be synthesized using the planning application presented in Chapter 10 of this
manual. If a fully implementable timing plan is required, a variety of signal timing
optimization models are commercially available.

Volume Adjustment and Saturation Flow Rate

The second major analysis module focuses on adjustment of hourly movement
volumes to flow rates for a peak 15-min period within the hour and on establishment of
lane groups. A worksheet for designating lane groups, making volume adjustments, and
computing saturation flow rate is shown in Exhibit 16-21. For this worksheet, the hourly
volume (V) for each approach and movement is taken from the Input Worksheet and the
flow rate, vp, is computed. Lane groups are established and associated flow rates and
turn proportions are noted. For saturation flow rate, adjustment factors are identified and
an adjusted saturation flow is computed for each lane group.

Capacity Analysis
In the Capacity and LOS Worksheet (Exhibit 16-22), information and computational
results from the input, volume adjustment, and saturation flow rate modules are combined
to compute the capacity and v/c of each lane group and the delay and LOS for each lane
group and approach and for the intersection as a whole.
The top portion of the worksheet is used to compute capacities. Phase numbers and
types are entered in the first two rows. Phase type is included to accommodate left turns
that have both protected and permitted phases. In this case, the protected phase will be
the primary phase and the permitted phase will be the secondary phase. The primary and
secondary phases must be represented by separate column entries on this worksheet, and
certain quantities, such as lane group capacity, must be computed as the sum of the
primary and secondary phase values in the lower portion of the worksheet. Primary
phase entries should be designated P in this row. Secondary phase entries should be
designated S.
The flow rate for each lane group is obtained from the Volume Adjustment and
Saturation Flow Rate Worksheet and entered in this worksheet. In the case of lane groups
with both protected and permitted phases, for computation of the critical v/c ratio, Xc, it

Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections 16-30

Applications
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is necessary to apportion the total flow rate between the primary and secondary phases. It
is appropriate to consider whichever phase is displayed first to be fully saturated by left-
turn traffic and to apply any residual flow to the phase that is displayed second.

EXHIBIT 16-21. VOLUME ADJUSTMENT AND SATURATION FLOW RATE WORKSHEET

VOLUME ADJUSTMENT AND SATURATION FLOW RATE WORKSHEET

General Information

Project Description______________________________________________________________________________________

Volume Adjustment

EB WB NB SB

LT TH RT LT TH RT LT TH RT LT TH RT

Volume, V (veh/h)

Peak-hour factor, PHF

Adjusted flow rate, vp = V/PHF (veh/h)

Lane group

Adjusted flow rate in lane group, v (veh/h)

Proportion1 of LT or RT (PLT or PRT) - - - -
Saturation Flow Rate (see Exhibit 16-7 to determine adjustment factors)

Base saturation flow, so (pc/h/ln)

Number of lanes, N

Lane width adjustment factor, fw

Heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, fHV

Grade adjustment factor, fg

Parking adjustment factor, fp

Bus blockage adjustment factor, fbb

Area type adjustment factor, fa

Lane utilization adjustment factor, fLU

Left-turn adjustment factor, fLT

Right-turn adjustment factor, fRT

Left-turn ped/bike adjustment factor, fLpb

Right-turn ped/bike adjustment factor, fRpb

Adjusted saturation flow, s (veh/h)

s = so N fw fHV fg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpb
Notes

1. PLT = 1.000 for exclusive left-turn lanes, and PRT = 1.000 for exclusive right-turn lanes. Otherwise, they are equal to the proportions
of turning volumes in the lane group.

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EXHIBIT 16-22. CAPACITY AND LOS WORKSHEET

CAPACITY AND LOS WORKSHEET
General information

Project Description _____________________________________________________________________________________

Capacity Analysis
Phase number
Phase type

Lane group

Adjusted flow rate, v (veh/h)

Saturation flow rate, s (veh/h)
Lost time, tL (s), tL = l1 + Y – e
Effective green time, g (s), g = G + Y – tL
Green ratio, g/C
Lane group capacity,1 c = s(g/C), (veh/h)
v/c ratio, X
Flow ratio, v/s
Critical lane group/phase (√)
Sum of flow ratios for critical lane groups, Yc
Yc = ∑ (critical lane groups, v/s)
Total lost time per cycle, L (s)
Critical flow rate to capacity ratio, Xc
Xc = (Yc)(C)/(C – L)
Lane Group Capacity, Control Delay, and LOS Determination
EB WB NB SB
Lane group

Adjusted flow rate,2 v (veh/h)

Lane group capacity,2 c (veh/h)
v/c ratio,2 X = v/c
Total green ratio,2 g/C
C [1 – (g/C)]2
Uniform delay, d1 = 0.50
1 – [min(1, X)g/C]
(s/veh)
Incremental delay calibration,3 k
Incremental delay,4 d2
d2 = 900T [(X – 1) + (X – 1)2 + 8kIX ] (s/veh)
cT
Initial queue delay, d3 (s/veh) (Appendix F)
Uniform delay, d1 (s/veh) (Appendix F)
Progression adjustment factor, PF
Delay, d = d1(PF) + d2 + d3 (s/veh)
LOS by lane group (Exhibit 16-2)
Delay by approach, dA = ∑(d)(v) (s/veh)
∑v
LOS by approach (Exhibit 16-2)
Approach flow rate, vA (veh/h)
Intersection delay, dI = ∑(dA)(vA) (s/veh) Intersection LOS (Exhibit 16-2)
∑v A
Notes
1. For permitted left turns, the minimum capacity is (1 + PL)(3600/C).
2. Primary and secondary phase parameters are summed to obtain lane group parameters.
3. For pretimed or nonactuated signals, k = 0.5. Otherwise, refer to Exhibit 16-13.
4. T = analysis duration (h); typically T = 0.25, which is for the analysis duration of 15 min.
I = upstream filtering metering adjustment factor; I = 1 for isolated intersections.

The adjusted saturation flow rate for each lane group is obtained directly from the
Volume Adjustment and Saturation Flow Rate Worksheet. The flow ratio for each lane
group is computed as v/s and entered in columns representing primary and secondary
phases.
Effective green time The next step is to calculate movement lost time for all primary and secondary
defined
phases using the start-up lost time (l1), extension time (e), and yellow-plus-all-red time

Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections 16-32

Applications
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(Y). Effective green times are calculated using actual green time (G) and movement lost
time (tL). Then the g/C ratio for each lane group, the effective green time divided by the
cycle length, is computed and used to compute lane group capacity. Effective green
times can be taken as equal to the actual green time plus the change-and-clearance
interval minus the lost time for the movement.
The capacity of each lane group is computed from Equation 16-6 as the saturation Minimum capacity for
permitted left turns
flow rate times the green ratio. A minimum capacity value based on sneakers per cycle
must be imposed as a practical matter for all permitted left-turning movements. This
value may be computed as indicated on the worksheet.
The v/c ratio (X) for each lane group is computed. At this point in the computations,
critical lane groups and lost time per cycle may be identified according to the guidelines
discussed. A critical lane group is defined as the lane group with the highest flow ratio in
each phase or set of phases. When overlapping phases exist, all possible combinations of
critical lane groups must be examined for the combination producing the highest sum of
flow ratios. Critical lane groups are identified by a check mark. The flow ratios for
critical lane groups are summed. The critical v/c ratio, Xc , which indicates the degree of
saturation associated with the geometrics, volumes, and signal phasing, is then computed.

Delay and Level of Service

The LOS module combines the results of the volume adjustment, saturation flow
rate, and capacity analysis modules to find the average control delay per vehicle in each
lane group. LOS is directly related to delay and is found from Exhibit 16-2. The
worksheet for this module is also shown in Exhibit 16-22. Lane group capacities and
flow rates are the sum of primary and secondary phases from the capacity analysis
section.
Delay is found from Equations 16-9 through 16-14. The worksheet is designed for
computation of the uniform and incremental delay terms separately. The uniform delay is
multiplied by the progression adjustment factor (PF) to account for the impact of
progression. The value of PF is obtained from Exhibit 16-12. If a measured or estimated
value of P was used in lieu of the arrival type in the computation of PF, the arrival type
may be determined from Exhibit 16-11. In this case, the platoon ratio, Rp, must first be
estimated by Rp = PC/g.
When no residual queue exists from a previous time period, the initial queue delay For an analysis of an initial
queue, see Appendix F
term, d3, is equal to zero. When an initial queue of vehicles exists at the start of the
analysis period (observed at the beginning of the red phase), the procedures in Appendix
F are used to modify the calculation of d1, to calculate d3, and to determine delay and
LOS.
For exclusive left-turn lane groups with both protected and permitted phases, the See Appendix E for analysis
of protected-plus-permitted
supplemental worksheet presented in Exhibit 16-23 is used for calculation of uniform phasing
delay. Discussions of this procedure are also included in Appendix E.
The second term of the delay equation accounts for the incremental delay, that is, the
delay over and above uniform delay due to random arrivals rather than uniform arrivals
and those due to cycles that fail. It is based on the v/c ratio (X) and the capacity for the
lane group (c). The capacity for each lane group is taken from the top part of the
Capacity and LOS Worksheet.
The incremental delay calibration factor (k) is obtained from Exhibit 16-13. This
value is a function of the controller type and degree of saturation. For isolated
intersections, the upstream filtering or metering adjustment factor (I) is set equal to 1.0.
Refer to Chapter 15 for further information on this factor. The second-term delay is
computed using Equation 16-12.

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EXHIBIT 16-23. SUPPLEMENTAL UNIFORM DELAY WORKSHEET FOR LEFT TURNS FROM EXCLUSIVE
LANES WITH PROTECTED AND PERMITTED PHASES
SUPPLEMENTAL UNIFORM DELAY WORKSHEET FOR LEFT TURNS FROM EXCLUSIVE
LANES WITH PROTECTED AND PERMITTED PHASES

General Information

Project Description ____________________________________________________________________________________

v/c Ratio Computation

EB WB NB SB
Cycle length, C (s)
Protected phase eff. green interval, g (s)
Opposing queue effective green interval, gq (s)
Unopposed green interval, gu (s)
Red time, r (s)
r = C – g – gq – gu
Arrival rate, qa (veh/s)
v
qa =
3600 * max[X, 1.0]
Protected phase departure rate, sp (veh/s)
sp = s
3600
Permitted phase departure rate, ss (veh/s)
s(g + g )
ss = (g *q 3600)u
u
If leading left (protected + permitted)
q (g + g )
v/c ratio, Xperm = a sq g u
s u
If lagging left (permitted + protected)
qa(r + gq + gu)
v/c ratio, Xperm = ss gu
If leading left (protected + permitted)
qa(r + g)
v/c ratio, Xprot =
sp g
If lagging left (permitted + protected)
v/c ratio, Xprot is N/A
Uniform Queue Size and Delay Computations
Queue at beginning of green arrow, Qa
Queue at beginning of unsaturated green, Qu
Residual queue, Qr
Uniform delay, d1
Uniform Queue Size and Delay Equations

Case Qa Qu Qr d1
If Xperm ≤ 1.0 & Xprot ≤ 1.0 1 qa r qa gq 0 [0.50/(q a C)][rQ a + Qa 2/(s p– q a ) + gqQu + Qu2/(s s – qa )]
If Xperm ≤ 1.0 & Xprot > 1.0 2 qa r Qr + qa gq Qa – g(sp – qa ) [0.50/(qa C)][rQ a + g(Qa + Qr) + gq(Q r + Qu) + Qu2/(s s – qa )]
If Xperm > 1.0 & Xprot ≤ 1.0 3 Qr + qa r qa gq Qu – g u(ss – qa ) [0.50/(q a C)][g qQu + gu(Q u + Qr) + r(Q r + Qa ) + Qa 2/(s p– qa )]
If Xperm ≤ 1.0 (lagging lefts) 4 0 qa (r + g q) 0 [0.50/(q a C)][(r + gq)Qu + Q u2/(s s – q a )]
If Xperm > 1.0 (lagging lefts) 5 Qu – g u(ss – qa ) qa (r + g q) 0 [0.50/(q a C)][(r + gq)Q u + gu(Q u + Qa ) + Qa2/(sp – q a )]

Delay and LOS are found by multiplying the uniform delay by the progression factor
and adding the result to the incremental delay and initial queue delay, in accordance with
Equation 16-9. The LOS corresponding to this delay, taken from Exhibit 16-2, is entered
on the Capacity and LOS Worksheet.
In the event that the analysis period is oversaturated or when there is a final residual
queue at the end of the analysis period, additional analysis periods should be studied until
the residual queue no longer occurs.

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The average delay per vehicle is found for each approach by adding the product of
the lane group flow rate and the delay for each lane group on the approach and dividing
by the total approach flow rate. LOS is determined from Exhibit 16-2.
The average control delay per vehicle for the intersection as a whole is found by
adding the product of the approach flow rate and the approach delay for all approaches
and dividing the sum by the total intersection flow rate. This weighted-average delay is
entered at the bottom of the Capacity and LOS Worksheet. The overall intersection LOS
is found from Exhibit 16-2.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
The computations discussed in the previous section result in an estimation of the
average delay per vehicle in each lane group for each approach and for the intersection as
a whole. LOS is directly related to delay values and is assigned on that basis. LOS is a
measure of the acceptability of delay levels to motorists at a given intersection. When
delays are unacceptable, the causes of delay should be carefully examined. Although the
discussion below is clearly not exhaustive, some of the more common situations are as
follows.
1. LOS is an indication of the general acceptability of delay to drivers. It should be
noted that this is somewhat subjective: what might be acceptable in a large city is not
necessarily acceptable in a smaller city or rural area.
2. When delay levels are acceptable for the intersection as a whole but are
unacceptable for certain lane groups, the phase plan, allocation of green time, or both
might be examined to provide for more efficient handling of the disadvantaged movement
or movements.
3. When delay levels are unacceptable but v/c ratios are relatively low, the cycle
length may be too long for prevailing conditions, the phase plan may be inefficient, or
both. It should be noted, however, that when signals are part of a coordinated system, the
cycle length at individual intersections is determined by system considerations, and
alterations at isolated locations may not be practical.
4. When both delay levels and v/c ratios are unacceptable, the situation is critical.
Delay is already high, and demand is near or over capacity. In such situations, the delay
may increase rapidly with small changes in demand. The full range of potential
geometric and signal design improvements should be considered in the search for
improvements.
The following point must be emphasized: unacceptable delay can exist where
capacity is a problem as well as in cases in which it is adequate. Further, acceptable
delay levels do not automatically ensure that capacity is sufficient. Delay and LOS, like
capacity, are complex variables influenced by a wide range of traffic, roadway, and
signalization conditions. The operational analysis techniques presented here are useful in
estimating the performance characteristics of the intersection and in providing basic
insights into probable causal factors.
The determination of LOS is based on average control delay. It is possible,
however, for average delay to decrease with increasing volumes if the volume increases
occur in movements with less than the average delay. Even with increases in more than
one movement on an approach, the net effect can still be a decrease in average delay if
the movements with less than average delay increase sufficiently.
One way to avoid this anomaly is to consider the change in mean delay on a lane-
group-by-lane-group basis rather than by averaging delay over the entire intersection.
Adding traffic to a particular lane group will always increase the delay for that lane group
(as long as all other factors remain unchanged).
These procedures do not, however, account for all possible conditions. The
influences of such characteristics as specific curb-corner radii, intersection angle,
combinations of grades on various approaches, odd geometric features (offset
intersections, narrowing on the departure lanes, etc.), and other unusual site-specific

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conditions are not addressed in the methodology. Field studies may be conducted in such
cases to determine delay directly (see Appendix A) and or to calibrate the prevailing
saturation flow rate (see Appendix H).
At the completion of a capacity calculation, the characteristics of the intersection
have been defined. These characteristics must be evaluated in their own right as well as
in conjunction with the delays and LOS resulting from the delay and LOS calculation.
Some key factors to consider when the results of capacity computations are assessed are
identified in the following text. A critical v/c ratio of greater than 1.0 indicates that the
signal and geometric design cannot accommodate the combination of critical flows at the
intersection. The given demand in these movements exceeds the capacity of the
intersection to handle them. The condition may be ameliorated by increased cycle length,
changes in the phasing plan, and basic changes in geometrics.
The analysis requires Computations should be conducted using arrival volumes. When the v/c ratios are
use of demand volumes,
not departure volumes, less than 1.0, arrival and departure volumes are the same. When v/c ratios are greater
to make a proper than 1.0, either for an individual lane group or for the overall intersection, departure
estimate
volumes are less than arrival volumes. By definition, future volume forecasts are also
arrival volumes. When counts of actual departure volumes are used in analysis, the actual
v/c ratio cannot be greater than 1.0. If v/c ratios greater than 1.0 persist for actual
departure volumes, it is an indication that the intersection operates more efficiently than
anticipated by these computational techniques or that the saturation flow rates used in the
calculations are lower than those actually experienced in the field.
When the critical v/c ratio is acceptable but the v/c ratios for critical lane groups vary
widely, the green-time allocation should be reexamined, because disproportionate
distribution of available green is indicated. If permitted left turns result in extreme
reductions in saturation flow rate for applicable lane groups, protected phasing might be
considered. If the critical v/c ratio exceeds 1.0, it is unlikely that the existing geometric
and signal design can accommodate the demand. Changes in either or both should be
considered. When v/c ratios are unacceptable and signal phasing already includes
protective phasing for significant turning movements, it is probable that geometric
changes will be required to ameliorate the condition.
The capacity of an intersection is a complex variable depending on a large number of
prevailing traffic, roadway, and signalization conditions. Suggestions on interpretation
are not meant to be exhaustive or complete but merely to point out some of the more
common problems that can be identified from the Capacity and LOS Worksheet results.

ANALYSIS TOOLS
The worksheets shown in Exhibits 16-20, 16-21, and 16-22 and provided in
Appendix I can be used to perform Operational (LOS), Design (vp), Design (Sig), and
Design (Geom) analysis types. The worksheets shown in Chapter 10, Appendix B, can
be used to perform Planning (Xcm) applications.

Chapter 16 - Signalized Intersections 16-36

Applications