LECTURE NOTES

ON

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

III B.TECH(EEE) II SEMESTER (JNTUK R13)

 Unit I

PER UNIT REPRESENTATION & TOPOLOGY

Per Unit (pu) System

In power system analysis, it is common practice to use per-unit quantities for analyzing and
communicating voltage, current, power, and impedance values. These per-unit quantities are
normalized or scaled on a selected base, as shown in the equation below, allowing engineers
to simplify power system calculations with multiple voltage transformations


 


  
 =

 


Historically, per-unit values have made power calculations performed by hand much simpler.
With many calculations now being done using computer software, this is no longer the
primary advantage; however, some advantages still exist. For example, when analyzing
voltage on a larger system scale with many different nominal voltages via step-up and step-
down transformers, per-unit quantities provide an easy way to assess the condition of the
entire system without verifying the specific nominal voltage of each subsystem. Another
advantage is the fact that per-unit quantities tend to fall in a relatively narrow range, making
it easy to identify incorrect data. In addition to these advantages, most power flow analysis
software requires input and reports results per unit. For these reasons, it is important for
engineers and technicians to understand the per-unit concept.

Understanding Per-Unit Quantities

In three-phase power systems, voltage and apparent power (VA) are typically chosen as
bases; from these, current, impedance, and admittance bases can be determined using the
following equations.

For equipment such as motors, generators, and transformers, the base power rating and
voltage are typically used to calculate a per-unit impedance. In some instances it is necessary
to convert these per-unit values with different power and voltage bases to one common base.
The power base will remain constant throughout the system, and the voltage base is typically
the nominal voltage for each part of the system. The equation for converting to a new
impedance base is as follows:

Single line diagram or One-line diagram

Electric power systems are supplied by three-phase generators. Ideally, the generators are
supplying balanced three phase loads. Fig.1.1 shows a star connected generator supplying star
connected balanced load.

A balanced three-phase system is always solved as a single-phase circuit composed of

one of the three lines and the neutral return. Single-phase circuit of three-phase system
considered above is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Often the diagram is simplified further by omitting the neutral and by indicating the
component parts by standard symbols rather than by their equivalent circuits. Such a
simplified diagram of electric system is called a one-line diagram. It is also called as
single line diagram. The one-line diagram of the simple three-phase system considered
above is shown in Fig. 1.3.

This system has two generators, one solidly grounded and the other grounded through a
resistor, that are connected to a bus and through a step-up transformer to a transmission
line. Another generator, grounded through a reactor, is connected to a bus and through a
transformer to the other end of the transmission line. A load is connected to each bus.

On the one-line diagram information about the loads, the ratings of the generators and
transformers, and reactances of different components of the circuit is often given.

Impedance and reactance diagram

In order to calculate the performance of a power system under load condition or upon the
occurrence of a fault, the one line diagram is used to draw the single-phase or per phase
equivalent circuit of the system.

Refer the one-line diagram of a sample power system shown in Fig. 1.4.

The impedance diagram does not include the current limiting impedances shown in the
one-line diagram because no current flows in the ground under balanced condition.
 Fig. 1.5 Per-phase impedance diagram

Fig. 1.6 Per-phase reactance diagram

Graph Theory
Graph theory is the branch of mathematics dealing with graphs. In network analysis,
graphs are used extensively to represent a network being analyzed. The graph of a
network captures only certain aspects of a network; those aspects related to its
connectivity, or, in other words, its topology.
Incidence matrix:

Any oriented graph can be described completely in a compact matrix form. Here we
specify the orientation of each branch in the graph and the nodes at which this branch is
incident. This branch is called incident matrix. When one row is completely deleted from the
matrix the remaining matrix is called a reduced incidence matrix.

The rows of the matrix represent the nodes and the columns represent the branches of the
graph.
i. The elements of the incidence matrix will be +1, -1 or zero.
ii. If a branch is connected to a node and its orientation is away from the node the
corresponding element is marked +1.
iii. If a branch is connected to a node and its orientation is towards the node then the
corresponding element is marked – 1.
iv. If a branch is not connected to a given node then the corresponding element is marked
zero.

Incidence matrix

Complete Incidence Matrix Reduced Incidence Matrix

Complete incidence matrix:
An incidence matrix in which the summation of elements in any column is zero is
called a complete incidence matrix.
 A = a 
It is an N × B matrix with elements of

a = 1, when the branch b is incident to and oriented away from the kth node.
= −1, when the branch b is incident to and oriented towards the kth node.
= 0, when the branch b is not incident to the kth node.


As each branch of the graph is incident to exactly two nodes,

 a = 0

That is, each column of A has exactly two non zero elements, one being +1 and the
other −1. Sum of elements of any column is zero. The columns of A are linearly dependent.
The rank of the matrix is less than N.
Significance of the incidence matrix lies in the fact that it translates all the
geometrical features in the graph into an algebraic expression.

 ∗ "# = 0,
Using the incidence matrix, we can write KCL as

Where "# =branch current vector.

But these equations are not linearly independent. The rank of the matrix  is N − 1.
This property of  is used to define another matrix called reduced incidence matrix or bus
incidence matrix.
For the oriented graph shown in Fig. 2.3(a), the incidence matrix is as follows:

Branches
Nodes 1 2 3 4 5
a −1 1 −1 0 0
b 1 0 0 1 0
A = 4 6
c 0 −1 0 −1 −1
d 0 0 1 0 1

Reduced incidence matrix:

The reduced incidence matrix is obtained from a complete incidence matrix by
eliminating a row. Hence the summation of elements in any column is not zero.
Any node of a connected graph can be selected as a reference node. Then the voltages

reference. The matrix obtained from  by deleting the row corresponding to the reference
of the other nodes (referred to as buses) can be measured with respect to the assigned
node is the element bus incident matrix A and is called bus incidence matrix with dimension

From A, we have  ∗ "# = 0, which represents a set of linearly independent

(N − 1) × B. A is rectangular and therefore singular.

equations and there are N − 1 independent node equations.

For the graph shown in Fig 2.3(a), with d selected as the reference node, the reduced
incidence matrix is

Branches
Nodes 1 2 3 4 5
a −1 1 −1 0 0
A = b 7 1 0 0 1 0 8
c 0 −1 0 −1 −1
Det AA gives the number of all possible trees.
9

PRIMITIVE NETWORKS

So far, the matrices of the interconnected network have been defined. These matrices contain
complete information about the network connectivity, the orientation of current, the loops and
cut sets. However, these matrices contain no information on the nature of the elements which
form the interconnected network. The complete behaviour of the network can be obtained
from the knowledge of the behaviour of the individual elements which make the network,
along with the incidence matrices. An element in an electrical network is completely
characterized by the relationship between the current through the element and the voltage
across it.

General representation of a network element: In general, a network element may contain

active or passive components. Figure 2 represents the alternative impedance and admittance
forms of representation of a general network component.
The network performance can be represented by using either the impedance or the admittance
form of representation. With respect to the element, p-q, let,

vpq = voltage across the element p-q,

epq = source voltage in series with the element pq,
ipq= current through the element p-q,
jpq= source current in shunt with the element pq,
zpq= self impedance of the element p-q and
ypq= self admittance of the element p-q.

Performance equation: Each element p-q has two variables, vpq and ipq. The performance
of the given element p-q can be expressed by the performance equations as under:

vpq + epq = zpqipq (in its impedance form)

ipq + jpq = ypqvpq (in its admittance form)

Thus the parallel source current jpq in admittance form can be related to the series source voltage, epq
in impedance form as per the identity:
jpq = - ypq epq

A set of non-connected elements of a given system is defined as a primitive Network and an

element in it is a fundamental element that is not connected to any other element. In the
equations above, if the variables and parameters are replaced by the corresponding vectors
and matrices, referring to the complete set of elements present in a given system, then, we get
the performance equations of the primitive network in the form as under:
v + e = [z] i
i + j = [y] v
Primitive network matrices: A diagonal element in the matrices, [z] or [y] is the self
impedance zpq-pq or self admittance, ypq-pq. An off-diagonal element is the mutual impedance,
zpq-rs or mutual admittance, ypq-rs, the value present as a mutual coupling between the
elements p-q and r-s. The primitive network admittance matrix, [y] can be obtained also by
inverting the primitive impedance matrix, [z]. Further, if there are no mutually coupled
elements in the given system, then both the matrices, [z] and [y] are diagonal. In such cases,
the self impedances are just equal to the reciprocal of the corresponding values of self
admittances, and vice-versa.

Bus Admittance Matrix

Bus admittance matrix (YBus) for an n-bus power system is square matrix of size n × n. The
diagonal elements represent the self or short circuit driving point admittances with respect to
each bus. The off-diagonal elements are the short circuit transfer admittances (or) the
admittances common between any two number of buses. In other words, the diagonal element
yii of the YBus is the total admittance value with respect to the ith bus and yik is the value of
the admittance that is present between ith and kth buses. YBus can be obtained by the
following methods:

1. Direct inspection method

2. Step-by-step procedure

3. Singular transformation

4. Non-singular transformation
 Direct inspection method

Formulation of YBus by direct inspection method is suitable for the small size networks. In
this method the YBus matrix is developed simply by inspecting structure of the network
without developing any kind of equations. Let us consider a 3-bus power system shown in
figure below:

Since [B]T * i is zero because, algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a node is zero. The
source current matrix [j] can be partitioned into,

Where jb is the source acting in parallel across the branches

SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS

The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on the
impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not contain any
information about the behaviour of the interconnected network variables. Hence, it is
necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more meaningful matrices which can relate
variables of the interconnected network.

Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is described by
n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1) nodes are present,
out of which one of them is designated as the reference node). For example a 5-bus system
will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The performance equation relating the bus
voltages to bus current injections in bus frame of reference in admittance form is given by

IBUS = YBUS EBUS

where

EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus

IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus

YBUS = bus admittance matrix

The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by

i + j = [y] v

Pre-multiplying by At (transpose of A), we obtain

A t i +At j = At [y] v

However, A t i =0

Since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents incident
at a bus, which by Kirchhoff’s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the algebraic sum of all
source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the total current injected at the
bus. Hence, A t j = IBUS
Thus we have, IBUS = At [y] v

v =A EBUS
IBUS = At [y] A EBUS
YBUS = At [y] A
The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, the above equation gives
a singular transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance matrix is
given by ,
ZBUS = YBUS-1
Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance, however,
since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the transformation will
obviously be power invariant.
SUMMARY
The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution of any
electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances or admittances.
Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph theory,
independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree branches and links
are distinctly identified. The complete information about the interconnection of the network,
with the directions of the currents is contained in the bus incidence matrix. The information
on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network is contained in the
primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be represented in impedance form or
admittance form. In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected system
is described by (n-1) nodal equations, where n is the number of nodes. The bus admittance
matrix and the bus impedance matrix relate the bus voltages and currents. These matrices can
be obtained from the primitive impedance and admittance matrices.