English For Science

Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF VERB TENSES

1.1 THE SIMPLE TENSES

TENSES EXAMPLES MEANING
SIMPLE PRESENT: a. It snows in Alaska In general, the simple present
b. Tom watches television express events or situations
X X X X X X X X X every day. that exist always, usually,
habitually; they exist now, have
existed in the past, and
probably will exist in the future.
SIMPLE PAST: c. It snowed yesterday At one perticular time in the
d. Tom watched television past, this happened. It began
X last night and ended in the past

SIMPLE FUTURE: e. It will snow tomorrow. At one particular time in the

It is going to snow future, this will happen.
X tomorrow.
f. Tom will watch television
tonight.
Tom is going to watch
television tonight.
1.2 THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES
Form: be + -ing (present participle)
Meaning: The progressive tenses* give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. The
tenses say that an action begins before, is in progress during, and continuous after another time or
action.
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE a. Tom is sleeping right It is now 11:00. Tom went to sleep at
now 10:00 tonight,and he is still asleep.
His sleep began in the past, is in
10:00 11:00 progress at the present time, and
X X probably will continue.

PAST PROGRESSIVE b. Tom was sleeping Tom went to sleep at 10:00 last
when I arrived. night. I arrived at 11:00. He was still
10:00 11:00 asleep. His sleep began before and
X X was in progress at a particular time
in the past. It continued after I
arrived.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE c. Tom will be sleeping Tom will go to sleep at 10:00
when we arrive. tomorrow night. We will arrive at
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

10:00 11:00 11:00. The action of sleeping will

X X begin before we arrive,and it will be
in progress at particular time in the
future. Probably his sleep will
continue.
*The progressive tenses are also called the “continuous” tenses: present continuous, past continuous, and future continuous.

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1.3 THE PERFECT TENSES

Form: have + Past participle

Meaning: The perfect tenses all give the idea that one thing happens before another time or event.

PRESENT PERFECT: a. Tom has already eaten Tom finished eating sometime
before now. The exact time is not
eat now important.
X X

PAST PERFECT: b. Tom had already eaten First Tom finished eating. Later his
when his friend arrived. friend arrived. Tom’s eating was
eat arrive completely finished before another
X X time in the past.

FUTURE PERFECT: c. Tom will already have First Tom will finish eating. Later
eaten when his friend his friend will arrive. Tom’s eating
eat arrive arrives. will be completely finished before
X X another time in the future.

1.4 THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

Form: have + been + -ing (present participle)

Meaning: The perfect progressive tenses give the idea that one event is in progress immediately
before, up to, until another time or event. The tenses are used to express the duration of the first
event.

PRESENT PERFECT a. Tom has been studying for Event in progress: studying.
PROGRESSIVE: two hrs. When? Before now, up to
2 hrs now. How long ? For two
hours.
X X

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: b. Tom had been studying for Event in progress: studying.
2 hrs two hours before his friend When? Before another event
came. in the past. How long? For two
X X
hours.

FUTURE PERFECT c. Tom will have been studying Event in progress: studying.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

PROGRESSIVE: for two hours by the time his When? Before another event
2 hrs friends arrives. in the future. How long? For
two hours.
X X

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1-5 SUMMARY CHART OF VERB TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT: SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE

X X X X X X X X X X

Tom studies every day. Tom is studying right now

SIMPLE PAST PAST PROGRESSIVE

X X
X

Tom studied last night Tom was studying when they came
SIMPLE FUTURE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

X X X

Tom will study tomorrow. Tom will be studying when you come.
PAST PERFECT: PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

X X X X

Tom had already studied Chapter One before Tom had been studying for two hours
he began studying Chapter Two. hefore his friends came.
FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

X X X X
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Tom will already have studied Chapter Four Tom will have been studying for two hours
before he studies Chapter Five. by the time his roommate gets home.

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1.6 SPELLING OF –ING AND –ED FORMS

(1) VERBS THAT END IN A (a) hope hoping hoped -ING FORMS: If the words
CONSONANT AND -E date dating dated ends in –e, drop the –e and
injured injuring injured add –ing.*
-ED FORMS: If the words
ends in a consonant and –
e, just add -d
(2) VERBS THAT END IN A ONE-SYLLABLE VERBS
VOWEL AND A CONSONANT (b) stop stopping stopped 1 vowel → 2 consonants**
rob robbing robbed
beg begging begged
(c) rain raining rained 2 vowels → 1 consonants
Fool fooling fooled
Dream dreaming dreamed
TWO-SYLLABLE VERBS
(d) listen listening listened 1st syllable stressed → 1
Offer offering offered consonants
Open opening opened
(e) begin beginning (began)
Prefer preferring preferred 2nd syllable stressed → 2
Control controlling controlled consonants
(3) VERBS THAT END IN TWO (f) start starting started If the word ends in two
CONSONANTS Fold folding folded consonants, just add the
Demand demanding demanded ending
(4) VERBS THAT END IN -Y (g) enjoy enjoying enjoyed If –y is preceded by a
Pray praying prayed vowel, keep the –y
Buy buying (bought)
(h) study studying studied If –y is preceded by a
Try trying tried consonant:
Reply replying replied -ING FORM: keep the –y,
add –ing.
-ED FORM: change –y to –i,
add -ed
(5) VERBS THAT END IN -ED (i) die dying died -ING FORM: Change –ie to
Lie lying lied –y, add –ing.
-ED FORM: Add -d
*Exception: If a verb ends in –ee, the final –e is not dropped: seeing, agreeing, freeing.
**Exception: -w and –x are not doubled: plow → plowed; fix → fixed. GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 1
EXERCISE-9)
Error analysis: questions and negative verb forms.
Directions: This exercise covers question and negative verb forms you will be using in the following
chapters. Check your understanding of these forms by finding and correcting the errors in the
sentences.
1. Does Pedro walks to work every morning?

2. What you are talking about? I’m not understand you.

3. Did you finished your work?

4. My friend doesn’t liking her apartment.

5. Do you are working for this company?

6. What time your plane did it arrive?

7. How long have you are living in this city?

8. My brother don’t have no job right now.

9. Ali wont to be in class tomorrow.

10. I hadn’t never saw snow before I moved to Canada last year.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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Chapter 2:
PRESENT AND PAST, SIMPLE AND PROGRESSIVE

2-1 SIMPLE PRESENT

a. Water consists of hydrogen The simple present says that

and oxygen. something was true in the past, is
b. The average person breathes true in the present, and will be
21,600 times a day. true in the future. It expresses
c. The world is round. general statement of fact and
XXXXXXXXXXX timeless truths.

d. I study for two hours every The simple present is used to

night express habitual or everyday
e. I get up at seven every activities.
morning.
f. He always eats a sandwitch
for lunch.

2-2 SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE

g. John is sleeping right now. The present progressive

h. I need an umbrella because it is expresses an activity that is
raining. in progree at the moment of
i. The students are sitting at their speaking. It is a temporary
desk right now. activity that began in the
past, is continuing at
present, and will probably
end at some point in the
future.
start now finish

j. I am taking five courses this Often the activity is of a

X X semester. general nature: something
k. John is trying to improve his work generally in progress this
In progress
habits. week, this month, this year.
l. Susan is writing another book this Note (l): the sentence means
year. that writing a book is general
activity Susan is enggaged in
at present, but it doesn’t
mean that at the moment of
speaking she is speaking she
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

is sitting at her desk with pen

in hand.

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2-3 STATIVE VERB

a. Yum! This food tastes good. Some English verb have stative meaning,
b. INCORRECT: This food is tasting good. I am describe states: condition or situation that
liking it very much. exist. In (a): tastes and like have stative
meaning.

c. The chef is in his kichen. He is tasting the A verb such as taste has a stative meaning,
sauce. but also a progressive meaning.
d. It tastes too salty.
A verb such as like has a stative meaning. It is
e. He doesn’t like it.
rarely, if ever, used in progressive tenses.
f. (INCORRECT): He isn’t liking it.

COMMON VERBS THAT HAVE STATIVE MEANING: Verb with an asterisk (*) are like the verb
taste: they can have both stative and progressive meaning.
(1) MENTAL STATE: Know, realise, understand, recognise, believe, feel, suppose,
think*, imagine*, doubt*, remember*, forget*, want*, need,
desire, mean*.
(2) EMOTIONAL STATE Love, like, appreciate, please, prefer, hate, dislike, fear, envy,
mind, care
(3) POSSESSION Possess, have*, own, belong.
(4) SENSE PERCEPTIONS Taste*, smell*, hear, feel*,see*
(5) OTHER EXISTING Seem, look*, appear*, sound, resemble, look like, cost*, owe,
STATE weigh*, equal, be*, exist, matter.
2-4 AM/IS/ARE BEING + ADJECTIVE
a. Ann is sick today Be + Adj. Usually express a stative meaning,
Alex is nervous about the exam. as in the examples (a).
Tom is tall and handsome
b. Jack doesn’t feel well, but he refuses to see a Sometimes main verb be + an adjective Is
doctor. He is being foolish. used in the progressive. It is used in the
c. Sue is being very quit today. I wonder if progressive when it describes temporary, in-
anything is wrong progress behaviour.
In (b): Jack’s foolishness in temporary and
probably uncharacteristic of him.
d. INCORRECT: Mr. Smith is being old. In (d): Age does not describe a temporary
CORRECT : Mr. Smith is old behaviour. Be + old can not be used in the
progressive.
Examples of other adjectives that cannnot be
used with am/is/are being: angry, beatiful,
handsome, happy, healthy, hungry, lucky,
nervous, sick, thisty, young.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

ADJECTIVES THAT CAN BE USED WITH AM/IS/ARE BEING:

bad (ill behaved), careful, cruel, fair, foolish, funny, generous, good, illogical, impolite, irresponsible, kind, lazy, logical, loud, nice,
noisy, patient, polite, quiet, responsible, rude, serious, silly, unfair, unkind, unpleasant.

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2-5 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

REGULAR VERBS: The simple past and past participle end in – English verbs have four principal
ed. parts:
SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST PRESENT (1) simple form
FORM PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE (2) simple past
Hope Hoped Hoped Hoping
Stop Stopped Stopped Stopping (3) past participle
Listen Listened Listened Listened (4) present participle
Study Studied Studied Studying
start started started starting
IRREGULAR VERBS: The simple past and past participle do not
Some verbs have irregular past
end in –ed.
forms.
SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST PRESENT
FORM PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE Most of the irregular vers in
Break Broke Broken Breaking English are given in the
Come Came Come Coming alphabetical list in Chart 2-7, p.
Find Found Found Finding 22.
hit hit hit Hitting
swim swam swum swimming
2-6 REGULAR VERBS: PRONUNCIATION OF –ED ENDINGS

Final –ed has three different pronunciations: /t/, /d/, and /əd/.
(a) looked → look/t/
Final –ed is pronounced /t/ after voiceless sounds.
clapped→ clap/t/
missed → miss/t/ Voiceless sounds are made by pushing air through your mounth; no
watched → watch/t/ sounds comes from your throat. Examples of voiceless sounds: “k,”
finished→ finish/t/ “s,” “ch,” “sh,” “f.”
laughed→ laugh/t/
(b) smell→ smell/d/
Final –ed is pronounced /d/ after voiced sounds.
saved→ save/d/
Voiced sounds come from your throat. If you touch your neck when
cleaned→ clean/d/ you make a voiced sound, you can feel your voice box vibrate.
Examples of voiced sounds: “l,” “v,” “n,” “b,” and all vowel sounds.
robbed→ rob/d/
played→ play/d/

(c) decided→ decide/əd/ Final –ed is pronounced /əd/ after “t” and “d” sounds. The sound
/əd/ adds a whole syllable to a word.
needed→need/əd/
COMPARE: looked = one syllable → look/t/
wanted→ want/əd/
Smelled = one syllable → smell/d/
invited→ invite/əd/
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Needed = two syllables → need/əd/

Wanted = two syllables → want/əd/

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2-7 IRREGULAR VERBS: AN ALPHABETICAL LIST

Note: Verbs followed by a bullet (•) are defined at the end of the list.
SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST
FORM PAST PARTICIPLE FORM PAST PARTICIPLE
arise arose arisen forbid forbide Forbidden
be Was, were been forecash• forecash forecash
bear bore Borne/born forget forgot forgotten
beat beat Beaten/beat forgive forgave forgiven
become became become forsake• forsook forsaken
begin began begun freeze froze frozen
bend bent bent get got Gotten/got*
bet• bet bet give gave given
bid• bid bid Go went gone
bind• bound bound grind• ground ground
bite bit bitten grow grew grown
bleed bled bled Hang** hung hung
blow blew blown have had had
break broke broken hear heard heard
breed• bred bred hide hid Hidden
bring brought brought hit hit hit
broadcast• broadcast broadcast hold held held
build built built hurt hurt hurt
burn Burned/burnt Burned/burnt keep kept kept
burst• burst burst kneel Kneeled/knelt Kneeled/knelt
buy bought bought know knew known
cast• cast cast lay laid laid
catch caught caught lead led led
choose chose chosen lean Leaned/leant Leaned/leant
cling clung clung leap Leaped/leapt Leaped/leapt
come came come learn Learned/learnt Learned/learnt
cost cost cost
creep• crept crept leave left left
cut cut cut lend lent lent
deal• dealt dealt let let let
dig dug dug lie lay lain
do did done light Lighted/lit Lighted/lit
draw drew drawn lose lost lost
dream Dreamed/dreamt Dreamet/dreamt make made made
mean meant meant
eat ate eaten meet met met
fall fell fallen mislay mislaid mislaid
feed fed fed mistake mistook mistaken
feel felt felt pay paid paid
fight fought fought put put put
find found found Quit*** quit quit
fit Fit/fitted fit/fitted read read read
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

flee• fled fled rid rid rid

fling flung Flung ride rode ridden
fly flew flown ring rang rung
*In British English: get-got-got. In American English: get-got-gotten/got
**Hang is aregular verb when it means to kill someone with a rope around his/her. COMPARE: I hung my clothes in the closet. They
hanged the murderer by the neck until he was dead.
***Also possible in British English: quit-quitted-quitted.
2-7 IRREGULAR VERBS: AN ALPHABETICAL LIST
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Note: Verbs followed by a bullet (•) are defined at the end of the list.
SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE SIMPLE PAST
FORM PAST PARTICIPLE FORM PAST PARTICIPLE
rise rose risen spring• Sprang/sprung sprung
run ran run stand stood stood
say said said steal stole stolen
see saw seen stick stuck stuck
seek• sought Sought sting• stung stung
sell sold Sold stink• Stank/stunk stunk
send sent Sent strike• struck Struck/stricken
set set set strive• Strove/strived Striven/strived
shake shook shaken string strung strung
shed• shed shed swear swore sworn
shine Shone/shined Shone/shined sweep swept swept
shoot shot shot swim swam swum
show showed Shown/showed swing• swung swung
shrink• Shrank/shrunk shrunk take took taken
shut shut shut teach taught taught
sing sang sung tear tore torn
sink• sank sunk tell told told
sit sat sat think thought thought
sleep slept slept throw threw thrown
slide• slid slid thrust• thrust thrust
slit• slit slit understand understood understood
smell Smelled/smelt Smelled/smelt undertake undertook undertaken
speak spoke spoken upset upset upset
speed Sped/speeded Sped/speeded wake Woke/waked Woken/waked
spell Spelled/spelt Spelled/spelt wear wore worn
spend spent spent weave• wove woven
spill Spilled/spilt Spilled/spilt weep• wept wept
spin• spun spun win won won
spit Spit/spat Spit/spat wind• wound wound
split• split split withdraw withdrew withdrawn
spoil Spoiled/spoilt Spoiled/spoilt write wrote written
spread• spread spread
•Definitions of some of the less frequently used irregular verbs:
Bet wager; offer to pay money if one Forecast predict a future Spring jump or rise suddently from a still
loses accurrence position
bid Make antara offer of money, usually forsake Abando or desert sting Cause pain with a sharp object (e.g.,
at a public sale pin) or bite (e.g., by antara insect)
bind Fasten or secure grind Crush, reduce to small stink Have a bad or foul smell
pieces
breed Bring animals together to produce seek Look for strike Hitung something by force
young
broadcast Send information by radio waves; shed Drop off or get rid of strive Try hard to achieve a goal
announce
burst Explode; break suddently shrink Become smaller swing Move back and forth
cast Throw sink Move downward, thrust Push forcibly; shove
often under water
cling Hold on tightly slide Glide smoothly; slip or weave Form by passing pieces of material
skid over and under each other (as in
making baskets, cloth)
creep Crawl close to the ground; move slit Cut a narrow opening weep Cry
slowly and quietly
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

deal Distribute playing cards to each spin Turn rapidly around a wind (sounds line find) turn around and
person; give attention to (deal with) central point around
flee Escape; run away split Divide into two or
more parts

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2-8 TROUBLESOME VERB: RAISE/RISE, SET/SIT, LAY/LIE

TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE Raise, set, and lay are transitive verb:
they are follow by an object. Rise, sit,
a. Raise, raised, b. Rise, rose, risen
and lie are intransitive; i.e., they are
raised The sun rises in the east
NOT followed by an object.
Tom raised his
hand In (a) raised is followed by the object
c. Set, set, set d. Sit, sat, sat hand. In (b) rises is not followed by an
I will set the I sit in the front row object.
book on the desk NOTE: lay and lie are troublesome for
e. Lay, laid, laid f. Lie*, lay, lain native speakers too and are frequently
I am laying the He is lying on his bed misused.
book on the desk
*Lie is a regular verb (lie, lied) when it means “not tell the truth”: He lied to me about his age.

2-9 SIMPLE PAST

a. I walked to school yesterday. The simple past indicates

b. John lived in Paris for ten years, that an activity or situation
but now he lives in Rome. began and ended at a
c. I bought a new car three days ago. particular time in the past.
X
d. Rita stood under a tree when it If a sentence contains
began to rain. when and has the simple
e. When Mrs . Chu heard a strange past in both clauses, the
noise,she got up to investigate. action in the when clause
f. When I deopped my cup, the happens firs. In (d): 1st the
coffee spilled on my lap. rain began. 2nd: she stood
under a tree.
2-10 PAST PROGRESSIVE
g. I was walking down the street In (g):
when it began to rain. 1st: I was walking down the
h. While I was walking down the street.
street, it began to rain. 2nd: It began to rain.
start now finish
i. Rita was standing under a tree Both action occured at the same
when it began to rain. time, but one action began
j. At eight o’clock last night, I was earlier and was in progress
X X
studying. when the other action occured.
In progress
k. Last year at this time, I was In (j):
attending school. My studying began before 8.00,
was in progress at that time,and
probably continued.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

l. While I was studying in one Sometimes the past progressive

room of our apartment, my is used in both parts of a
roommate was having a party sentence when two action are in
in the other room. progress simultaneously.

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2-11 USING PROGRESSIVE VERBS WITH ALWAYS TO COMPLAIN

(a) Mary always leaves for school at 7:45 In sentence referring to present time,
usually the simple present isused with
always to describe habitual or
everyday activities, as in (a)

(b) Mary is always leaving her dirty socks on the floor In special circumtances, a speaker
for me to pick up! Who does she think I am? Her may use the present progressive with
maid? always to complain, i.e., to express
annoyance or anger, as in (b)

(c) I am always/forever/constantly picking up Mary’s In addition to always, the word

dirty socks! forever and constantly are also used
with the present progressive to
express annoyance.

(d) I did’t like having Sam for my roomate last year. He Always, forever, and constantly can
was always leaving his dirty clothes on the floor. also be used with the past progressive
to express annoyance or anger.

COMPARE:
(1). “Mary is always leaving her dirty socks on the floor” express annoyance.
(2). “Mary always leaves her dirty socks on the floor” is a statement of fact in which the
speaker is not necessarily expressing an attitude of annoyance. Annoyance may, however, be
shown by the speaker’s tone of voice.

2-12 USING EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE WITH PROGRESSIVE VERBS

(a) – What is Kay doing? An expression of place can sometimes

come between the auxilary be and the
- She’s studying in her room.
–ing verb in a progressive tense, as in
(b) – Where’s Kay? (b) and (d):
- She’s in her room studying Is + in her room + studying
Was + in bed + reading
(c) – What was Jack doing when you arrived? In (a): The focus of both the question
- He was reading a book in bed and the answer is on Kay’s activity in
progress, i.e., on what she doing.
(d) – Where as Jack when you arrived?
In (b): The focus of focus of both the
- He was in bed reading a book question and the answer is on Kay’s
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

location, i.e., on where Kay is.

EXERCISE CHAPTER 2
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EXERCISE 25.
Error analysis: present and past verb.
Direction: Correct the errors.
1. Breakfast is in an important meal. I’m always eating breakfast.
2. During I was working in my office yesterday, my cousin stops by to visit me.
3. Portugal lays to the west of Spain.
4. Yuki stayed home because she catched a bad cold.
5. My brother is looking like our father, but I am resembling my mother.
6. As a verb, “sink” is meaning “move downward.” What it means as a noun?
7. Sang-Joon, are you listen to me? I am talk to you!
8. I rewinded the rented video before I return it to the store yesterday.
9. Abdallah is want a snack. He’s being hungry.
10. Anna rose her eyebrows in surprise.
11. Yesterday I was working at my computer when Shelley was coming to the door of my
office. I wasn’t knowing she was there. I was concentrate hard on my work. When she
suddenly speak, I am jump. She startle me.
12. While I was surfing the net yesterday, I was finding a really interesting Web site.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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Chapter 3: PERFECT AND PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

3.1 PRESENT PERFECT

(a) They have moved into a new The present perfect expresses the
apartment idea that something happened
(b) Have you ever visited (or never happened) before now,
(time?) Mexico? at an unspecified time in the past.
X X (c) I have never seen snow. The exact time it happened is not
(d) I have already seen that important.
movie.
If there is a specific mention of
(e) Jack hasn’t seen it yet.
time, the simple past is used:
(f) Ann started a letter to her
They moved into a new
parents last week, but she still
apartement last month.
hasn’t finished it.
(g) Alex feels bad. He has just Notice in the examples: the
heard some bad news. adverb ever, never, already, yet,
still, and just are frequently used
with the present perfect.

(h) We have had four test so far The present perfect also
this semester. expresses the repitition of an
(i) I have written my wife a letter activity before now. The exact
X X
every other day for the last time of each repitition is not
two weeks. important.
xxxxx (j) I have met many people since
Notice in (h): so far is frequently
I came here in June.
used with the present perfect.
(k) I have flown on an airplane
many times.

(l) I have been here since seven The present perfect, when used
o’clock with for or since, also expresses a
X X (m) We have been here for two situation that began in the past
weeks. and continues to the present*.
(n) I havehad this same pair of
In the examples, notice the
shoes for three years.
differnce between since and for:
(o) I have liked cowboy movies
ever since I was child. since + a particular time.
(p) I have known him for many for + a duration time
years.

*) The verb used in the present perfect to express a situation that began in the past and still exists are typically verb
with stative meaning.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

The present perfect progressive, rather than the present perfect, is used with action verbs to express an activity that
began in the past and continues to the present:
I’ve been sitting at my desk for an hour. Jack has been watching TV since seven o’clock.

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3.2 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Right now I am sitting at my desk. This tense is used to indicate the

duration of an acivity that began
(a) I have been sitting here since
in the past and continuous to the
seven o’clock.
present. When the tenses has this
(b) I have been sitting here for
meaning, it is used with time
two hours.
words, such as for, since, all
(c) You have been studying for
morning, all day, all weeks.
five straight hours. Why dont
you take a break?
X X (d) It has been raining all day. It
is still raining right now.

(e) I have known Alex since he Reminder: verbs with stative

wass a child. meanings are not used in the
(f) INCORRECT: I have been progressive. The present perfect
knowing Alex since he was a progressive, is used with stative
child. verbs to describe the duration of
a state (rather than an activity)
that began in the past and
continuous to the present.
(g) I have been thinking about When the tense is used without
changing my major. any spesific mention of time, it
(h) All of students have been expresses a general activity in
X X
studying hard. Final exam progress recently, lately.
start next week.
recently
(i) My back hurts, So I have been
sleeping on the floor lately.
The bed is too soft.

(j) I have lived here since 1995. With certain verbs (most notably
I have been living here since live, work, teach), there is little or
1995. no difference in meaning
(k) He has worked at the same between the two tenses when
store for ten years. since or for is used.
He has been working at the
same store for ten years. GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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3.3 PAST PERFECT

(a) Sam had already left by This tense is used to indicate the
X X the time Ann there. duration of an acivity that began in
(b) The thief simply walked in. the past and continuous to the
Someone had forgotten to present. When the tenses has this
lock the door. meaning, it is used with time words,
such as for, since, all morning, all
day, all weeks.

(c) Sam had already left when In (c) First: Sam left
Ann got there
Second: Ann got there.*
(d) Some had left before Ann If either before or after is used in
got there. the sentences, the past perfect is
(e) Sam left before Ann got often not necessary because the
there. time relationship is already clear.
(f) After the guests had left, I The simple past may be used, as in
went to bed. (e) and (g). Note: (d) and (e) have
(g) After the guests left, I went the same meaning; (f) and (g) have
to bed same meaning.
*COMPARE: Sam left when Ann got there. = First: Ann got there.
Second: Sam left.

3.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

(a) The police had been looking This tense is used to indicate the
X X for the criminal for two years duration of an acivity that began
before they caught him. in the past and continuous to the
present. When the tenses has this
(b) Eric finally came at six o’clock.
meaning, it is used with time
I had been waiting for him words, such as for, since, all
since four thirty. morning, all day, all weeks.

(c) When Judy got home, her hair This tenses also may express an
was still wet because she had activity in progress close in time
been swimming. to another activity or time in the
(d) I went to Jane’s house after past.
the funeral. Her eyes were red
because she had been crying.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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Exercise Chapter 3EXERCISE 19.

Error analysis: present and past verbs.
Direction: Correct the errors.
1. Since I came to this country, I am learning a lot about the way of life here.
2. Before I come here, I never was buying anything from a vending machine.
3. I arrive here only a short time ago. I am here only since last Friday.
4. When I arrived here, I hadn’t known much about the United States. I saw many movies
about America, but that wasn’t enough.
5. My understanding of this country changed a lot since I arrived.
6. When I was in my country, I had coached a children’s soccer team. When I came here, I
had wanted to do the same thing. Now I am coaching a soccer team at local elementary
school. I am coaching this team for the last two months.
7. My grandfather had lived in a small village in Italy when he was a child. At nineteen, he
had moved to Rome, where he had met and had married my grandmother in 1947. My
father had been born in Rome in 1950. I am born in Rome in 1979.
8. I’m living in my cousin’s apartment since I have arrived here. I’m not able to find my own
apartment yet. I look at several places for rent, but I don’t find one that I can afford.
9. How long you been living here? I been here for almost two year.
10. Why you no have been in class the last couple of days?

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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Chapter 4: FUTURE TIME

4-1 SIMPLE FUTURE: WILL AND BE GOING TO

(a) Jack will finish his work tomorrow. Will or be going to is used to
(b) Jack is going to finish his work express future time.* In
X speech going to is often
tomorrow.
prononced “gonna.”
(c) Anna will not be here tomorrow.
In (d) The contracted form of
(d) Anna won’t be here tomorrow. will + not is won’t

*) The use of shall with I or we to express future time is possible but uncommon in American English.
Shall is used more frequently in British English than in American English.

4-2 WILL vs. BE GOING TO

To Express a PREDICTION: use either WILL or BE GOING TO.
(a) According to the weather report, it will
When the speaker is making a prediction (a
be cloudy tomorrow. statement about something s/he thinks will be
(b) According to the weather report, it is true or will occur in the future), either will or be
going to be cloudy tomorrow. going to is possible.
(c) Be carefull! You’ll hurt yourself. There is ni differnce in meaning between (a)
(d) Watch out! You’re going to hurt and (b).
yourself. There is ni differnce in meaning between (c) and
(d).
To express a PRIOR PLAN: Use only BE GOING TO
(e) A: Why did you buy this paint? When the speaker is expressing a prior plan
B: I’m going to paint my bedroom (something the speaker intends to do in the
tomorrow future because in the past s/he has made a plan
(f) I talk to Bob yesterday. He is tired of or decision to do it), only be going to is used.*
taking the bus to work. He is going to Will is not appropriate in (e) and (f).
buy a car. That’s what he told me.
To express WILLINGNESS: Use only WILL
(g) A: The phone’s ringing. In (g): speaker B is saying “I’m willing; I am
B: I’ll get it. happy to get the phone.” He is not making
(h) I don’t understand this problem. prediction. He has made no prior to answer the
Ask your teacher about it. She’ll help phone. He is, instead, volunteering to answer
you. the phone and uses will to show has willingness.
*COMPARE:
Situation 1: A: Are you busy this evening?
B: Yes, I’m going to meet Jack at the library at seven. We’re going to study together.
In Situation 1, only be going to is possible. The speaker has a prior plan, so he uses be going to.
Situation 2: A: Are you busy this evening?
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

B: Well, I really haven’t made any plans. I’ll eat OR I’m going to eat dinner, of course. And the I’ll
probably watch OR I’m probably going to watch TV for a little while.
In Situation 2, either will or be going to is possible. Speaker B has not planned his evening. He is “predicting” his
evening (rather than stating any prior plans), so he may use either will or be going to.

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4-3 EXPRESSING THE FUTURE IN TIME CLAUSES

(a) Bob will come soon. When Bob comes, In (a): When Bob comes is a time clause.*
we will see him. When + subject + Verb = a time clause.
(b) Linda is going to leave soon. Before she Will or be going to is NOT used in a time clause.
leaves, she is going to finish her work. The meaning of the clause is future, but the
(c) I will get home at 5.30. After I get present tense is used.
home, I will eat dinner.

(d) The taxi will arrive soon. As soon as it A time clause begins with such words as when,
arrives, we’ll be able to leave for the before, after, as soon as, until, while and includes
airport. a subject and a verb. The time clause can come
(e) They are going to come soon. I’ll wait either at the beginning of the sentence or in the
here until they come. second part of the sentence.
When he comes, we’ll see him.
We’ll see him when he comes.
(f) While I am travelling in Europe next Sometimes the present progressive is used in a
year, I am going to save money by time clause to express an activity that will be in
staying in youth hostels. progress in the future.

(g) I will go to bed after I finish my work. Occasionally, the present perfect is used in a time
(h) I will go bed after I have finished my clause, as in (h). Examples (g) and (h) have the
work. same meaning.

A “time clause” is an adverb clause.

4-4 USING THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE AND THE SIMPLE PRESENT TO EXPRESS FUTURE TIME.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: The present progressive may be used to express

future time when the idea of the sentence
(a) My wife has an appointment with a
concerns a planned event or definite intention.
doctor. She is seeing Dr. North next
Tuesday. (COMPARE: A verb such as rain is not used in the
(b) Sam has already made his plans. He is the present progressive to indicate future time
leaving at noon t because rain is not a planned event.)
(c) omorrow.
A future meaning for the present progressive
(d) A: What are you going to this afternoon?
tense is indicated either by future time words in
B: After lunch I am meeting a friend of
the sentence or by the context.
mine. We are going shopping. Would
you like to come along?

SIMPLE PRESENT The simple present can also be used to express

future time in a sentence concerning events that
(e) The museum opens at ten tomorrow
are on a definite schedule or timetable. These
morning.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

sentences usually contain future time words.

(f) John’s plane arrives at 6:05 pm next
Only a few verb are used in tis way: e.g. open,
Monday.
close, begin, end, start, finish, arrive, leave,
come, return.

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4-5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

(a) I will begin to study at seven. The future progressive expresses
You will come at eight. I will be an activity that will be in progress
studying when you come. at a time in the future.
(b) Right now I am sitting in class.
At this same time tomorrow, I
will be sitting in class.
X X (c) Don’t call me at nine because I The progressive form of be going
won’t be home. I am going to to:
be studying at the library. be going to + be + -ing
(d) Don’t get impatient. She will be Sometimes there is little or no
coming soon. difference between the future
(e) Don’t get impatient. She will progressive and thr simple future,
come soon. especially when the future event
will occur at an indefinite time in
the future, as in (d) and (e).

4-6 FUTURE PERFECT

The future perfect expresses an
(a) I will graduate in June. I will
activity that will be completed
see you in July. By the time I
before another time or event in the
X X see you, I will have graduated.
future. (Note: by the time
(b) I will have finished my
introduces a time clause; the
homework by the time I go out
simple present is used in a time
on a date tonight.
clause)

4-7 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

(c) I will go to bed at ten p.m. Ed
The future perfect progressive
will get home at midnight. At
emphasize the duration of an
X X midnight I will be sleeping. I
activity that will be in progress
will have been sleeping for
before another time or event in
two hours by the time Ed gets
the future.
home.
Sometimes the future perfect and
(d) When Profesor Jones retires
the future perfect progressive
next month, he will have
have the same meaning, as in (d)
X X taught for 45 years.
and (e). Also, notice that the
(e) When profesor Jones retires
activity expressed by either of
next month, he will have been
these two tenses may begin in
teaching for 45 years.
the past.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 4
Will vs. be going to
1. Expressing prediction: use will and/or be going to with the verb in parentheses.
(a) Fred (be) _______________ at the meeting tomorrow. I think Jane (come)_____________
too.
(b) In what ways (the damage we do to our environment today, affect) ______________ the
quality of life for future generations?
2. Expressing prior plan vs willingness: use be going to if you think the speaker is expressing
a prior plan. If you think she/he has no prior plan, use will.
(a) A: How about getting together for dinner after work?
B: Sounds good. Where?
A: How about Alice’s Restaurant or the Gateway Cafe? You decide.
B: Alice’s Restaurant. I (meet) _______________ you there around six.
A: Great.
(b) A: Do you have plans for dinner?
B: Yes. I (meet) ______________ a co-worker for dinner at Alice’s Restaurant. Want to join
us?
(c) A: This light doesn’t work. The bulb is probably burned out. Do we have any new light
bulbs?
B: I (get) _______________ one for you.
A: Thanks.
3. Use the future progressive or simple present.
(a) Right now I am attending class. Yesterday at this time, I was attending class.
Tomorrow at this time, I (attend) ___________________ class.
(b) Tomorrow I’m going to leave for home. When I (arrive) ____________________ at the
airport, my whole family (wait) _____________________ for me.
(c) When I (get) _________________ up tomorrow morning, the sun (shine)
_______________, the birds (sing)_______________, and my roommate (lie, still)
____________ in bed fast asleep.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(d) A: When do you leave for Florida?

B: Tomorrow. Just think! Two days from now I (lie) ___________________ on the beach in
the sun.
A: Sounds great! I (think) __________________ about you.

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Chapter 5: ADVERB CLAUSE OF TIME

5-1 ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME: FORM

adverb Clause main clause In (a): When the phone rang is an adverb
clause of time. An adverb clause in one kind of

(a) When the phone rang, the baby woke up. dependent clause. An dependent clause must
be attached to an independent, or main,
clause. In (a): the baby woke up is the main
clause.

(b) INCORRECT: When the phone rang. The Example (b) is incorrect because the adverb
baby woke up. clause is not connected to the main clause.
(c) The phone rang. The baby woke up.
Example (c) is correct because there is no
adverb clause. The two main clauses are both
independent sentences.

(d) When the phone rang, the baby woke up. Example (d) and (e) have the same meaning.
(e) The baby woke up when the phone rang. An adverb clause can come in front of a main
clause, as in (d), or follow the main clauses, as
in (e). Notice that a comma is used to separate
the two clauses when the adverb clause
comes first.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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5-2 USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIP

(a) After she graduates, she will get a job.
after* (b) After she (had) graduated, she got a job. A present tense, NOT a future tense,
is used in an adverb clause of time,
(c) I will leave before he comes.
before* as in example (a) and (c).
(d) I (had) left before he came.

(e) When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.

(f) When I got there, he had already left. When = at that time.
when (g) When it began to rain, I stood under a tree. Notice the different time
(h) When I was in Chicago, I visited the museum. relationship expressed by the
(i) When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him. tenses.

while (j) While I was walking home, it began to rain.

While, as = during that time.
as (k) As I was walking home, it began to rain.
(l) By the time he arrived, we had already left. By the time = one event is
(m) By the time he comes, we will have already completed before another event.
by the time left. Notice the use of the past perfect
and future perfect in the main
clause.
(n) I haven’t seen him since he left this morning. Since = from that time to the
(o) I’ve known her ever since I was a child. present. In (o): ever adds emphasis.
since
Note: the present perfect is used in
the main clause.
(p) We stayed there until we finished our work. Until, till = so that time and then no
until (q) We stayed there till we finished our work. longer (Till is used more in speaking
till than in writing; it is generally not
used in formal English)
(r) As soon as it stops raining, we will leave. As soon as, once = when event
as soon as (s) Once it stop raining, we will leave. happen, another event happens
once
soon afterward.
as long as (t) I will never speak to him again as long as I live As long as, so long as = during all
so long as (u) I will never speak to him again so long as I live that time, from beginning to end.
whenever (v) Whenever I see her, I say hello
(w) Every time I see her, I say hello. Wheneever = every time
every time
(x) The first time (that) I went to new York, I went Adverb clauses can be introduced by
the first
to an opera. the following:
time
(y) I saw two plays the last time (that) I went to first
the last time
New York. the second time (that)
the next
(z) The next time (that) I go to New York, I’m third,etc
time
going to see a ballet.
*After and before are commonly used in the following expressions:
Shortly after, a short time after, not long after, a little while after, soon after
Shortly before, a short time before, a little while before, not long before
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 5
Review of verb tenses.
Direction: Use any appropriate tense.
Jose Hi, my name is Jose.
Ali Hi, my name is Ali.
1 Jose (you, study) _______________ at this university?
2 Ali Yes, I (be) ______________. And you?
3 Jose Yes, I (be) ______________ here since last September. Before that I (study)
_________________ English at another school.
4 Ali What (you, take) ______________ this term?
5 Jose I (take) ___________________ chemistry, math, psychology, and American
history. What (you, take) _________________?
6 Ali I (study) ________________ English. I (need) _________________ to improve my
English before i (take)) ______________ regular academic courses next semester.
7 Jose How long (you, be) _________________ here?
8 Ali I (be) _______________ here since the beginning of this semester. Actually, I
(arrive) _____________ in the United States six months ago, but I (study)
_________________ English at this university only since January. Before that I
(live) _____________ with my brother in Washington, D.C.
9 Jose You (speak) _______________ English very well. (you, study) ______________ a
lot of English before you (come) ______________ to the United States?
10 Ali Yes. I (study) _________________ English for ten years in my own country. And
also, I (spend) _______________ some time n Canada a couple of years ago. I
(pick) __________________ up a lot of English while I (live) _________________
there.
11 Jose You (be) _______________ lucky. When I (come) _________________ to the
United States, I (study, never) __________________ any English at all. So I had to
spend a whole year studying nothing but English before I (start) ______________
school.
12 Ali How long (you, plan) _______________ to be in United States?
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

13 Jose I (be, not) ________________ sure. Probably by the time I (return)

_____________ home, I (be)_______________ here for at least five years. How
about you?
14 Ali I (hope) _______________ to be finished with all my work in two and a half years.

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Chapter 6: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

6-1 FINAL -S/-ES: USE, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING

A final –s or –es is added to a noun to make the noun

(a) NOUN + -S: Friends are important. plural.
NOUN + -ES: I like my classes. Friend: a singular noun
Friends: a plural noun

A final –s or –es is added to a simple present verb

when the subject is a singular noun (e.g., Mary, my
father, the machine) or third person singular pronoun
(b) VERB + -S: Mary works at the bank.
(she, he, it).
VERB + -ES: John watches birds.
Mary works = singular She works = singular
The students work = plural They work = plural

PRONUNCIATION OF –S/-ES
(c) seats → seat/s/ Final –s is pronounced /s/ after voiceless sounds,
Ropes → rope/s/ as in (c): “t,” “p,” and “k” are examples of
Backs → back/s/ voiceless sounds.*
(d) seeds → seed/z/
Final –s is pronounced /z/ after voiced sounds, as
Robes → robe/z/
in (h): “d,” “b,” “g,” and “ee” are examples of
Bags → bag/z/
voiced sounds.
Sees → see/z/
(e) dishes → dish/əz/ Final –s and –es are pronounced /əz/ after “-sh,”
Catches → catch/əz/ “-ch,” “-s,” “-z,” and “-ge”/”-dge” sounds. The
Kisses → kiss/əz/ /əz/ ending adds a syllable. All of the words in (e)
Mixes → mix/əz/ are pronounced with two syllables. COMPARE: All
Prizes → prize/əz/ of the words in (c) and (d) are pronounced with
Edges → edge/əz/ one syllable.
SPELLING: FINAL –S vs. –ES
For most words (whether a verb or a noun),
(f) sing → sings
simply a final –s is added to spell the word
Song → songs
correctly.
(g) wash → washes
Watch → watches
Final –es is added to words that end in –sh, -ch, -
Class → classes
s, -z, and –x.
Buzz → buzzes
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Box → boxes
For words that end in –y:
(h) toy → toys
In (h): If –y is preceded by a vowel, only –s is
Buy → buys
added.
(i) baby → babies
In (i): If –y is preceded by a consonant, the –y is
Cry→ cries
changed to –i and –es is added.

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6-2 FINAL -S/-ES: USE, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB
(b) My friends live in Verb + -s/-es = third person singular
(a) My friend lives in Boston Boston in the simple present tense.
Noun + -s/-es = plural
(c) My brother and Two or more subjects connected by
sister live in Boston. and require a plural verb.
EXCEPTION: Every and each are
(d) Every man, woman, and always followed immediately by
child needs love. singular nouns. In this case, even
(e) Each book and magazine when there are two (or more) nouns
is listed in the cart catalog. connected by and, the verb is
singular.
(h) The ideas in that Sometimes a phrase or clause
book are interesting separates a subject from its verb.
(g) That book on political
(j) My dogs, as well as These interrupting structures do not
parties is interesting
my cat, like cat food. affect basic agreement. For example,
(i) My dog, as well as my cat,
(l) The books I bought in (g) the interrupting propositional
likes cat food.
at the bookstore were phrase on political parties does not
(k) The book that I got from
expensive. change the fact that the verb is mush
my parents was very
agree with the subjrct book. In (k)
interesting.
and (l): the subject and verb are
separated by an adjective clause.
(m) Growing flowers is her A gerund used as the subject of the
hobby. sentence requires a singular verb.
6-3 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB In most expressions

of quantity, the verb
(a) Some of the book is good. (d) Some of the books are good.
is determined by the
(b) A lot of the equpment is new (e) A lot of my friends are here.
noun (pronoun) that
(c) Two-thirds of the money is (f) Two-thirds of the pennies are
follow of.
mine. mine.
EXCEPTIONS: one of, each of, and every one of take
(g) One of my friends is here.
singular verbs.
(h) Each of my friends is here.
One of
(i) Every one of my friends is
Each of + plural noun = singular verb
here.
Every one of
Subjects with none of are
(k) None of the boys
considered singular in very formal
(j) None of the boys is here. are here.
English, but plural verb are often
(informal)
used in informal speech writing.
COMPARE: IN (l): The number is
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

the subject. In (m): A number of is

(m) A number of
(l) The number of students in the an expression of quantity meaning
students were
class is fifteen. “a lot of.” It is followed by a plural
late for class.
noun and a plural verb.

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6-4 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: USING THERE + BE

In the structure there + be, there is called antara
“expletive” it has no meaning as a vocabulary
(a) There are twenty students in my class
word. It introduced the idea that something exists
(b) There’s a fly in the room.
in a particular place.
Pattern: there + be + subject + expression of place
Sometimes the expression of place is omitted
(c) There are seven continents. when the meaning is clear. In (c): The implied
expression of place is clearly in the world.
SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB
(e) There are some The subject follows be when there is used.
(d) There is a book
books on the shelf. In (d): the subject is book.
on the shelf.
In (e): The subject is books.
6-5 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: SOME IRREGURALITIES
SINGULAR VERB
(a) The United States is big.
(b) The philippines consists of more than 7,000 islands.
Sometimes a proper noun that ends in –s is
(c) The united Nations has its headquarter in New York
singular.
City.
(d) Sears is a department store.
(e) The news is interesting. News is singular.
Fields of study that end in –s are singular
(f) Mathematics is easy for her. Physics is easy for her.
verbs.
Certain illness that end in –s are singular:
(g) Diabetes is an illness diabetes, measles, mumps, rabies, rickets,
shingles.
(h) Eight hours of sleep is enough
Expressing of time, money, and distance
(i) Ten dollars is too much to pay.
usually require a singular verb.
(j) Five thousand miles is too far to travel.
(k) Two and two is four
Two and two equals four
Arithmatic expression require singular verb.
Two plus two is/equals four.
(l) Fives times five is twentey five.
PLURAL VERBS:
(m) Those people are from Canada.
People,* police, and cattle do not end in –s, but
(n) The police have been called.
are plural nouns and require plural verb.
(o) Cattle are domestic animals.
In (p): English = language. In (r): the English =
SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB
people from England. Some nouns of
(p) English is (r) The English drink nationality that end in –sh, -ese, and –ch can
spoken in many tea. mean either language or people, e.g., English,
countries. (s) The chinese have an Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese,
(q) Chinese is his interesting history. Portuguese, French.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

native A few adjectives can be preceded by the and

language. (t) The poor have many used as a plural noun (without final –s) to refer
problems. to people who have that quality. Other
(u) The rich get richer. examples: the young, the elderly, the living, the
dead, the blind. The deaf, the disabled.
The word “people” has a final –s (people) only when it is used to refer to ethnic or national groups: all the people of world disire
peace.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 6
EXERCISE 15.
Error analysis: subject-verb agreement.
Directions: Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement
1. The books in my office is (are) very valuable to me.
2. All of the windows in our house were broken in the earthquake. (no errors)
3. All of the employees in that company is required to be proficient in a second language.
4. A lot of the people in my class works during the day and attends class in the evening.
5. Listening to very load music at rock concerts have caused hearing loss in some teenagers.
6. Many of the satellites orbiting the earth is used for communications.
7. The news about the long-range effect of air pollution on the development of children’s lungs
is disturbing.
8. Chinese have more than fifty thousand written characters.
9. About two-thirds of the Vietnamese works in agriculture.
10. A number of planes were delayed due to the snowstorm in Denver.
11. A number of passengers affected by the delays was great.
12. More men than women are left-handed.
13. Every girl and boy are required to have certain immunizations before enrolling in public
school.
14. Seventy-five percent of the people in New York City lives in upstairs apartments, not on the
ground floor.
15. Unless there are a profound and extensive reform of government policies in the near future,
the economic conditions in that country will continue to deteriorate.
16. While I was in Paris, some of the best foot I found were not at the well-known eating places,
but in small out-of-the way cafe.
17. Where’s my gloves? Have you seen them anywhere? I can’t find them.
18. Where’s Kenya? Can you find it for me on the map?
19. Approximately 80 percent of all the data* in computers around the world is in English.
20. Why are the police here?
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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Chapter 7: NOUNS
7-1 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS
The plural of most nouns is
(a) Song-songs
formed by adding final –s.*
Final –es is added to nouns that
(b) Box-boxes
end in –sh, -ch, -s, -z, and –x.*
The plural of words that end in a
(c) Baby-babies
consonant + -y is spelled –ies.*
(d) Man-men Ox-oxen Tooth-teeth The nouns in (d) have irregular
Woman-women Foot-feet Mouse-mice plural forms that do not end in –
Child-children Goose-geese Louse-lice s.
(e) Echo-echoes Potato-potatoes Some nouns that end in –o add –
Hero-heroes Tomato-tomatoes es to form the plural.
(f) Auto-autos Photo-photos Studio-studios
Ghetto-ghettos Piano-pianos Tatoo-tatoos
Some nouns that end in –o add
Kangaroo-kangaroo Radio-radios Video-videos
Kilo-kilos Solo-solos Zoo-zoos
only –s to form the plural.
Memo-memos Soprano-sopranos
Volcano- Some nouns that end in –o add
(g) Memento-mementoes/mementos volcanoes/volcanos either –es or –s to form the
Mosquito-mosquitoes/mosquitos Zero-zeroes/zeros
Tornado-tornadoes/tornados
plural (with –es being the more
usual plural form).
(h) Calf-calves Life-lives Thief-thieves
Some nouns that end in –f or –fe
Half-halves Loaf-loaves Wolf-wolves
are changed to –ves to form the
Knife-knives Self-selves Scarf-
Leaf-leaves Shelf-shelves scarves/scarfs plural.
(i) Belief-beliefs Cliff-cliffs Some nouns that end in –f simply
Chief-chiefs Roof-roofs add –s to form the plural.
One series-two series Some nouns have the same
(j) One deer-two deer
One sheep-two sheep
One fish-two fish** singular and plural form: e.g.,
One shrimp-two
One means-two means One deer is. . . . Two deer are. . .
shrimp***
One offspring-two offspring ..
One species-two species
(o) analysis-analyses
basis-bases
(k) Criterion-criteria crisis-crises
Phenomenon-phenomena hypothesis-
(l) Cactus-cacti/cactuses hypetheses
Fungus-fungi oasis-oases
Nucleus-nuclei parenthesis- Some nouns that English has
Stimulus-stimuli parenthese borrowed from other languages
Syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses thesis-theses have foreign plurals.
(m) Formula-formulae/formulas (p) bacterium-bacteria
Vertebra-vertebrae curriculum-curricula
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(n) Appendix-appendices/appendixes datum-data

Index-indices/indexes medium-media
memorandum-
memoranda

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7-2 POSSESSIVE NOUNS

SINGULAR POSSESSIVE FORM To Show, add antara apostrophe (‘) and –s to a
NOUN singular noun: The girl’s book is on the table.
(a) The girl The girl’s
If a singular noun ends in –s, there are two possible
(b) Tom Tom
forms:
(c) My wife My wife’s
Add antara apostrophe and –s: Thomas’s book.
(d) A lady A lady’s
Add only antara apostrophe: Thomas’ book.
(e) Thomas Thomas’s/Thomas’
PLURAL NOUN POSSESSIVE FORM
Add only antara apostrophe to a plural noun that
(f) The girls The girls’
ends in –s: The girls’ books are on the table.
(g) Their wives Their wives’
(h) The ladies The ladies’
Add antara apostrophe and –s to plural nouns that do
(i) The men The men’s
not end in –s: The men’s books are on the table.
(j) My children My children’s
7-3 USING NOUNS AS MODIFIERS
The soup has vegetables in it. When a noun is used as a modifier, it is
(a) It is vegetable soup. in its singular form.* in (a) vegetables
The building has office in it. modifies soup.
(b) It is an office building. In (b): office modifies building.
When a noun used as a modifier is
The test lasted two hours. combined with a number expression,
(c) It was a two-hour test. the noun is singular and a hyphen (-) is
Her son is five years old. used,
(d) She has a five –year-old son. INCORRECT: She has a five years old
son..
Adjectives never take a final –s. (INCORRECT: Beautifuls pictures). Similarly, nouns used as
adjectives never take a final –s. (INCORRECT: vegetables soup)
7-4 COUNT AND NONCOUNT NOUNS
(a) I bought a chair, Sam bought three chairs. Chair is a count noun; chairs are items
(b) We bought some furniture. that can be counted.
INCORRECT: We bought some furnitures. Furniture is a noncoun noun. In
INCORRECT: We bought a furniture. grammar, furniture cannot be counted.
SINGULAR PLURAL
Ф chairs* A count noun:
Two chairs (1) May be preceded by a/an in the
COUNT A chair some chairs singular.
NOUN One chair A lot of (2) Takes a final –s/es in the plural
chairsmany
chairs
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

A noncount noun:
Ф furniture*
(1) Is not immediately preceded by
NONCOUNT Some furniture
an/an.
NOUN A lot of furniture
(2) Has no plural form, so does not take
Much furniture
a final--s/-es.
*Ф = nothing.

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7-5 NONCOUNT NOUNS

Many noncount nouns refer to a “whole” that is made
(a) I bought some chairs, tables, and desks. In up of different parts.
other words, I bought some furniture. In (a): furniture represents a whole group of things that
is made up of similar but separate items.
(b) I put some sugar in my coffee. In (b): sugar and coffee represent whole masses made
up of individual particles or elements.*
Many noncount nouns are abstractions. In (c): luck is an
(c) I wish you luck. abstract concept, an abstract “whole.” It has no
physical form; you can’t touch it. You can’t count it.
A phenomenon of nature, such as sunshine, is
(d) Sunshine is warm and cheerful.
frequently used as noncount noun, as in (d)
(e) NONCOUNT: Ann has brown hair.
COUNT: Tom has a hair on his jacket.
(f) NONCOUNT: I opened the curtains to let in Many noun can be used as either noncount or count
some nouns, but the meaning is different; e.g., hair in (e) and
light. light in (f).
COUNT: dont forget to turn off the light
before you go to bed.

7-6 SOME COMMON NONCOUNT NOUNS

This list is a sample of nouns that are commonly used as noncount nouns. Many other nouns can also be
used as noncount nouns.
(a) WHOLE GROUPS MADE UP OF SIMILAR ITEMS: baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruits, furniture,
garbage, hardware, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinary, mail, makeup, money/change, postage, scenery,
traffic, etc.
(b) FLUIDS: water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, gasoline, blood, etc.
(c) SOLIDS: Ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool, etc.
(d) GASES: Steam, air, oxygen, nitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution, etc.
(e) PARTICLE: rice, chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, grass, hair, pepper, salt, sand, , sugar, wheat, etc.
(f) ABSTRACTIONS:
- Beauty, confidence, courage, education, enjoyment, fun, happiness, health, help, honestry,
hospitality, importance, inteligence, justice, knowledge, laughter, luck, music, patience, peace,
pride, progress, recreation, significance, sleep, truth, violence, wealth, etc.
- Advice, information, news, evidence, proof, etc.
- Time, space, energy, etc.
- Homework, work, etc.
- Grammar, slang, vocabulary, etc.
(g) LANGUAGES: arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish, etc.
(h) FIELDS OF STUDY: chemistry, engineering, history, literature, mathematics, psychology, etc.
(i) RECREATION: baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker, etc.
(j) ACTIVITIES: driving, studying, swimming, traveling*, walking, etc. (and other gerund)
(g) NATURAL PHENOMENA: weather, dew, fog, hail, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, thunder,
wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire, gravity, etc.
*British spelling: travelling.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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7-7 BASIC ARTICLE USAGE

I. USING A or ф : GENERIC NOUNS
A speaker uses generic nouns to make generalisasions.
SINGULAR
(a) A banana is yellow* A generic noun represents a whole class of things; it is
COUNT
not specific, real, concrete thing, but rather a symbol of
NOUN
a whole group.
PLURAL In (a) and (b): the speaker is talking about any banan, all
COUNT (b) Ф Bananas are yellow. banana, bananas in general. In (c): the speaker is talking
NOUN about any all fruit, fruit in general.
Notice that no article (Ф) is used to make
NONCOUNT
(c) Ф Fruits is good for you. generalisations with plural count nouns, as in (b), and
NOUN
with noncount nouncount nouns, as in (c)
II-USING A or SOME : INDEFINITE NOUNS
Indefinite nouns are actual things (not symbols), but
SINGULAR
they are not specifically indentified. In (d): the speaker
COUNT (d) I ate a banana. is not referring to “this banana” or “that banana” or “
NOUN
the banana you gave me.” The speaker is simply saying
that s/he ate one banana. The listener does not know
PLURAL nor need to know which specific banana was eaten; it
COUNT (e) I ate some bananas. was simply one banana out of that whole group of
NOUN things in this world called bananas. In (e) and (f): some
is often used with indefinite plural count noun and
indefinite noncount nouns. In addition to some, a
NONCOUNT speaker might use two, a few, several, a lot of, etc.,
(f) I ate some fruits.
NOUN with plural count nouns, or a little, a lot of, etc., with
noncount nouns.
III-USING THE : DEFINITE NOUNS
SINGULAR A noun is definite when both the speaker and the
(g) Thank you for the banana. listener are thinking about the same specific thing.
COUNT
In (g): the speaker uses the because the listener
NOUN
knows which specific banana the speaker is talking
PLURAL about, i.e., that particular banan which the listener
COUNT (h) Thank you for the bananas. gave to the speaker.
NOUN
NONCOUNT Notice that the is used with both singular and
(i) Thank you for the fruit.
NOUN plural count nouns and with noncount nouns.
Usually a/an is used with a singular generic count noun. Examples:
A windows is made of glass. A doctor heals sick people. Parents must give a child love. A box has six
sides. An apple can be red, green, or yellow.
However, the is sometimes used with a singular generic count noun (not a plural generic coun noun, not a
generic noncount noun). “Generic the” is commontly used with, in particular:
(1) Species of animals: The blue whale is the largest mammal on earth.
The elephant is the largest land animal.
(2) Inventions: Who invented the telephone? The wheels? The refrigerator? The airplane?
The computer will play an increasingly large role in all of our lives.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(3) Musical Instruments: I’d like to learn to play the piano.

Do you play the guitar?

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7-8 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

(a) The sun is bright today. GUIDELINE: use the when you know or assume
Please hand this book to the teacher that your listener is familiar with and thinking
Please open the door. about the same specific thing or person you are
Omar is in the kitchen. talking about.
GUIDELINE: use the for the second mention of an
(b) Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing
indefinite noun.* In (b): first mention = some
a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse. The mouse
dogs, a cat, a mouse, a hole; second mention =
ran into a hole. The hole was very small.
the dogs, the cat, the mouse, the hole.
(c) CORRECT: Apples are my favorite fruit.
GUIDELINE: Do NOT use the with a plural count
INCORRECT: The apples are my favorite fruit.
noun (e.g. apples) or a noncount noun (e.g. gold)
(d) CORRECT: Gold is a metal.
when you are making generalisation.
INCORRECT: the gold is a metal.
(e) CORRECT:
GUIDELINE: a singular count noun (e.g., car) is
(1) I drove a car.
preceded by a marker: (1) a or an (or another
(2) I drove the car.
singular marker such as one, each, or every); (2)
(3) I drove that car.
the; (3) this or that; (4) a possesive (e.g., my,
(4) I drove Jim’s car.
Jim’s)
INCORRECT: I drove car.
*The is not used the second mention of a generic noun.
(1) What color is a banana (generic noun) A banana (generic noun) is yellow.
(2) Joe offered me a banana (indefinite noun) or an apple. I chose the banana (definite noun).
7-9 EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

EXPRESSION OF USED WITH COUNT USED WITH NONCOUNT

QUANTITY NOUNS NOUNS
(a) one one apple Ф* An expression of
each each apple Ф quantity may
every every apple Ф precede a noun.
Some expressions of
(b) two Two apples Ф
quantity are used
both Both apples Ф
only with count
a couple of a couple of apples Ф
nouns, as in (a) and
a few a few apples Ф
(b).
several several apples Ф
many many apples Ф
a number of a number of apples Ф
(c) a little Ф a little rice Some are used only
much Ф much rice with noncount
a great deal of Ф a great deal of rice nouns, as in (c)
(d) no no apples no rice Some are used with
some/any some/any apples some/any rice both count and
a lot of/lots of a lot of/lots of apples a lot of/lots of rice noncount nouns, as
plenty of plenty of apples plenty of rice in (d)
most mostapples most rice
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

all all apples allrice

Ф = not used. For example, you can say “ I ate one apple” but NOT “ I ate one rice.”

7-10 USING A FEW AND FEW; A LITTLE AND LITTLE

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(a) She has been here only two weeks, but she has
already made a few friends.
A few and a little* give a positive idea;
(b) I’m very pleased. I’ve been able to save a little
they indicate that something exists, is
money this month.
present, as in (a) and (b).
(positive idea: I have saved some money instead
of spending all of it.)
(c) I feel sorry for her. She has (very) few friends.
(negative idea: she does not have many friends: Few and little (without a) give a negative
she has almost no friends.) idea; they indicate that something is
(d) I have (very) little money. I don’t even have largely absent.
enough money to buy food for dinner. Very (+few/little) makes the negative
(Negative idea: I do not have much money; I stronger, the number/amount smaller.
have almost no money.)
A few and few are used with plural count nouns. A little and little are used with noncount nouns.

7-11 USING OF IN EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

(a) CORRECT: A lot of books are paperbacks. Some expressions of quantity (such as
(b) CORRECT: a lot of my books are paperbacks. a lot of) always contain of, as in (a)
(c) INCORRECT: A lot of books are paperbacks. and (b).
(d) CORRECT: Many of my books are paperbacks.
Sometimes of is used with an
(e) INCORRECT: Many my books are paperbacks.
expression of quantity, as in (d), and
sometimes of is NOT used with the
(f) CORRECT: Many books are paperbacks.
same expression of quantity, as in (f).
(g) INCORRECT: Many of books are paperbacks.
GROUP ONE: EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY THAT ALWAYS CONTAIN OF
a lot of a number of a majority of
lots of a great deal of plenty of
GROUP TWO: EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY THAT SOMETIMES CONTAIN OF AND
SOMETIMES NOT
all (of) many (of) one (of) both (of) some (of)
most (of) much (of) two (of) several (of) any (of)
almost all (of) a few (of) a little (of) etc.
(h) Many of my books are in English. Of is used with the expressions of
(i) Many of those books are in English. quantity in GROUP TWO when the
(j) Many of the books on that shelf are in English. noun is specific.
Of is NOT used with the expression of
(k) Many books are in English. quantity in GROUP TWO if the noun in
modifiers is nonspecific. GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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7-12 ALL (OF) AND BOTH (OF)

When a noun is specific (e.g., the

(a) CORRECT: All of the students in my class are here. students), using of after all is

(b) CORRECT: All the students in my class are here. optional as in (a) and (b).

(c) CORRECT: All students must have an I.D. card. When a noun is nonspecific, of does

(d) INCORRECT: All of students must have an I.D. card. NOT follow all, as in (c).

Similarly, using of after both is

optional when the noun is specific,
(e) I know both (of) those men. as in (e).
(f) CORRECT: I know both men. Whwn a noun is non specific, of
(g) INCORRECT: I know both of men. does NOT follow both.

7-13 SINGULAR EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY: ONE, EACH, EVERY

One, each, and every are followed
(a) One student was late to class. immediately by singular count nouns
(b) Each student has a schedule. (never plural nouns, never noncount
(c) Every student has a schedule. nouns).
One of, each of, and every one of* are
(d) One of the students was late to class. followed by specific plural count nouns
(e) Each (one) of the students has a schedule. (never singular nouns; never noncount
(f) Every one of the students has a schedule. nouns).
*COMPARE:
Every one (two word) is an expression of quantity; e.g., I have read every one of those books.
Evreryone (one word) is an indefinite pronouns: it has the same meaning as everybody; e.g.,
evryone/everybody has a schedule.
NOTE: Each and every have essentially the same meaning.
Each is used when the speaker is thinking of one person/think at atime: Each student has a schedule. = Mary
has a schedule. Hiroshi has a schedule. Carlos has a schedule. Sabrina has a schedule. (etc)
Every is used when the speaker means “all”: Every student has a schedule. = All of the students have
schedules.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 7
Count and noncont nouns.
Direction: Complete the sentences with the given nouns, adding final –s/-es if necessary. Use each noun only
once.
Advice Homework Music Stuff
Change Information Progress Thunder
Garbage Junk River traffic
hardware Luggage/baggage screwdriver

1. I have some coins in my pocket. In other words, I have some _____________ in my pocket.
2. The Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Nile are well-known ___________.
3. I like to listen to operas, symphonies, and folk songs. I enjoy ______________.
4. The street is full of cars, trucks, and buses. It is full of ______________.
5. I put some banana peels, empty juice cartons, and broken bottles in the waste can. The can is full of
____________.
6. They have a rusty car without an engine, broken chairs, and an old refrigerator in their front yard.
Their yard is full of ___________________.
7. Paul has books, pens, papers, notebooks, a clock, scissors, a tape recorder, and some other things
on the desk. He has a lot of ________________ on the desk.
8. The children got scared when they heard __________________ during the storm.
9. Tools that are used for turning screws are called __________________.
10. I went to the store to get some nails, hammers, and screws. In other word, I bought some
__________.
11. Tonight I have to read 20 pages in my history book, do 30 algebra problems, and write a
composition. In other words, I have a lot of __________________ to do tonight.
12. Ann took three suitcases, a shoulder bag, and a cosmetics case. In other words, she took a lot of
_______________ on her trip.
13. Toronto is 365 ft./109 m. Above sea level. The average annual precipitation in Toronto is 32 in./81
cm. The population of the metropolitan area is over 3,000,000. I found (this, these) ____________
in the encyclopedia.
14. I didn’t feel good. Ann said,”You should see a doctor.” Nick said, “You should go home and go to
bed.” Martha said, “You should drink fruit juice and rest.” I got ________________ from three
people.
15. My English is slowly getting better. My vocabulary is increasing. It’s getting easier for me to write,
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

and I make fewer mistakes. I can often understand people even when they talk fast. I’m satisfied
with the ________________ I’ve made in learning English.

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CHAPTER-8 PRONOUNS
8-1 PERSONAL PRONOUNS

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE

PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN ADJECTIVE
I Me Mine My name
SINGULAR You You Yours Your name
She, he, it Her, him, it Hers, his, its Her, his, its name
We Us Ours Our name
PLURAL You You Yous Your name
they them theirs Their name
A pronoun is used in place of a noun.
(a) I read a book. It was good. The noun it refers to is called the
“antecedent.”
In (a): The pronoun it refers to the
(b) I read some books. They were good. antecedent noun book.
A singular pronoun is used to refer
to a singular noun, as in (a). A plural
pronoun is used to refer to a plural
noun, as in (b).
Sometimes the antecedent noun is
understood, not explicitly stated. In
(c) I like tea. Do you like tea too? (c): I refers to the speaker, and you
refers to the person the speaker is
talking to.
Subject pronouns are used as
(d) John has a car. He drives to work.
subjects of sentences, as he in (d).
Object pronouns are used as the
(e) John works in my office. I know him well.
objects of verbs, as in (e), or as the
(f) I talk to him every day.
objects of prepositions, as in (f).
Possessive pronouns are not
(g) That book is hers.
followed immediately by a noun;
Yours is over there.
they stand alone, as in (g).
(h) INCORRECT: That book is her’s.
In (h): Possessive pronouns do NOT
Your’s is over there.
take apostrophes.
Possessive adjectives are followed
(i) Her book is here.
immediately by a noun; they do not
You book is over there.
stand alone.
COMPARE: Its has NO APOSTROPHE
(j) A bird uses its wings to fly. when it is used as a pessessive, as in
(k) INCORRECT: A bird uses it’s wings to fly. (j).
(l) It’s cold today. It’s has antara apostrophe when it is
(m) The Harbour Inn is my favorite old hotel. It’s been in used as a contraction of it is, as in (l),
business since 1933. or it has when has is part of the
present perfect tense, as in (m).
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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8-2 PERSONAL PRONOUNS: AGREEMENT WITH GENERIC NOUNS AND INDEFENITE

PRONOUNS
(a) A student walked into the room. She In (a) and (b): The pronouns refer to particular
was looking for the teacher. individuals whose gender is known. The nouns are
(b) A student walked into the room. He not generic.
was looking for the teacher
A generic noun does not refer to any person or
thing in particular; rather, it represents a whole
group. In (c):S student is a generic noun; it refers
(c) A student should always do his
to anyone who is a student.
assignments.
With a generic noun, a singular masculine pronoun
(d) A student should always do his/her
has been used traditionally, but many English
assignments.
speakers now use both masculine and feminine
A student should always do his or her
pronouns to refer to a singular generic noun, as in
assignments.
(d). The use of both masculine and feminine
pronouns can create awkward-sounding
sentences.
Problems with choosing masculine and/or
(e) Students should always do their feminine pronouns can often be avoided by using
assignments. a plural rather that a singular generic noun, as in
(e).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Everyone Somebody Anyone No one*
Everybody Somebody Anybody Nobody
everyhing something anything nothing
(f) Somebody left his book on the desk A singular pronoun is used in formal English to
(g) Everyone has his or her own ideas. refer to an indefinite pronoun, as in (f) and (g). In
(h) INFORMAL: everyday informal English, a plural personal
Somebody left their book on the desk. pronouns is often used to refer to an indefinitr
Evreryone has their own ideas. pronoun, as in (h).
*No one can also be written with a hyphen in British English: No-one heard me.
8-3 PERSONAL PRONOUNS: AGREEMENT WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS

EXAMPLES OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Audience Couple Family Public
Class Crowd Government Staff
committee faculty group team
When a collective noun refers to a single
(a) My family is large. It is composed of
impersonal unit, a singular gender-neutral
nine members.
pronoun (it, its) is used, as in (a)
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

When a collective noun refers to a collective of

(b) My family is loving and supportive.
various individuals, a plural pronoun (they, them,
They are always ready to help me.
their) is used, as in (b).*
*NOTE: When the collective noun refers to a collection of individuals, the verb may be singular or plural: My family
is OR are loving and supportive. A singular verb is generally preferred in American English. A plural verb is used
more frequently in British: The government are planning many changes.)

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8-4 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

PLURAL
SINGULAR
Myself Ourselves
Yoursel Yourselves
Herself, himsel, itself, oneself themselves
Compare (a) and (b): Usually antara object
(a) Larry was in the theater. I saw him. is used as the object of a verb or
I talked to him. preposition, as him in (a).
(b) I saw myself in the mirror. A reflexive pronoun is used as the object of
I looked at myself for along time a verb or preposition when the subject of
(c) INCORRECT: I saw me in the mirror. the sentence and the object are the same
person, as in (b).*
Reflexive pronouns are also used for
- Did someone fax the report to Mr. Lee? emphasis. In (d): The speaker would say “I
- Yes myself” strongly, with emphasis.
- Are you sure? The emphatic reflective pronoun can
(d) - Yes, I myself faxed the report to him. immediately follow a noun or pronoun, as
(e) - I faxed the report to him myself. in (d), or come at the end of the clause, as
in (e)
The expression by + a reflexive pronoun
(f) Anna lives by herself.
means “alone.”
*Sometimes, but relatively infrequently, antara object pronoun is used as the object of a preposition
even when the subject and object pronoun are the same person. Examples: I took my book with me.
Bob brough his book with him. I looked around me. She kept her son close to her.
8-5 USING YOU, ONE, AND THEY AS IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS
In (a) and (b): One means “any person,
(a) One should always be polite. people in general.”
(b) How does one get to 5th Avenue from here? In (c) and (d): You means “any person, people
in general.”
(c) You should always be polite. One is much more formal than you.
(d) How do you get to 5th Avenue from here? Impersonal you, rather than one, is used
more frequently in everyday English.
Notice the pronouns that may be used in the
(e) One should take care of one’s health. same sentence to refer back to one: (e) is
(f) One should take care of his health. typical in British usage and formal American
(g) One should take care of his or her health. usage. (f) is principally American usage. (g) is
stylistically awkward.
(h) – Did Ann lose her job? They is used as an impersonal pronoun in
– Yes, They fired her. spoken or very informal English to mean
“some people or somebody.”*
(i) – they mine graphite in Brazil, don’t they? They has no stated antecedent. The
– Yes, Brazil is one of the leading graphite antecedent is implied. In (h): They = the
producers in the world. people Ann worked for.
*In written or more formal English, the passive is generally preferred to the use of impersonal they:
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Active: They fired her. Active: They mine graphite in Brazil, don’t they?
Passive: she was fired. Passive: Graphite is mined in Brazil, isn’t it?

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8-6 FORMS OF OTHER

ADJECTIVE PRONOUN Forms of other are used as either adjectives
or pronouns. Notice: A final –s is used only
for a plural pronoun (others).
SINGULAR Another book (is) Another (is)
PLURAL Other books (are) Others (are)
SINGULAR The other book (is) The other (is)
PLURAL The other books (are) The others (are)
The meaning of another: one more in
(a) The students in the class come from many countries.
addition to the one(s) already mentioned.
One of the students is from Mexico. Another student
The meaning of other/others (without the):
is from Iraq. Another is from Japan. Other students
several more in addition to the one(s)
are from Brazil. Others are from Algeria.
already mentioned.
(b) I have three books. Two are mine. The other book is The meaning of the other(s): all that
yours. (The other is yours) remains from a given number; the rest of a
(c) I have three books. One is mine. The other books are specific group.
yours. (the others are yours.)
Another is used as antara adjective with
(d) I will be here for another three years. expressions of time, money, and distance,
(e) I need another five dollars. even if these expressions contain plural
(f) We drove another ten miles. nouns. Another means “antara additional”
in these expressions.
8-7 COMMON EXPRESSIONS WITH OTHER
(a) We write to each other every week. Each other and one another indicate a
We write to ane another every week. reciprocal relationship.* In (a): I write to
him every week, and he writes to me every
week.
(b) Please write on every other line Every other can give the idea of “altenate.”
I see her every other week. In (b): Write on the first line.
Do not write on the second line.
Write on the third line.
Do not write on the fourth line.(etc.)
(c) –Have you seen Ali recently? The other is used in time expressions such
– Yes, I saw him just the other day. as the other day, the other morning, the
other week, etc., to refer to the recent
past. In (c): the other day means “a few day
ago, not long ago.”
(d) The duckling walked in a line behind the mother duck. In (d): one after the other expressed the
Then the mother duck slipped into the pond. The idea that separate actions accur very close
ducklings followed her. They slipped into the water in time.
one after the other. In (e): one after another has the same
(e) They slipped into the water one after another. meaning as one after the other.
(f) No one knows my secret other than Rosa. In (f): other than is usually used after a
(g) No one knows my secret except (for) Rosa. negative to mean “except.” (g) has the
same meaning.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(h) Fruit and vegetables are full of vitamins and minerals. In (h): In other words is used to explain,
In other words, they are good for you. usually in simpler or clearer terms, the
meaning of the preceding sentence(s).
*in typical usage, each other and one another are interchangeable; there is no difference between
them. Some native speakers, however, use each other when they are talking about only two persons or
things, and one another when there are more than two.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 8
EXERCISE 17:
Summary review. (Chapter 6-8)
Direction: Correct the errors.
1. That book contain many different kind of story and article.
2. The English is one of the most important language in the world.
3. She is always willing to help her friends in every possible ways.
4. In the past, horses was the principal mean of transportation.
5. He succeeded in creating one of the best army in the world.
6. There are many equipments in the research laboratory, but undergraduates are not
allowed to use them.
7. All of the guest enjoyed themself at the reception.
8. I have a five years old daughter and a three years old son.
9. Each states in the country have a different language.
10. Most of people in my apartment building is friendly.
11. A political leader should have the ability to adapt themself to a changing world.
12. In my opinion, an international student should live in a dormitory because they will meet
many people and can practice their English every day. Also, if you live in a dormitory, your
food is provided for you.
13. When I lost my passport, I had to apply for the another one.
14. When I got to class, all of the others students were already in their seats.
15. Everyone seek the happiness in their life.
16. In my country, there is a lot of schools.
17. Writing compositions are very hard for me.
18. It’s difficult for me to understand English when people uses a lot of slangs.
19. A student at the university should attend class regularly and hand in their assignments on
time.
20. In my opinion, the english is a easy language to learn.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 9: MODALS (PART-1)

9-1 MODALS (INTRODUCTION)
The modal auxilaries in English are can, could had better, may, might, must, ought (to), shall,
should, will, would.
Modal auxilaries generally express speakers’ attitudes. For example, modals can express that a
speaker feels something is necessary, advisable, permissable; and, in addition, they can convey
the strength of those attitudes.
Each modal has more than one meaning or use.
Modals do not take a final –s, even when the subject is she,
(a) BASIC MODALS he, or it.
CORRECT: She can do it.
INCORRECT: She cans do it.
can do it
I could do it Modals are followed immediately by the simple form of a
You had better do it verb.
He may do it CORRECT: She can do it
She might do it INCORRECT: She can to do it/she can does it/she can did it.
It + must do it
We ought to do it The only exception is ought, which is followed by an infinitive
You shall do it (to+the simple form of a verb).
They should do it
will do it CORRECT : He ought to go to meeting.
would do it
(b) PHRASAL MODALS
Phrasal modals’ are common expression whose meaning are
be able to do it
similar to those of some of the modal auxilaries. For example:
be going to do it
be able to is similar to can; be going to is similar to will.
be supposed to do it
have to do it
An infinitive (to + the simple form of a verb) is used in the
have got to do it
similar expression.
used to do it
9-2 POLITE REQUESTS WITH “I” AS THE SUBJECT
May I and could I are used to request
(a) May I (please) borrow your
permission. They are equally polite.*
MAY I pen?
Note in (b): In a polite request, could has a
COULD I (b) Could I borrow your pen
present or future meaning, not a past
(please)
meaning.
Can I is used informally to request
permission, especially if the speaker is
CAN I (c) Can I borrow your pen? talking to someone s/he knows fairly well.
Can I is usually considered a little less polite
than may I or could I.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

TYPICAL RESPONSES:
Often the response to a polite request is an
Certainly. Yes certainly
action, such as a nod or shake of the head,
Of course. Yes of course
or a simple “uh-huh”.
Sure (informal)
*Might is also posible: Might I borrow your pen? Might I is quite formal and polite; it is used much less frequently than may I or
could I.

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9-3 POLITE REQUESTS WITH “YOU” AS THE SUBJECT

(a) Would you pass the salt The meaning of would you and will you in polite
(please) request is the same. Would you is more
WOULD YOU
(b) Will you (please) pass the common and is often considered more polite.
WILL YOU
salt? The degree of politeness, however, is often
determined by the speaker’s tone of voice.
Basically, could you and would you have the
same meaning. The different is slight:
(c) Could you pass the salt Would you = dou you want to do this please?
COULD YOU
(please)? Could you = do you want to do this please, and is
it possible for you to do this?
Could you and would you are equally polite.
(d) Can you (please) pass the Can you is often used informally. It usually
CAN YOU
salt? sounds less polite than could you or would you.
A person usually responds in the affirmative to a
TYPICAL RESPONSES:
polite request. If a negative response is
Yes, I’d (I would) be happy to/be glad to.
necessary, a person might begin by saying “I’d
Certaintly.
like to, but.....” (e.g., “I like to pass the salt, but I
Sure. (informal)
can’t reach it”).
(e) INCORRECT: May you pass the salt? May is used only with I or we in polite requests.

9-4 POLITE REQUESTS WITH WOULD YOU MIND

Notice in (a): would you mind if I is followed by
ASKING PERMISSION the simple past.* The meaning in (a): May I close
(a) Would you mind if I closed the window? the window? Is it all right if I close the window?
(b) Would you mind if I used the phone? Will it cause you any trouble or discomport if I
close the window?
TYPICAL RESPONSES:
Another typical response might be ‘unh-unh”,
No, not at all/of course not.
meaning “no”.
No, that would be fine.
Notice in (c): Would you mind is followed by-ing
ASKING SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING (a gerund). The meaning in (c): I don’t want to
(c) Would you mind closing the window? cause you any trouble, but would you please
(d) Excuse me. Would you repeating that? close the window? Would that cause you any
inconvenience?
The informal responsese of “sure” and “Okey”
are common, but are not logical: the speaker
TYPICAL RESPONSES
means “No, I wouldn’t mind.” But seems to be
No, I’d be happy to.
saying “yes, I would mind.” Native speakers
Not at all. I ‘d be glad to.
understand that the response “sure” or “Okay”
Sure./Okey. (informal)
in this situation means that the speaker agrees
to the request.
*Sometimes, in informal spoken English, the simple present is used: Would you mind if I close the
window? (Note: The simple past does not refer to past time after would you mind; it refers to present or
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

future time.)

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9-5 EXPRESSING NECESSITY: MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO

(a) All applicants must take an entrance Must and have to both express necessity. In (a)
exam. and (b): it is necessary for every applican to
(b) All applicants have to take an entrance take an entrance exam. There is no other
exam. choice. The exam is required.
In everyday statements of necessity, have to is
(c) I’m looking for Sue. I have to talk to her
used more commonly than must. Must is
about our lunch date tomorrow. I can’t
usually stronger than have to and can indicate
meet her for lunch because I have to go
urgrncy or stress importance. In (c): speaker is
to a bussiness meeting at 01:00.
simply saying, “I need to do this, and I need to
(d) Where’s Sue? I must talk to her right
do that.” In (d): The speaker is strongly saying,
away. I have an urgent message for her.
“This is very important.”
(e) I have to (“hafta”) be home by eight.
NOTE: have to is usually pronounced “hafta”
(f) He has to (“hasta”) go to a meeting
and has to is usually pronounced “hasta”.
tonight.
Have got to also express the idea of
(g) I have got to go now. I have a class in ten
necessity:(g) and (h) have the same meaning.
minutes.
Have got to is informal and is used primarily in
(h) I have to go now. I have a class in ten
spoken English. Have to is used in both formal
minutes.
and informal English.
Usual pronounciation of got to is “gotta.”
(i) I have got to go (I’ve gotta go/I gotta go”)
Sometimes have is dropped in speech: “I gotta
now.
do it.”
(j) PRESENT OR FUTURE
I have to/have got to/must study The idea of npast necessity is expressed by had
tonight. to. There is no other past form for must (when
(k) PAST it means necessity) or have got to.
I had to study last night.
9-6 LACK OF NECESSITY AND PROHIBITION: HAVE TO AND MUST IN NEGATIVE
When used in the negative, must and have
LACK OF NECESSITY
to have differnt meaning.
(a) Tomorrow is a holiday. We don’t have to go
Do not have to = lack of necessity.
to class.
In (a): It is not necessary for us to go to class
(b) I can hear you. You don’t have to shout.
tomorrow because it is a holiday.
PROHIBITION:
(c) You must not look in the closet. Your Must not = prohibition (DO NOT DO THIS)
birthday present is hidden there. In (c): Do not look in the closet. I forbid it.
(d) You must not tell anyone my secret. Do you Looking in the closet is prohibited. Negative
promise. construction: mustn’t.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Lack of necessity may also be expressed by need not + simple form of a verb. You needn’t shout. The use of needn’t
as an auxilary is chiefly British except in certain common expression such as “ You needn’t worry”.

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9-7 ADVISBILITY: SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER

(a) You should study harder. Should and ought to have the same meaning: They
You ought to study harder. express advisability. The meaning ranges in strength
(b) Drivers should obey the limit. from a suggestion (“this is a good idea”) to a
Drivers ought to obey the speed limit. statement about responsibility or duty (“this is a very
important thing to do”). In (a): This is a good idea. This
is my advice.” In (b): “This is an important
responsibility.”
(c) You shouldn’t leave your keys in the car. Negative contraction: shouldn’t.*

(d) I ought to (“otta”) study tonight, but I think Ought to is often pronounced “otta” in informal
I’ll watch TV instead. speaking.
(e) The gas tank is almost empty. We had In meaning, had better is close to should/ought to,
better stop at the next service station. but had better is usually stronger. Often had better
(f) You had better take care of that cut on implies a warning or threat of possible bad
your hand soon, or it will get infected. consequence. In (e): If we don’t stop at a service
station, there will be a bad result. We will run out of
gas.
Notes on the use of had better:
 It has a present or future meaning.
 It is followed by simple form of a verb.
 It is more common in speaking than writing.
(g) You’d better take care of it. Contraction: ‘d better, as in (g).
(h) You better take care of it. Sometimes in speaking, had is dropped, as in (h).
(i) You’d better not be late. Negative form: had better + not.

*Ought to is not commonly in the negative. If it is used in the negative, the to is sometimes dropped:
You oughn’t (to) leave your keys in the car.

9-8 THE PAST FORM OF SHOUD

(a) I had a test this morning. I didn’t do well on the Past form: should have +past participle.*
test because I didn’t study for it last night. I
should have studied last night. In (a): I should have studied means that studying
(b) You were supposed to be here at 10:00 P.M., but was a good idea, but I did not do it. I made a
you didn’t come until midnight. We were mistake.
worried about you. You should have called us.
(you did not call)
In (c): I should not have carried means that I
(c) My back hurts. I should not have carried that
carried something, but it turned out to be a bad
heavy box up two flights of stairs. (I carried the
idea. I made a mistake.
box, and now I’m sorry.)
(d) We went to a movie, but it was a waste of time
and money. We should not have gone to the
movie.
The past form of ought to is ought to have + past participle. (I ought to have studied). It has the same
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

meaning as the past form of should. In the past, should is used more common than ought to. Had better
is used only rarely in a past form (e.g. He had better have taken care of it) and usually only in speaking,
not writing.

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9-9 EXPECTATION: BE SUPPOSED TO

Be supposed to expresses the idea that someone (I,
(a) The game is supposed to begin at 10:00. we, they, the teacher, lots of people, my father, etc.)
(b) The commitee is supposed to vote by secret ballot. expects something to happen. Be supposed to often
expresses expectations about scheduled events, as in
(a), or correct procedures, as in (b).
(c) I am supposed to go to the meeting. My boss told me Be supposed to also expresses expectation about
that he wants me to attend. behavior. In (c) and (d): be supposed to gives the idea
(d) The children are supposed to put away their toys that someone else expects (request or require)
before they go to bed. certain behavior.
Be supposed to in the pass (was/were supposed to)
(e) Jack was supposed to call me last night. I wonder why
expresses unfulfilled expectation. The speaker
he didn’t.
expected Jack to call, but he didn’t.
9-10 MAKING SUGGESTION: LET’S, WHY DON’T, SHALL I/WE
(a) Let’s go to a movie. Let’s = let us. Let’s followed by the simple form of a verb.
(b) Let’s not go to a movie Negative form : Let’s + not + simple verb.
Let’s stay home instead. The meaning of let’s: I have a suggestion for us.”
Why don’t is used primarily in spoken English to make a
friendly suggestion.
(c) Why don’t we go to a movie?
In (c): Why don’t we go = let’s go.
(d) Why don’t you come around seven?
In (d): I suggest that you come around seven.
(e) Why don’t I give Mary a call?
In (e): Should I give Mary a call? Do you agree with my
suggestion.
When shall is used with I or we in a question, the speaker is
(f) Shall I open the window? Is that okay with you? usually making a suggestion and asking another person if
(g) Shall we leave at two? Is that okay? s/he agrees with this suggestion. This use of shall is
(h) Lets go, shall we? relatively formal and infrequent. Sometimes “shall we?” is
(i) Let’s go, okay? used as a tag quwestion after let’s, as in (h). More
informally, “okay?” is used as a tag question, as in (i).
9-11 MAKING SUGGESTIONS: COULD vs. SHOULD
- What should we do tomorrow? Could can be used to make suggestion. (a) and (b) are
(a) Why don’t we go on picnic? similar in meaning: the speaker is suggesting a picnic.
(b) We could go on a picnic.
- I’m having trouble in math class. Should gives definite advice. In (c), the speaker is
(c) You should talk to your teacher. saying: “ I believe it is important for you to do this.
(d) Maybe you should talk to your teacher. This is what I remommend.” In (d), the use of maybe
- I’m having trouble in math class. softens the strength of the advice.
(e) You could talk to your teacher. Or you could ask Ann Could offers suggestions or possibilities. In (e), the
to help you with your math lessons. Or I could try to speaker is saying “I have some possible suggestion for
help you. you. It is possible to do this. Or it is possible to do
that.” *
- I failed my math class. Should have gives “hindsight advice.”** In (f), the
(f) You should have talked to your teacher and gotten speaker is saying: “ it was important for you to talk to
some help from her during the term. the teacher, but you didn’t do it. You made a
mistake.”
- I failed my math class. Could have offers “hindsight possibilities.”** In (g),
(g) You could have talked to your teacher. Or you could the speaker is saying “you had the chance to do this or
have asked Ann to help you with your math. Or I that. It was possible for this or that to happen. You
could have tried to help you. missed some good opportunities.”
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

*Might (but not may) can also be used to make suggestion (You might talk to your teacher), but the use of could is more common)
** “Hindsight” refers to looking at something after it happens.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 9
EXERCISE 5.
Polite request (Charts 9-29-4)
Direction: Complete the polite request with your own words. Try to imagine what the speaker
might say in the given situation.
1 Jack What’s the trouble, Officer?
Officer You made an illegal U-turn.
Jack I did?
Officer Yes. May ______________________?
Jack Certainly. It’s in my wallet.
Officer Would ________________________?
2 Waiter Good evening. Are you ready to order?
Costumer No, we’re not. Could ____________________?
Waiter Certainly. And if you have any question, I’d be happy to tell you about
anything on the menu.
3 Sally Are you driving to the meeting tonight?
Mike Uh-huh, I am.
Sally Could ______________________?
Mike Sure, I’ll pick up you up at 7:00.
4 Mr. Penn Something’s come up, and I can’t meet with you Tuesday. Would you mind
_____________________?
Mr. Gray Let me check my calendar.
5 Mechanic What seems to be the trouble with your car?
Costumer Something’s wrong with the brakes, I think. Could _________________?
Sure. Just pull the car into the garage.
Mechanic
6 Clerk May _______________________________?
Customer Yes, please. Could ____________________________?
Clerk Surely. Do you have a particular color in mind?
7 Shelley Are you enjoying the movie?
Mike Yeah, you?
Shelley Yes, but I can’t see over the man in front of me. Would you mind
______________?
Mike Not at all. I see two empty seats across the aisle.
8 Carlo I have to leave now, but I’d like to continue this conversation later. May
_______________?
Anne Of course. My phone number is 555-1716. I’ll look forward to hearing from
you.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 10: MODALS (PART 2)

10-1 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PRESENT TIME

Why isn’t John in class? “Degree of certainty” refers to how sure we are
100% sure: He is sick. – what we think the chances are- that
95% sure: He must be sick. something is true.
If we are sure something is true in the present,
He may be sick. we don’t need to use a modal. For example, if
Less than 50% sure: He might be sick. we say, “John is sick,” I am sure; I am starting a
He could be sick. fact that I am sure is true. My degree of
certainty is 100%.

Why isn’t John in class? Must expresses a strong degree of certainty

(a) He must be sick. (Usually he is in class every day, about a present situation, but the degree of
but when I saw him last night, he wasn’t feeling certainty is still less than 100%.
good. So my best guess is that he is sick today. I
can’t think of another possibility). In (a): The speaker is saying, “Probably John is
sick. I have evidence to make me believe that
he is sick. That is my logical conclusion, but I do
not know for certain.”

May, might, and could express a weak degree

Why isn’t John in class? of certainty.
(b) He may be sick.
(c) He might be sick. In (b), (c), and (d): The speaker is saying,
(d) He could be sick. (I don’t really know. He may be “Perhaps, maybe,* possibly John is sick. I am
at home watching TV. He might be at the library. only making a guess. I can think of other
He could be out of town.) possibilities.”
(b), (c), and (d) have the same meaning.

*Maybe (one word) is an adverb: Maybe he is sick.

May be (two words) is a verb from: He may be sick.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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10-2 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PRESENT TIME NEGATIVE

100% sure: Sam isn’t hungry.

Sam couldn’t be hungry.

99% sure:
Sam can’t be hungry.

95% sure: Sam must not be hungry.

Sam may not be hungry.

Less than 50% sure:
Sam might not be hungry.
(a) Sam doesn’t want anything to eat. He isn’t In (a): The speaker is sure that Sam is not hungry.
hungry. He told me his stomach is full. I heard
him say that he isn’t hungry. I believe him.
(b) Sam could’t/can’t be hungry! That’s impossible! I In (b): The speaker believes that there is no
just saw him eat a huge meal. He has already possibility that Sam is hungry (but the speaker is
eaten enough to fill two grown men. Did he not 100% sure) when used in the negative to show
really say he’d like something to eat? I don’t degree of certainty, couldn’t and can’t forcefully
believe it. express the idea that the speaker believes
something is impossible.
(c) Sam isn’t eating his food. He must not be hungry. In (c): The speaker is expressing a logical
That’s the only reason I can think of. conclusion, a “best guess.”
(d) I don’t know why Sam isn’t eating his food. He In (d): The speaker uses may not/might not to
may not/might not be hungry right now. Or mention a possibility.
maybe he doesn’t feel well. Or perhaps he ate
just before he got here. Who knows?

10-3 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PAST TIME

PAST TIME: AFFIRMATIVE In (a): The speaker is true.
- Why wasn’t Mary in class? In (b): The speaker is making a logical
(a) 100% : She was sick. conclusion, e.g., “I saw Mary yesterday
and found put that she was sick. I
(b) 95%: She must have been sick. assume that is the reason why she was
absent. I can’t think of any other good
She may have been sick. reason.”
(c) Less than 50%: She might have been sick.
She could have been sick.
PAST TIME: NEGATIVE In (d): The speaker s true.
- Why didn’t Sam eat? In (e): The speaker believes that it is
(d) 100% : Sam wasn’t hungry. impossible for Sam to have been hungry.
In (f): The speaker is making a logical
Sam couldn’t have been hungry. conclusion.
(e) 99%: In (g): The speaker is mentioning one
Sam can’t have been hungry. possibility.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(f) 95%: Sam must not have been hungry.

Sam may not have been hungry.

(g) Less than 50%:
Sam might not have been hungry

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10-4 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: FUTURE TIME

100% sure: Kay will do well on the test. → The speaker feels
sure.

Kay should do well on the test

90% sure: → The speaker is
Kay ought to do well on the test. almost sure

She may have been sick.

Less than 50%: She might have been sick. → The speaker is
She could have been sick. guessing.
(a) Kay has been studying hard. She should do/ought to Should/ought to can be used to
do well on the test tomorrow. express expectations about future
events.
In (a): The speaker is saying, “Kay
will probably do well on the test. I
expect her to do well. That is what
I think will happen.”
(b) I wonder why Sue hasn’t written us. We should have The past form of should/ought to is
heard/ought to have heard from her last week. used to mean that the speaker
expected something that did not
occur.
10-5 PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MODALS
(a) Let’s just knock on the door lightly. Tom may be sleeping. Progressive form, present
(right now) time:
(b) All of the lights in Ann’s room are turned off. She must be Modal + be + -ing
sleeping. (right now) Meaning: in progress right
now
(c) Sue wasn’t at home last night when we went to visit her. She Progressive form, past
might have been studying at the library. time:
(d) Joe wasn’t at home last night. He has a lot of exams coming Modal + have been + -ing
up soon, and he is also working on a term paper. He must Meaning: in progress at a
have been stdudying at the library. tive in the past.
10-6 ABILITY: CAN AND COULD
(a) Tom is strong. He can lift that heavy box. Can is used to express physical ability, as in (a).
(b) I can see Central park from my apartment. Can is frequently used with verbs of the five
senses: see, hear, feel, smell, taste, as in (b).
(c) Maria can play the piano. She’s been taking Can is used to express antara acquired skill. In (c),
lessons for many years. can play = knows how to play.
(d) You can buy a hammer at the hardware store. Can is used to express possibility. In (d), you can
buy = it is possible for one to buy.
COMPARE Can is used to give permission in informal
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(e) I’m not quite ready to go, but you can leave if situations, as in (e). In formal situation, may
you’rumus empiris in a hurry. I’ll meet you later. rather than can is usually used to used to give
(f) When you finish the test, you may leave. permission, as in (f)
(g) Dogs can bark, but they cannot/can’t talk. Negative form: cannot or can’t
(h) Tom could lift the box, but I couldn’t. The past form of can meaning “ability” is could,
as in (h).Negative = could not or couldn’t

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10-7 USING WOULD TO EXPRESS A REPEATED ACTION IN THE PAST

(a) When I was a child, my father would read Would can be used to express antara action that was
me a story at night before bedtime. repeated regularly in the past. When would is used
(b) When I was a child, my father used to to express this idea, it has the same meaning as used
read me a story at night before bedtime. to (habitual past).(a) and (b) have the same meaning.

(c) I used to live in California Used to expresses antara habitual situation that
He used to be a Boy Scout. existed in the past, as in (c). In this case, would may
They used to have a Ford. not be used as antara alternative. Would is used only
for regularly repeated actions in the past.

10-8 EXPRESSING PREFERENCE: WOULD RATHER

(a) I would rather go to a movie tonight than Would rather expresses preference.
study grammar.
In (a): Notice that the simple form of a verb follows
(b) I’d rather study history than (study)
both would rather and than.
biology.
In (b): If the verb is the same, it usually is not
repeated after than.

- How much do you weigh? Contraction: I would = I’d

(c) I’d rather not tell you.
Negative form: would rather + not

(d) The movie was okay, but I would rather The past form: would rather have + past participle
have gone to the concert last night.
Usual pronounciation: “I’d rather-əv”

(e) I’d rather be lying on a beach in India than Progressive form: would rather + be + -ing
(be) sitting in class right now.

10-9 COMBINING MODALS WITH PHRASAL MODALS

(a) INCORRECT: Janet will can help you A modal cannot be immediately followed by another
tomorrow. modal. In (a): The modal will cannot be followed by
can, which is another modal.

(b) CORRECT: Janet will be able to help you A modal can, however, be followed by the phrasal
tomorrow. modals be able to and have to. In (b): The modal will
is correctly followed by the phrasal modal be able to.

(c) CORRECT: Tom isn’t going to be able to It is also sometimes possible for one phrasal modal
help you tomorrow. to follow another phrasal modal. In (c): be going to is
followed by be able to.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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10-10 SUMMARY CHART OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS

AUXILIARY USES PRESENT/FUTURE PAST
may 1) polite request (only May I borrow your pen?
with I or we)
2) formal permission You may leave the rom.
3) less than 50% certainty- Where’s John? He may have been at the
He may be at the library. library.
might 1) Less than 50% - Where’s John? He might have been at the
certainty He might be at the library. library.
2) Polite request (rare) Might I borrow your pen?
should 1) advisability I should study tonight. I should have studied last
night, but I didn’t.
2) 90% certainty She should do well on the test She should have done well
(expectation) (future only, not present) on the test.
Ought to 1) advisability I ought to study tonight. I ought to have studied
last night, but I didn’t.
2) 90% certainty She ought to do well on the She ought to have done
(expectation) test. (future only, not present) well on thes test.
Had better 1) Advisability with threat You had better be on time, or (past from uncommon)
of bad result we will leave without you.
Be 1) expectation Class is supposed to begin at
supposed to 10:00.
2) Unfulfilled expectation Class was supposed to
begin at 10:00, but it
didn’t begin until 10:15.
must 1) Strong necessity I must go to class today. (I had to go to class
yesterday)
2) Prohibition (negative) You must not open that door.

3) 95% certainty Mary isn’t in class. She must Mary must have been sick
be sick. (present only) yesterday.
Have to 1) necessity I have to go to class today. I had to go to class
yesterday.
2) Lack of necessity I don’t have to go to class I didn’t have to go to class
(negative) today. yesterday.
Have got to 1) necessity I have got to go to class today. (I had to go to class
yesterday.)
will 1) 100% certainty He will be here at 6:00. (future
only)
2) Willingness - The phone’s ringing.
- I’ll get it
3) Polite request Will you please pass the salt?

Be going to 1) 100% certainty He is going to be there at 6:00

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(prediction) (future only)

2) Definite plan I’m going to paint my
(intention) bedroom. (future only)
3) Unfulfilled intention I was going to paint my
room, but I didn’t have
time.

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10-10 SUMMARY CHART OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS (cont.)

AUXILIARY USES PRESENT/FUTURE PAST

can 1) Ability/possibility I can run fast. I could run fast when I

was a child, but now I
can’t.
2) Informal permission You can use my car tomorrow.

3) Informal polite request Can I borrow your pen?

4) Impossibility (negative That can’t be true! That can’t have been

only) true!
could 1) Past ability I could run fast when I
was a child.
2) Polite request Could I borrow your pen?
Could you help me?
3) Suggestion (affirmative - Ineed help in math. You could have talked
only) You could talk to your to your teacher.
teacher.
4) Less than 50% certainy - Where’s John? He could have been at
He could be at home. home.
5) Impossibility (negative That couldn’t be true! That couldn’t have
only) been true!
Be able to 1) ability I am able to help you. I wil be I was able to help him.
able to help you.
would 1) polite request Would you please pass the salt?
Would you mind if I left early?
2) preference I would rather go to the park I would rather have
than stay home. gone to the park.
3) Repeated action in the When I was a child, I
past would visit my
grandparents every
weekend.
4) Polite for “want” (with I would like antara apple, please.
like)
5) Unfulfilled wish I would have liked a
cookie, but there
were none in the
house.
Used to 1) Repeated action in the I used to visit my
past grandparents every
weekend.
2) Past situation that no I used to live in Spain.
longer exists Now I live in Korea.
shall (a) Polite question to make Shall I open the window?
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

a sugestion
(b) Future with “I” or “we” I shall arrive at nine (will = more
as subject common)

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 10
EXERCISE 29.
Review: Modals and similar expressions. (Chapter 9 and 10)
Direction: Use a modal or phrasal modal with each verb in parentheses. More than one auxiliary
may be possible. Use the one that seems most appropriate to you and explain why you chose that
one rather than another.
1. It looks like rain. We (shut) _____________________ the windows.
2. Ann, (you, hand) _______________________ me that dish? Thanks.
3. Spring break starts on the thirteenth. We (go, not) _____________________ to classes again
until the twenty-seconds.
4. The baby is only a year old, but she (say, already) ____________________ a few words.
5. In the United States, elementary education is compulsory. All children (attend)
_________________ six years of elementary school.
6. There was a long line in front of the theater. We (wait) _______________________ almost an
hour to buy our tickets.
7. A: I’d like to go to a warm, sunny place next winter. Any suggestions?
B: You (go) _____________________ to Hawaii or Mexico. Or how about Indonesia?
8. I don’t feel like going to the library to study this afternoon. I (go) __________________ to the
shopping mall than to the library.
9. A: Mrs. Wilson got a traffic ticket. She didn’t stop at a stop sign.
B: That’s surprising. Usually she’s a very cautious driver and obeys all the traffic laws. She
(see, not) ______________________ the sign.
10. Annie, you (clean) ___________________________ this mess before Dad gets home. He’ll be
mad if he sees all this stuff all over the living room floor.
11 A This is Steve’s laptop, isn’t?
B It (be, not) ______________________ his. He doesn’t have a laptop computer, at
least not that I now of. It (belong) ______________________ to Lucy or to Linda.
They sometimes bring their laptops to class.

12. In my country, a girl and boy (go, not) _____________________ out on a date unless they are
accompanied by a chaperone.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER -11: THE PASSIVE

11-1 FORMING THE PASSIVE

In the passive, the object of an active verb
ACTIVE Subject verb object
becomes the subject of the passive verb:
(a) Mary helped the boy. the boy in (a) becomes the subject of the
PASSIVE Subject verb object passive verb in (b).
Notice that the subject of antara active
(b) The boy was helped by verb follows by in a passive sentence. The
Mary noun that follows by is called the “agent.”
In (b): Mary is the agent.
(a) and (b) have the same meaning.
ACTIVE: (c) An acciden happened. Only transitive verbs (verbs that can be
PASSIVE: (d) (none) followed by antara object) are used in the
passive. It is not possible to use intransitive
verbs (such antara happen, sleep, come,
seem) in the passive.
Form of the passive: be + past participle.
ACTIVE PASSIVE
by
simple present Mary help the boy The boy is helped
Mary
by
present progressive Mary is helping the boy The boy is being helped
Mary
by
present perfect Mary has helped the boy The boy has been helped
Mary
by
simple past Mary helped the boy The boy was helped
Mary
was by
past progressive Mary was helped the boy The boy helped
being Mary
by
past perfect Mary had helped the boy The boy had been helped
Mary
by
simple future Mary will help the boy The boy will be helped
Mary
be going to Mary
is going to the boy The boyis going helped by
help to be Mary
future perfect Mary will have the boy The boy will have helped by
helped been Mary
(e) Was the boy helped by Mary? In the question form of passive verbs,
(f) Is the boy being helped by Mary? antara auxiliary verb precedes the subject
(g) Has the boy been helped by Mary?
*The progressive forms of the present perfect, past perfect, future, and future perfect are very rarely used in the passive.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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11-2 USING THE PASSIVE

(a) Rice is grown in India. Usually the passive is used without a by-phrase. The
(b) Our house was build in 1980. passive is most frequently used when it is not known
(c) This olive oil was imported from or not important to know exactly who performs antara
Crete. action.
In (a): Rice is grown in India by people, farmers, by
someone. It is not known or important to know exactly
who grows rice in India. (a), (b), and (c) illustrate the
most common use of the passive, i.e., without the by-
phrase.
(d) Life on the Mississippi was written The by-phrase is included only if it is important to
by Mark Twain. know who performs antara action, as in (d), where by
Mark Twain is important information.
(e) My aunt made this rug. (active) If the speaker knows who performs an action, usually
the active is used, as in (e).
(f) This rug was made by my aunt. Sometimes, even when the speaker knows who
That rug was made by my mother. performs an action, s/he chooses to use the passive
with the by-phrase because s/he wants to focus
attention on the subject of a sentence. In (f): The focus
of attention is on two rugs.
11-3 INDIRECT OBJECTS AS PASSIVE SUBJECTS
I.O. D.O. I.O. = indirect object; D.O. = direct object
(a) Someone gave Mrs. Lee an award. Either antara indirect object or a direct object
(b) Mrs. Lee was given antara award. may become the subject of a passive sentence.
(a), (b), (c), and (d) have the same meaning.
I.O. D.O. Notice in (d): When the direct object becomes
(c) Someone gave an award to Mrs. Lee. the subject, to is usually kept in front of the
(d) An award was given to Mrs. Lee indirect object.*
*The omission of to is more common in British English than American English: An award was
given Mrs. Lee.
11-4 THE PASSIVE FORM OF MODALS AND PHRASAL MODALS
THE PASSIVE FORM: modal* + be + past participle
(a) Tom will be invited to the picnic.
(b) The window can’t be opened to respect their elders.
(c) Children should be tought from class?
(d) May I be excused to the library before
(e) This book had better be returned Friday.
(f) This letter ought to be sent before June 1st.
(g) Mary has to be told about our change in
(h) Fred is supposed to be told plans.
about the meeting.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

THE PAST-PASSIVE FORM: modal + have been + past participle

(i) The letter Should have been Sent Last week.
(j) This house Must have been Built Over 200 years ago.
(k) Jack Ought to have been invited To the party.

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11-5 STATIVE PASSIVE

(a) The door is old. In (a) and (b): old and green are adjectives.
(b) The door is green. They describe the door. In (c): locked is a
(c) The door is locked past pasticiple. It is used as an adjective. It
describes the door.
(d) I locked the door five minutes ago. When the passive form is used to describe
(e) The door was looked by me five minutes ago. an existing situation or state, as in (c), (f),
(f) Now the door is locked. and (i), it is called the “stative passive.” In
(g) Ann broke the window yesterday. the stative passive:
(h) The window was broken by Ann.  No action is taking place; the action
(i) Now the window is broken. happened earlier.
 There is no by-phrase.
 The past participle functions as an
adjective.
(j) I am interested in Chinese art. Prepositions other than by can follow stative
(k) He is satisfied with his job. passive verbs.
(l) Ann is married to Alex.
(m) I don’t know where I am. I am lost. (m) through (p) are examples of idiomatic
(n) I can’t find my purse. It is gone. usage of the passive form in common,
(o) I am finished with my work. everyday English. These sentences have no
(p) I am done with my work. equivalent active sentences.
11-5 STATIVE PASSIVE
(a) I’m interested in Greek culture. Many stative passive verbs are followed by
(b) He’s worried about losing hid job. prepositions other than by.
COMMON STATIVE PASSIVE VERBS + PREPOSITIONS
Be accustomed to Be enganged Be opposed
Be acquainted with be equipped with
Be addicted to be excited about Be pleased with
Be annoyed with, by be exhaused from Be prepared for
Be associated with be exposed to Be protected with
be filled with Be provided with
Be bored with, by be finished with
Be cluttered with be frightened of, by Be qualified for
Be composed with
Be concerned about be gone from Be related to
Be connected to Be remembered for
Be coordinated with be interested in
Be covered with be involved in Be satisfied for
Be crowded with Be scared of, by
Be dedicated to be known for
Be devoted to Be terrified of, by
Be disappointed in, with be limited to Be tired of, from
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Be discriminated against be located in

Be divorced from Be worried about
Be done with be made of
Be dressed in be married to

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11-7 THE PASSIVE WITH GET

GET + ADJECTIVE Get may be followed by certain adjectives.*
(a) I’m getting hungry. Let’s eat soon. Get gives the idea of change-the idea of
(b) You shouln’t eat so much. You’ll get fat. becoming, beginning to be, growing to be.
(c) I stopped working because I got sleepy. In (a): I’m getting hungry = I wasn’t hungry
before, but now I’m beginning to be hungry.
GET + PAST PARTICIPLE Get may also be followed by a past
(d) I stopped working because I got tired. participle. The past participle functions as an
(e) They are getting married next month. adjective; it describes the subject. The
(f) I got worried because he was two hours late. passive with get is common in spoken
English, but is often appropriate in formal
writing.
*Some of the common adjectives that follow get are:
Angry Chilly Fat Hungry Old Thirsty
Anxious Cold Full Late Rich Warm
Bald Dark Good Light Sck Well
Better Dizzy Heavy Mad Sleepy Wet
Big Empty hot nervous tall worse
busy
11-8 PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES
- The problem confuses the students. The present participle serves as an adjective
(a) It is a confusing problem. with an active meaning. The noun it modifies
- The students are confused by problem. performs an action. In (a): The noun problem
(b) They are confused students. does something; it confuses. Thus, it is
described as a “confusing problem.”
The past participle serves as an adjective with a
passive meaning. In (b): The students are
confused by something. Thus, they are
described as “confused students.”
- The story amuses the children. In (c): The noun story performs the action
(c) It is an amusing story.
- The children are amused by the story. In (d): The noun children receives the action.
(d) They are amused children.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 11
EXERCISE 29.
Error analysis: the passive

Direction: Correct the errors in these sentences.

1. I am interesting in his ideas.

2. Two people got hurted in the accident and were took to the hospital by an ambulance.

3. The movie was so bored that we fell asleep after an hour.

4. The students helped by the clear explanation that the teacher gave.

5. That alloy is composing by iron and tin.

6. The winner of the race hasn’t been announcing yet.

7. If you are interesting in modern art, you should see the new exhibit at the museum. It is

fascinated.

8. Progress is been made every day.

9. When and where has the automobile invested?

10. My brother and I have always been interesting in learning more about our family tree.

11. I am not agree with you, and I don’t think you’ll ever to convince me.

12. Each assembly kit is accompany by detailed instructions.

13. Arthur was giving an award by the city for all of his efforts in crime prevention.

14. It was late, I was getting very worry about my mother.

15. The problem was very puzzled. I couldn’t figure it out.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER -12: NOUN CLAUSES

12-1 INTRODUCTION

Independent clause A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a

(a) Sue lives in Tokyo. verb.*

Independent clause An independent clause (or main clause) is a complete

sentence. It contains the main subject and verb of a
(b) Where does Sue live? sentence. Examples (a) and (b) are complete sentences. (a)
is a statement, and (b) is a question.

dependent clause A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is not a

(c) where Sue lives complete sentence. It must be connected to an
independent clause. Example (c) is a dependent clause.

indep. cl. dependent cl. Example (d) is a complete sentence. It has an independent
(d) I know where Sue live? clause with the main subject (I) and verb (know) of the
sentence. Where Sue lives is a dependent clause
connected to an independent clause. Where Sue lives is
called a naoun clause.

noun phrase A noun phrase is used as a subject or an object.

(e) His story was interesting. A noun clause is used as a subject or an object. In order
noun clause words, a noun clause is used in the same ways as a noun
phrase.
(f) What he said was interesting.
In (e): His story is anoun phrase. It is used as the subject of
the sentence.
In (f): What he said is a noun clause. It is used as the
subject of the sentence. The noun clause has its own
subject (he) and verb (said).

noun phrase In (g): his story is a noun phrase. It is used as the object of
(g) I heard his story. the verb heard.

noun clause In (h): what he said is a noun clause. It is used as the

(h) I heard what he said. object of the verb heard.

noun phrase In (i): his story is anoun phrase. It is used as the object of
(i) I listened to his story. the preposition to.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

noun clause In (j): what he said is a noun clause. It is used as the object
(j) I listened to what he said. of the preposition to.

*A phrase is a group of words that does NOT contain a subject and a verb.

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12-2 NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH A QUESTION WORD

QUESTION NOUN CLAUSE In (a): where she lives is the

object of the verb know. In a
Where does she live? (a) I don’t know where she lives.
noun clause, the subject
What did he say? (b) I couldn’t hear what he said.
precedes the verb. Do not use
When do they arrive? (c) Do you know when they arrive?
question word order in a noun
clause.
Notice: does, did, and do are
used in questions, but not in
noun clauses.

S V S V In (d): The word order is the

same in both the question and
Who lives there? (d) I don’t know who lives there.
the noun clause because who is
What happened? (e) Please tell me what happened.
the subject in both.
Who is at the door? (f) I wonder who is at the door.

S V S V In (g): she is the subject of the

question, so it is placed in front
Who is she? (g) I don’t know who she is.
of the verb be in the noun
Who are those men? (h) I don’t know who those men are.
clause.*
Whose house is that? (i) I wonder whose house that is.

What did she say? (j) What she said surprised me. In (j): What she said is the
What should they do? (k) What they should do is obvious. subject of the sentence. Notice
in (k): A noun clause subject
takes a singular verb (e.g., is).
*COMPARE: Who is at the door? = who is the subject of the question?
Who are those men? = those men is the subject of the question, so be is plural.

12-3 NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH WHETHER OR IF

YES/NO QUESTION NOUN CLAUSE When a yes/no question is

changed to a noun clause,
Will she come? (a) I don’t know whether she will come.
whether or if is used to
I dont know if she will come.
introduce the clause.
Does he need help? (b) I wonder whether he needs help.
I wonder if he needs help. (Note: Whether is more
acceptable in formal
English, but if is quite
commonly used, especially
in speaking.)

(c) I wonder whether or not she will come. In (c), (d), and (e): Notice
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(d) I wonder whether she will come or not. the patterns when or not is
(e) I wonder if she will come or not. used.

(f) Whether she comes or not is In (f): Notice that the noun
unimportant to me. clause is in the subject
position.

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12-4 QUESTION WORDS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

(a) I don’t know what I should do. Question word (when, where, how,
(b) I don’t know what to do. who, whom, whose, what, which) and
(c) Pam can’t decide whether she should go or stay whether may be followed by an
home. infinitive.
(d) Pam can’t decide whether to go or (to) stay home.
Each pair of sentences in the examples
(e) Please tell me how I can get to the buss station
has the same meaning. Notice that the
(f) Please tell me how to get to the bus station.
meaning expressed by the the
(g) Jim told us where we could find it.
infinitive is either should or can/could.
(h) Jim told us where to find it.

12-5 NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH THAT

STATEMENT NOUN CLAUSE In (a): that he is a good actor

is a noun clause. It is used as
He is agood actor. (a) I think that he is a good actor.
the object of the verb think.
(b) I think he is a good actor.
The word that, when it
The world is round. (c) We know (that) the world is round. introduces a noun clause,
has no meaning in itself. It
simply marks the beginning
of the clause. Frequently it is
omitted, as in (b), especially
in speaking. (If used in
speaking, it is unstressed.)

She doesn’t understand (d) That she doesn’t understand In (d): The noun clause (That
spoken English. spoken English is obvious. she doesn’t understand
(e) It is obvious (that) she doesn’t spoken English) is the subject
understand spoken English. of the sentence. The word
that is not omitted when it
The world is round. (f) That the world is round is a fact. introduces a noun clause
(g) It is a fact that the world is round. used as the subject of a
sentence, as in (d) and (f).
More commonly, the word it
functions as the subject and
the noun clause is placed at
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

the end of the sentence, as

in (e) and (g).

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12-6 QUOTED SPEECH

Quoted speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally spoken.*
Quotation marks (“. . .”) are used.**

QUOTING ONE SENTENCE In (a): Use a comma after she said. Capitalize the
first word of the quoted sentence. Put the final
(a) She said, “My brother is a student.”
quotation marks outside the period at the end of
the sentence.
(b) “My brother is a student, “ she said.
In (b): Use a comma, not a period, at the end of
the quoted sentence when it precedes she said.
(c) “My brother,” she said, “is a student.”
In (c): If the quoted sentence is divided by she
said, use a comma after the first part of the
quote. Do not capitalize the first word after she
said.

QUOTING MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE In (d): Quotation marks are placed at the
beginning and end of the complete quote. Notice:
(d) “My brother is a student. He is attending a
There are no quotation marks after students.
university,” she said.
(e) “My brother is a student,” she said. In (e): If she said comes between two quoted
“He is attending a university.” sentences, the second sentence begins with
quotation marks and a capital letter.

QUOTING A QUESTION OR AN EXCLAMATION In (f): The question mark is inside the quotation
marks.
(f) She asked,”When will you be here?”
(g) “When will you b here?” she asked. In (g): If a question mark is used, no comma is
(h) She said, “Watch out!” used before she asked.
In (h): The exclamation point is inside the
quotation marks.

(i) “My brother is a a student,” said Anna. In (i): The noun subject (Anna) follows said. A
“My brother,” said Anna, “is a student.” noun subject often follows the verb when the
subject and verb come in the moddle or at the
end of a quoted sentence. (Note: A pronoun
subject almost always precedes the verb. Very
rare: :My brother’s a student,” said she.)

(j) “Let’s leave,” whispered Dave. Say and ask are the most commonly used quote
(k) “Please help me,” begged the unfortunate verbs. Some others: add, agree, announce,
man. answer, beg, begin, comment, complain, confess,
(l) “Well,” Jack began, “it’s a long story.” continue, explain, inquire, promise, remark,
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

reply, respond, shout, suggest, whisper.

*Quoted speech is also called “direct speech.” Reported speech is also called “indirect speech.”
**in British English, quotation marks are called “inverted commas” and can consist of either double marks (“) or a single mark (‘): She
said, ‘My brother is a student.’

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12-7 REPORTED SPEECH: VERB FORMS IN NOUN CLAUSES

QUOTED SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH Reported speech refers to
(a) “I watch TV every day.”  She said she wached TV every day. using a noun clause to
 She said she was watching TV. report what someone has
(b) “I am watching TV.”
said. No quotation marks
(c) “I have watching TV.”  She said she had watching TV.
are used.
(d) “I wached TV.”  She said she had watched TV.
If the reporting verb (the
(e) “I had watched TV.”  She said she had watched TV.
main verb of the sentence,
(f) “I will watch TV.”  She said she would watching TV. e.g., said) is simple past, the
(g) “I am going to watch TV.”  She said she was going to watch TV. verb in the noun clause will
(h) “I can watch TV.”  She said she could watching TV. usually also be in a past
(i) “I may watch TV.”  She said she might watch TV. form, as in the examples.
(j) “I must watch TV.”  She said she had to watch TV.
(k) “I have to watch TV.”  She said she had to watch TV.

(l) “I should watch TV.”  She said she should watch TV.
In (l): should, ought to, and
“I ought to watch TV.”  She said she ought to watch TV. might do not change to a
“I might watch TV.”  She said she might watch TV. past form.

(m) immediate reporting: Changing verbs to past

– What did the teacher just say? I didn’t hear him. forms in reported speech is
– he said he wants us to read Chapter Six. common in both speaking
(n) Later reporting: and writing. However,
– I didn’t go to class yesterday. Did Mr. Jonas make any assignment? sometimes in spoken
– Yes. He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six. English, no change is made
in the noun clause verb,
especially if the speaker is
reporting something
immediately or soon after it
was said.
 She said the world is round.
(o) “The world is round.” Also, sometimes the present
tense is retained even in
formal English when the
reported sentence deals
with a general truth, as in
(o).
 She says she watches TV every day.
(p) “I watch TV every day.” When the reporting verb is
(q) “I watch TV every day.”  She has said that she watches TV simple present, present
(r) “I watch TV every day.” every day. perfect, or future, the noun
 She will say that she watches TV every clause verb is not change.
day
 She told me to watch TV.
(s) “Watch TV.” In reported speech, an
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

imperative sentence is
changed to an infinitive. Tell
is used instead of say as the
reported verb.

*NOTE: Tell is immediately followed by a (pro)noun object, but say is not: He told me he would be late. He said he would be late. Also
possible: He said to me he would be late.

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12-8 USING THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN NOUN CLAUSES

(a) The teacher demands that we be A subjunctive verb uses the simple form of a verb. It
on time. does not have present, past, or future forms; it is
(b) I insisted that he pay me the neither singular nor plural. Sentences with subjunctive
money. verbs generally stress importance or urgency. A
(c) I recommended that she not go subjunctive verb is used in that-clauses that follow the
the concert. verb and expressions listed below. In (a): be is a
(d) It is important that they be told subjunctive verb; its subject is we. In (b): pay (not pays,
the truth not paid) is a subjunctive verb; it is in its simple form,
even though its subject (he) is singular.
Negative: not + simple form, as in (c).
Passive: simple form of be + past participle, as in (d)

(e) I suggested that she see a doctor. Should is also possible after suggest and recommend.*
(f) I suggested that she should see a
doctor.

COMMON VERBS AND EXPRESSIONS FOLLOWED BY THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN A NOUN CLAUSE

Advise (that) Propose (that) It is essential (that) It is critical (that)
Ask (that) Recommend (that) It is imperative (that) It is necessary (that)
Demand (that) Request (that) It is important (that) It is vital (that)
Insist (that) Suggest (that)
*The subjunctive is more common in American English than British English. In British English, should + simple form is more usual than
the subjunctive: The teacher insists that we should be on time.

12-1 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

The following –ever words give the idea of “any.” Each pair of sentences in the examples has the
same meaning.
Whoever (a) Whoever wants to come is welcome.
Anyone who wants to come is welcome.
Who(m)ever (b) He makes friends easily with who(m)ever he meets.*
He makes friends easily with anyone who(m) he meets.
Whatever (c) He always says whatever comes into his mind.
He always says anything that comes into his mind.
Whichever (d) There are four good programs on TV at eight o’clock. We
can watch whichever program (whichever one) you prefer.
We can watch any of the four programs that you prefer.
Whenever (e) You may leave whenever you wish.
You may leave at any time that you wish.
Wherever (f) She can go whenever she wants to go.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

She can go anyplace that she wants to go.

however (g) The students may dress however they please.
The students may dress in any way they please.
*In (b): whomever is the object of the verb meets. In American English, whomever is rare and very formal. In British English, whoever
(whomever) is used as the object form: He makes friends easily with whoever he meets.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 12
EXERCISE 30.
Error analysis: noun clauses

Directions: Correct the errors.

1. Tell the taxi driver where do you want to go.

2. My roommate came into the room and asked me why aren’t you in class? I said I am

waiting for a telephone call from my family.

3. It was my first day at the university, and I am on my way to my first class. I wondered who

else will be in the class. What the teacher would be like?

4. He asked me that what did I intend to do after I graduate?

5. Many of the people in the United States doesn’t know much about geography. For

example, people will ask you where is Japan located.

6. What does a patient tell a doctor it is confidential.

7. What my friend and I did it was our secret. We didn’t even tell our parents what did we

do.

8. The doctor asked that I felt okay. I told him that I don’t feel well.

9. Is clear that the ability to use a computer it is an important skill in the modern world.

10. I asked him what kind of movies does he like, he said me, I like romantic movies.

11. Is true you almost drowned? my friend asked me. Yes, I said. I’m really glad to be alive. It

was really frightening.

12. It is a fact that I almost drowned makes me very careful about water safety whenever I go

swimming.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 13: ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

13-1 INTRODUCTION
CLAUSE: A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: An independent clause is a complete sentence. It contains the main subject
and verb of a sentence. (It is also called “a main clause.”)
DEPENDENT CLAUSE: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an
independent clause.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It
describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun. (An
adjective clause is also called “a relative clause.”)
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE An adjective clause uses pronouns to connect the dependent clause to the
PRONOUNS: independent clause. The adjective clause are who, whom, which, that, and
whose. (Adjective clause pronouns are also called “relative pronouns.”)
13-2 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE SUBJECT
I thank the woman. In (a): I thanked the woman = an independent
She helped me. clause; who helped me = an adjective clause.
The adjective clause modifies the noun
woman.
(a) I thanked the woman who helped me. In (a): who is the subject of the adjective
(b) I thanked the woman that helped me. clause.
In (b): that is the subject of the adjective
The book is mine. clause.
It is on the table. Note: (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
(c) and (d) have the same meaning.
(c) The book which is on the table is mine. Who = used for people
(d) The book that is on the table is mine. Which = used for things
That = used for both people and things
(e) INCORRECT: The cook is mine that is on the An adjective clause closely follows the noun it
table. modifies.
13-3 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECT OF A VERB
The man was Mr. Jones. Notice in the examples: The adjective
I saw him. clause pronouns are placed at the
beginning of the clause.
(a) The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones. In (a): who is usually used instead of
(b) The man that I sam was Mr. Jones. whom, especially in speaking. Whom
(c) The man φ I saw was Mr. Jones. is generally used only in very formal
English.
The movie wasn’t very good. In (c) and (f): An object pronouns lis
We saw it last night. often omitted from an adjective
clause. (A subject pronoun, however,
(d) The movie which we saw last night wasn’t very may not be omitted.)
good. Who(m) = used for people
(e) The movie that we saw last night wasn’t very Which = used for things
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

good. That = used for both people and

(f) The movie φ we saw last night wasn’t very good. things.
(g) INCORRECT: The man who(m) I saw him was Mr. In (g): The pronoun him must be
Jones. remove. It is unnecessary because
The man that I saw him was Mr. Jones. who(m), that, or φ functions as the
The man I saw him was Mr. Jones. object of the verb saw.

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13-4 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION

She is the woman. In very formal English, the
I told you about her. prepositional comes at the
beginning of the adjective clause,
(a) She is the woman about whom I told you. as in (a) and (e). Usually, however,
(b) She is the woman who(m) I told you. in everyday usage, the preposition
(c) She is the woman that I told you. comes after the subject and verb of
(d) She is the woman φ I told you. the adjective clause, as in the other
examples.
The music was good. Note: If the preposition comes at
We listened to it last night. the beginning of the adjective
clause, only whom or which may
be used. A preposition is never
(e) The music to which we listened last night was good. immediately followed by that or
(f) The music which we listened to last night was good. who.*
(g) The music that we listened to last night was good.
(h) The music φ we listened to last night was good.
*INCORRECT: She is the woman about who I told you.
INCORRECT: The music to that we listened last night was good.
13-5 USUAL PATTERNS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
(a) USUAL: I like the people who live next to me. In everyday informal usage, often one
LESS USUAL: I like the people that live next to me. adjective clause pattern is used more
commonly than another.* In (a): As a
subject pronoun, who is more
common than that.
(b) USUAL: I like books that have good plots. In (b): As a subject pronoun, that is
LESS USUAL: I like books which have good plots. more common than which.
(c) USUAL: I liked the people φ I met last night. In (c) and (d): Object pronouns are
(d) USUAL: I liked the book φ I read last week. commonly omitted, especially in
speaking.
13-6 USING WHOSE
I know the man. Whose is used to show possession. It
His bicycle was stolen. carries the same meaning as other
possessive pronouns used as
(a) I know tha man whose bicycle was stolen. adjectives: his, her, its, and their. Like
his, her, its, and their, whose is
The student writes well. connected to a noun:
I read her composition. His bycycle  whose bicycle
Her composition  whose
(b) The student whose composition I read writes well. composition
Both whose and the noun it is
connected to are placed at the
beginning of the adjective clause.
Whose cannot be omitted.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Mr. Catt has a painting. Whose usually modifies people, but it

Its value is inestimable. may also be used to modify things, as
in (c).
(c) Mr. Catt has a painting whose value is inestimable.

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13-7 USING WHERE IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Where is used in an adjective clause to
The building is very old.
modify a place (city, country, room,
He lives there (in the building).
house, etc.).
(a) The building where he lives is very old.
If where is used, a preposition is NOT
(b) The building in which he lives is very old.
included in the adjective clause, as in
The building which he lives in is very old.
(a). If where is not used, the preposition
The building that he lives in is very old.
must be included, as in (b).
The building φ he lives in is very old.
13-8 USING WHEN IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
I’ll never forget the day. When is used in an adjective clause to
I met you then (on the day). modify a noun of time (year, day, time,
(a) I’ll never forget the day when I met you. century, etc.)
(b) I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
The use of a preposition in an adjective
(c) I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
clause that modifies a noun of time is
(d) I’ll never forget the day φ I met you.
somewhat different from that in other
adjective clauses: a preposition is used
preceding which, as in (b). Otherwise,
the preposition is omitted.
13-9 USING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO MODIFY PRONOUNS
(a) There is someone (whom) I want you to met. Adjective clauses can modify indefinite
(b) Everything he said was pure nonsense. pronouns (e.g., who(m), that, which)
(c) Anybody who wants to come is welcome. are usually omitted in the adjective
clause.

(d) Paula was the only one I knew at the party. Adjective clauses can modify the one (s)
(e) Scholarships are available for those who need and those.*
financial assistance.

(f) INCORRECT: I who am a student at this shool Adjective clauses are almost never used
come from a country in Asia. to modify personal pronouns. Native
(g) It is I who am responsible. English speakers would not write the
(h) He who laughs last laughs best. sentence in (f). (g) is possible, but very
formal and uncommon. (h) is well-
known saying in which he is used as an
indefinite pronoun (meaning “anyone,”
“any person”).

*An adjective clause with which can also be used to modify tha demonstrative pronoun that. For example:
We sometimes fear that which we do not understand.
The bread my mother makes is much better than that which you can buy at a store.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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13-10 PUNCTUATING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

General guidelines for the punctuation of adjective clauses:
(1) DO NOT USE COMMAS IF the adjective clause is necessary to identify the noun it modifies.*
(2) USE COMMAS IF the adjective clause simply gives additional information and is not necessary
to identify the noun it modifies.**

(a) The professor who teaches Chemistry 101 is an In (a): No commas are used. The adjective
excellent lecturer. clause is necessary to identify which
(b) Professor Wilson, who teaches Chemistry 101, is professor is meant.
an excellent lecturer.
In (b): Commas are used. The adjective
clause is not necessary to identify
Professor Wilson. We already know who
he is: he has a name. The adjective clause
simply gives additional information.

(c) Hawaii, which consist of eight principal islands, is Guideline: Use commas, as in (b), (c), and
a favorite vacation spot. (d), if an adjective clause modifies a
(d) Mrs. Smith, who is a retired teacher, does proper noun. (A proper noun begin with a
volunteer work at the hospital. capital letter.)
Note: A comma reflects a pause in speech.

who(m) In (e): If no commas are used, any possible

(e) The man that I met teaches chemistry. pronoun may be used in the adjective
Φ clause. Object pronouns may be omitted.
(f) Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches
In (f): when commas are necessary, the
chemistry.
pronoun that may not be used (only who,
whom, which, whose, where, and when
may be used), and object pronouns
cannot be omitted.

COMPARE THE MEANING In (g): The use of commas means that all
of the children wanted to play soccer and
(g) We took some children on a picnic. The children,
all of the children ran to an open field.
who wanted to play soccer, ran to an open field
The adjective clause is used only to give
as soon as we arrived at the park.
additional information about the children.
(h) We took some children on a picnic. The children
who wanted to play soccer ran to an open field In (h): The lack of commas means that
as soon as we arrived at the park. The others only some of the children wanted to play
played a different game. soccer. The adjective clause is used to
identify which children ran to the open
field.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

*Adjective clauses that do not require commas are called “essential” or “restrictive” or “identifying”
**Adjective clauses that require commas are called “nonessential” or “nonrestrictive” or “nonidentifying.”
NOTE: Nonessential adjective clauses are more common in writing than in speaking.

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13-11 USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

In my class there are 20 students. An adjective clause may contain an

Most of them are from the Far East. expression of quantity with of: some
(a) In my class there are 20 students, most of whom are of, many of, most of, none of, two of,
from Asia. half of, both of, neither of, each of, all
of, several of, a few of, little of, a
He gave several reasons. number of, etc.
Only a few of them were valid.
(b) He gave several reasons, only a few of which were The expression of quantity precedes
valid. the pronoun. Only whom, which, and
whose are used in this pattern.
The teachers discussed Jim.
One of his problems was poor study habits. Adjective clauses that begin with an
(c) The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems expression of quantity are more
was poor study habits. common in writing than speaking.
Commas are used.

13-12 USING NOUN + OF WHICH

We have an antique table. An adjective clause may include a noun + of

The top of it has jade inlay. which (e.g., the top of which). This pattern
(a) We have an antique table, the top of which carries the meaning of whose (e.g., We have
has jade inlay. an antique table whose top has jade inlay.)
This pattern is used in an adjective clause that
modifies a thing and occurs primarily in formal
written English. A comma is used.

13-13 USING WHICH TO MODIFY A WHOLE SENTENCE

(a) Tom was late. (b) That surprised me. The pronouns that and this can refer to
(c) Tom was late, which surprised me. the idea of a whole sentence which
comes before. In (b): The word that refers
(d) The elevator is out of order. (e) This is too bad. to the whole sentence “Tom was late.”
(f) The elevator is out of order, which is too bad.
Similarly, an adjective clause with which
may modify the idea of a whole sentence.
In (c): The word which refers to the whole
sentence “Tom was late.”
Using which to modify a whole sentence
is informal and occurs most frequently in
spoken English. This structure is generally
not appropriate in formal writing.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Whenever it is written, however, it is

preceded by a comma to reflect a pause
in speech.

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13-14 REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASE: INTRODUCTION

CLAUSE: A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb.
PHRASE: A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
An adjective phrase is a reduction of an
(a) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
adjective clause. It modifies a noun. It does
The girl who is sitting next to me is Maria.
not contain a subject and verb.
(b) ADJECTIVE PHRASE:
The adjective clause in (a) can be reduced to
The girl sitting next to me is Maria.
the adjective phrase in (b). (a) and (b) have
the same meaning.
Only adjective clauses that have a subject
(c) CLAUSE: The boy who is playing the piano is
pronoun-who, which, or that- are reduced to
Ben.
modifying adjective phrases.
(d) PHRASE: The boy playing the piano is Ben.
The adjective clause in (e) cannot be reduced
(e) CLAUSE: The boy (whom) I saw was Tom.
to an adjective phrase.
(f) PHRASE: (none)

13-15 CHANGING AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE

(a) CLAUSE: The man who is talking to John is from Korea. There are two ways in
PHRASE: The man φ φ talking to John is from Korea. which an adjective clause is
changed to an adjective
(b) CLAUSE: The ideas which are presented in that book are good. phrase.
PHRASE: The ideas φ φ presented in that book are good. 1. If the adjective clause
contains the be form of a
(c) CLAUSE: Ann is the woman who is responsible for the error. verb, omit the pronoun and
PHRASE: Ann is the woman φ φ responsible for the error. the be form, as in examples
(a), (b), (c), and (d).
(d) CLAUSE: The books that are on that shelf are mine.
PHRASE: The books φ φ on that shelf are mine.
(e) CLAUSE: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters. 2. If there is no be form of a
PHRASE: English has an alphabet φ consisting of 26 letters. verb in the adjective clause,
(f) CLAUSE: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome. it is sometimes possible to
PHRASE: Anyone φ wanting to come with us is welcome. omit the subject pronoun
and change the verb to its –
ing form, as in (e) and (f).
(g) George Washington, who was the first president of the United If the adjective clause
States, was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. requires commas, as in (g),
(h) George Washington, the first president of the United States, the adjective phrase also
was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. requires commas, as in (h).
(i) Paris, the capital of France, is an exciting city. Adjective phrase in which a
(j) I read a book by Mark Twain, a famous American author. noun follows another noun,
as in (h), (i), and (j), are
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

called “appositives.”
*If an adjective clause that contains be + a single adjective is changed, the adjective is moved to its normal position in front of the
noun it modifies.
CLAUSE: Fruit that is fresh tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.
CORRECT PHRASE: Fresh fruit tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.
INCORRECT PHRASE: Fruit fresh tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 13
EXERCISE 38.
Error analysis: adjective clauses and phrases
Directions: Correct the errors.
1. One of the people which I admire most is my uncle.

2. Baseball is the only sport in which I am interested in it.

3. My favorite teacher, Mr. Chu, he was always willing to help me after class.

4. It is important to be polite to people who lives in the same building.

5. She lives in a hotel is restricted to senior citizens.

6. My sister has two childrens, who their names are Ali and Talal.

7. He comes from Venezuela that is a Spanish-speaking country.

8. There are some people in the government who is trying to improve the lives of poor

people.

9. I have some good advice for anyone who he wants to learn a second language.

10. My classroom is located on the second floor of carver Hall that is a large brick building in

the center of the campus.

11. A myth is a story expresses traditional beliefs.

12. There is an old legend telling among people in my country about a man lived in the

seventeenth century saved a village from destruction.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 14: GERUND AND INFINITIVE (PART-1)

14-1 GERUNDS: INTRODUCTION

A gerund is the –ing form of a verb used as
S V
a noun.* A gerund is used in the same
(a) Playing tennis is fun. ways as a noun, i.e., as a subject or as an
S V O object.
(b) We enjoy playing tennis. In (a): playing is a gerund. It is used as the
subject of the sentence. Playing tennis is a
PREP O
gerund phrase.
(c) He’s excited about playing tennis. In (b): playing is a gerund used as the
object of the verb enjoy.
In (c): playing is a gerund used as the
object of the preposition about.
*COMPARE the uses of the –ing form of verbs:
(1) Walking is good exercise.
 Walking = a gerund used as the subject of the sentence.
(2) Bob and Ann are playing tennis.
 Playing = a present participle used as part of the present progressive tense.
(3) I heard some surprising news.
 Surprising = a present participle used as an adjective.

14-2 USING GERUNDS AS THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITIONS

(a) We talked about going to Canada for our A gerund is frequently used as the
vacation. object of a preposition.
(b) Sue is in charge of organizing the meeting.
(c) I’m interesting in learning more about you work
(d) I’m used to sleeping with the window open. In (d) through (g): to is a preposition,
(e) I’m accustomed to sleeping* with the window not part of an infinitive form, so a
open. gerund follows.
(f) I look forward to going home next month.
(g) They object to changing their plans at this late
date.
(h) We talked about not going to the meeting, but Negative form: not precedes a gerund.
finally decided we should go.
*Possible in British English: I’m accustomed to sleep with the window open.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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14-3 COMMON PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

Be excited about Keep (someone) Insist on doing it

Be worried doing it Prevent (someone) from
Prohibit (someone) doing it Be accustomed
Complain Stop (someone) In addition
Dream about/of Be committed
Talk doing it Believe Be devoted to doing
Think Be interested in doing it Look forward it
Participate Object
Apologize Succeed Be opposed
Blame (someone) Be used
Forgive (someone) Be accused
Have an excuse for doing it Be capable
Have a reason For the purpose
Be responsible Be guilty
Thank (someone) Instead of doing it
Take advantage
Take care
Be tired

14-4 COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

verb + gerund Gerunds are used as the objects of certain verbs. In (a), enjoy
is followed by gerund (playing). Enjoy is not followed by an
(a) I enjoy playing tennis.
infinitive.
INCORRECT: I enjoy to play tennis.
Common verbs that are followed by gerunds are given in the
list below.

(b) Joe quit smoking. (b) and (c) have te same meaning. Some phrasal verb,* e.g.,
(c) Joe gave up smoking. give up, are followed by gerunds. These phrasal verbs are
given in parentheses in the list below.

VERB + GERUND
Enjoy Quit (give up) Avoid Consider
Appreciate Finish (get through) Postpone (put off) Discuss
mind Step** Delay Mention
Keep (keep on) suggest

*A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a particle (a small word such as a preposition) that together have a special. For example, put
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

off means “postpone.”

**Stop can also be followed immediately by an infinitive of purpose (in order to).
COMPARE the following:
(1) Stop + gerund: When the professor entered the room, the students stopped talking. The room became quiet.
(2) Stop + infinitive of purpose: While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. I stopped to talk to him. ( I
stopped walking in order to talk to him.)

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14-5 GO + GERUND

(a) Did you go shopping? Go is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic

(b) We went fishing yesterday. expressions to express, for the most part,
recreational activities.

GO + GERUND
Go birdwatching go fishing* Go sailing Go skinnydipping
Go boating go hiking Go shopping Go sledding
Go bowling go hunting Go signseeing Go snorkeling
Go camping go jogging Go skating Go swimming
Go canoeing/kayaking go mounting climbing Go skateboarding Go tobogganing
Go dancing go running Go skiing Go window
shopping
*Also, in British English: go angling.

14-6 SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS FOLLOWED BY -ING

(a) We had fun playing volleyball. -ing form follow certain special expressions:
We had a good time Have fun/a good time + -ing
Have trouble/difficult + -ing
(b) I had trouble Have a hard time/difficult time + -ing
I had difficulty finding his house.
I had a hard time
I had a difficult time
(c) Sam spends most of his time studying. Spend + expression of time + -ing
(d) I waste a lot of time watching TV. Waste + expression of time or money + -ing
(e) She sat at her desk writing a letter. Sit + expression of place + -ing
(f) I stood there wondering what to do next. Stand + expression of place + -ing
(g) He is lying in bed reading a novel. Lie + expression of place + -ing
(h) When I walked into my office, I found George Find + (pro)noun + -ing
using my telephone. Catch + (pro)noun + -ing
(i) When I walked into my office, I caught a thief In (h) and (i): Both find and catch mean
looking through my desk drawers. “discover.” Catch often expresses anger or
displeasure.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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14-7 COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

VERB + INFINITIVE An infinitive = to + the simple form of a verb (to
(a) I hope to see you again soon. see, to be, to go, etc.)
(b) He promised to be here by ten. Some verbs are followed immediately by an
(c) He promised not to be late. infinitive, as in (a) and (b). See Group A below.
Negative form: not precedes the infinitive, as in
(c).
VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE Some verbs are followed immediately by a
(d) Mr. Lee told me to be here at ten o’clock. (pro)noun and then an infinitive, as in (d) and
(e) The police ordered the driver to stop. (e). See Group B below.
(f) I was told to be here at ten o’clock. These verbs are followed immediately by an
(g) The driver was ordered to stop infinitive when they are used in the passive, as
in (f) and (g).
(h) I expect to pass the test. Ask, expect, would like, want, and need may or
(i) I expect Mary to pass the test. may not be followed by a (pro)noun object.
COMPARE:
In (h): I think I will pass the test.
In (i): I think Mary will pass the test.
GROUP A: VERB + INFINITIVE
Hope to (do something) Promise to Seem to Expect to
Plan to Agree to Appear to Would like to
Intend to* Offer to Pretend to Want to
Decide to* Refuse to Ask to Need to
GROUP B: VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE
Tell someone to Invite someone to Require someone to Expect someone to
Advise someone to** Permit someone to Order someone to Would like someone to
Encourage someone to Allow someone to Force someone to Want someone to
Remind someone to Warn someone to Ask someone to Need someone to
*Intend is usually followed by an infinitive (I intend to go to the meeting), but sometimes may be followed by a gerund (I intend
going to the meeting) with no change in meaning.
**A gerund is used after advise (active) if there is no (pro)noun object.
COMPARE:
(1) He advised buying a Fiat.
(2) He advised me to buy a Fiat. I was advised to buy a Fiat.
14-11 IT + INFINITIVE; GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS
(a) It is difficult to learn a second language. Often an infinitive phrase is used with it as the
subject of a sentence. The word it refers to and
has the same meaning as the infinitive phrase at
the end of the sentence. In (a): It = to learn a
second language.
(b) Learning a second language is difficult. A gerund phrase is frequently used as the
subject of a sentence, as in (b).
(c) To learn a second language is difficult. An infinitive can also be used as the subject of a
sentence, as in (c), but far more commonly an
infinitive phrase is used with it, as in (a).
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(d) It is easy for young children to learn a The phrase for (someone) may be used to
second language. specify exactly who the speaker is talking about,
Learning a second language is easy for as in (d).
young children.
To learn a second language is easy for
young children.

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14-8 COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY EITHER INFINITIVES OR GERUNDS

Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, sometimes with no difference
in meaning, as in Group A below, and sometimes with a difference in meaning, as in Group B
below.
The verbs in Group A may be followed by
GROUP A: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND,
either an infinitive or a gerund with little
WITH NO DIFFERENCE IN MEANING
or no difference in meaning.
Begin Like Hate
Start Love Can’t stand
continue Prefer* Can’t bear

(a) It began to rain. / It began raining. In (a): There is no difference between

(b) I started to work. / I started working. began to rain and began raining.

(c) It was beginning to rain. If the main verb is progressive, an

infinitive (not a gerund) is usually used, as
in (c).

GROUP B: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND, The verbs in Group B may be followed by

WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING. either an infinitive or a gerund, but the
Remember Regret meaning is different.
forget try

(d) Judy always rememvers to lock the door. Remember + infinitive = remember to
perform responsibility, duty, or task, as in
(e) Sam often forgets to lock nthe door. (d).
Forget + infinitive = forget to perform a
(f) I remember seeing the Alps for the first time. responsibility, duty, or task, as in (e).
Remember + gerund = remember (recall)
(g) I’ll never forget seeing the Alps for the first something that happened in the past, as
time. in (f).
Forget + gerund = forget something that
happened in the past, as in (g).**
(h) I regret to tell you that you failed the test. Regret + infinitive = regret to say, to tell
someone, to inform someone of some
bad news, as in (h).
(i) I regret lending him some money. He never Regret + gerund = regret something that
paid me back. happened in the past, as in (i).
(j) I’m trying to learn English. Try + infinitive = make an efford, as in (j).
(k) The room was hot. I tried opening the window, Try + gerund = experiment with a new or
but that didn’t help. So I tried turning on the different approach to see if it works, as in
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

fan, but I was still hot. Finally, I turned on the (k).

air conditioner.
*Notice the patterns with prefer:
Prefer + gerund: I prefer staying home to going to the concert.
Prefer + infinitive: I’d prefer to stay home (rather) than (to) go to the concert.
**Forget followed by a gerund usually occurs in a negative sentence or in a question: e.g., I’ll never forget, I can’t forget, Have you
forgotten, and Can you ever forget are often followed by a gerund phrase.

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14-9 REFERENCE LIST OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

Verbs with a bullet (•) can also be followed by infinitives.

1. admit He admitted stealing the money.

2. advise• She advised waiting until tomorrow.
3. anticipate I anticipate having a good time on vacation.
4. appreciate I appreciated hearing from them.
5. avoid He avoided answering my question
6. can’t bear• I can’t bear waiting inling lines.
7. begin• I began raining.
8. complete I finally completed writing my term paper.
9. consider I will consider going with you.
10. continue• He continued speaking.
11. delay He delayed leaving for shcool.
12. deny She denied committing the crime.
13. discuss The discussed opening a new business.
14. dislike I dislike driving long distance.
15. enjoy We enjoyed visiting them.
16. finish She finished studying about ten.
17. forget• I’ll never forget visiting Napoleon’s tomb.
18. hate• I hate making silly mistakes.
19. can’t help I can’t help worrying about it.
20. keep I keep hoping he will come.
21. like• I like going to movies.
22. love• I love going to operas.
23. mention She mentioned going to a movie.
24. mind Would you mind helping me with this?
25. miss I miss being with my family.
26. postpone Let’s postpone leaving until tomorrow.
27. practice The athlete practiced throwing the ball.
28. prefer• Ann prefer walking to driving to work.
29. quit He quit trying to solve the problem.
30. recall I don’t recall meeting him before.
31. recollect I don’t recollect meeting him before.
32. recommend She recommended seeing the show.
33. regret• I regret telling him my secret.
34. remember• I can remember meeting him when I was a child.
35. resent I resent her interfering in my business.
36. resist I couln’t resist eating the dessert.
37. risk She risks losing all of her money.
38. can’t stand• I can’t stand waiting in long lines.
39. start• It started raining.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

40. stop She stopped going to classes when she got sick.
41. suggest She suggested going to a movie.
42. tolerate She won’t tolerate cheating during an examination.
43. try• I tried changing the light bulb, but the lamp still didn’t
44. understand work.
I don’t understand his leaving school.

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14-10 REFERENCE LIST OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Verbs with a bullet (•) can also be followed by gerunds.
A. VERBS FOLLOWED IMMEDIATELY BY AN INFINITIVE
1. afford I can’t afford to buy it. 24. love• I love to go to operas.
2. agree They agreed to help us. 25. manage She managed to finish her work
3. appear She appears to be tired. early.
4. arrange I’ll arrange to met you at the 26. mean I didn’t mean to hurt your
airport. feelings.
5. ask He asked to come with us. 27. need I need to have your opinion.
6. can’t bear• I can’t bear to wait in long lines. 28. offer They offered to help us.
7. beg He begged to come with us. 29. plan I am planning to have a party.
8. begin• I begin to rain. 30. prefer• Ann prefers to walk to work.
9. care I don’t care to see that show. 31. prepare We prepared to welcome them.
10. claim She claims to know a famous movie 32. pretend He pretends not to understand.
star. 33. promise I promise not to be late.
11. consent She finally consented to marry him. 34. refuse I refuse to believe his story.
12. continue• He continued to speak. 35. regret• I regret to tell you that you
13. decide I have decided to leave on Monday. failed.
14. demand I demand to know who is 36. remember• I remembered to lock the door.
responsible. 37. seem That cat seems to be friendly.
15. deserve She deserves to win the prize. 38. can’t stand• I can’t stand to wait in long
16. expect I expect to enter graduate school in lines.
the fall. 39. start• It started to rain.
17. fail She failed to return the book to the 40. struggle I struggled to stay awake.
library on time. 41. swear She swore to tell the truth.
18. forget• I forgot to mail the letter. 42. threaten She threatened to tell my
19. hate • I hate to make silly mistakes. parents.
20. hesitate Don’t hesitate to ask for my help. 43. try• I’m trying to learn English.
21. hope Jack hopes to arrive next week. 44. volunteer He volenteered to help us.
22. learn He learned to play the piano. 45. wait I will wait to hear from you.
23. like• I like to go to the movies. 46. want I want to tell you something.
47. wish She wishes to come with us.
B. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A (PRO)NOUN + AN INFINITIVE
48. advise• She advised me to wait until 63. Need We needed Christ to help us
tomorrow. figure out the solution.
49. allow She allowed me to use her car. 64. Order The judge ordered me to pay a
50. ask I asked John to help us. fine.
51. beg They begged us to come. 65. Permit He permitted the children to
52. cause He laziness caused her to fail. stay up late.
53. challenge She challenged me to race her to 66. Persuade I persuaded him to come for a
the corner. visit.
54. convince I couldn’t convince him to accept 67. Remind She reminded me to lock the
our help. door.
55. dare He dared me to do better than he 68. Require Our teacher requires us to be
had done. on time.
56. encourage He encouraged me to try again. 69. Teach My brother taught me to swim.
57. expect I expect you to be on time. 70. Tell The doctor told me to take
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

58. forbid I forbid you to tell him. these pills.

59. force They forced him to tell the truth. 71. Urge I urged her to apply for the job.
60. hire She hired a boy to mow the lawn. 72. Want I want you to be happy.
61. Instruct He instructed them to be careful. 73. warn I warned you not to drive too
62. Invite Harry invited the Johnsons to come fast.
to his party.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 14
EXECISE 21.
Gerund vs. Infinitive
Directions: Complete the sentences with the correct form, gerund or infinitive, or the words in

parentheses.

1. Hasan volunteered (bring) ____________ some food to the reception.

2. The students practiced (pronounce) ________________ the “th” sound in the phrase “these

thirty-three dirty trees.”

3. In the fairy tale, the wolf threatened (eat) _____________ a girl named Little Red Riding

Hood.

4. Susie! How many times do I have to remind you (hang up) ___________________ your coat

when you get home from school?

5. The horses struggled (pull) _____________ the wagon out of the mud.

6. Anita demanded (know) ______________ why she had been fired.

7. My skin can’t tolerate (be) _______________ in the sun all day. I get sunburned easily.

8. I avoided (tell) _________________ Mary the truth because I knew she would be angry.

9. Fred Washington claims (be) __________________ a descendant of George Washington.

10. Mr. Kwan broke the antique vase. I’m sure he didn’t mean (do) ______________ it.

11. I urged Omar (return) ______________ to school and (finish) ____________ his education.

12. Mrs. Freeman can’t help (worry) ______________ about her children.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER-15: GERUND AND INFINITIFE (PART-2)

15-1 INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE: IN ORDER TO

(a) He came here in order to study English. In order to is used to express purpose. It
(b) He came here to study English. answers the question “Why?” In order is
often omitted, as in (b).
(c) INCORRECT: He came here for studying English. To express purpose, use (in order) to, not
(d) INCORRECT: He came here for to study English. for, with a verb.*
(e) INCORRECT: He came here for study English.
(f) I went to the store for some bread. For can be used to express purpose, but it
(g) I went to the store to buy some bread. is a preposition and is followed by a noun
object, as in (f).
*Exception: The phrase be used for expresses the typical or general purpose of a thing. In this case, the preposition for is followed by
a gerund: A saw is used for cutting wood. Also possible: A saw is used to cut wood.
However, to talk about a particular thing and a particular situation, be used + an infinitive is used: A chain saw was used to cut (NOT
for cutting) down the old oak tree.

15-2 ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

(a) We were sorry to hear the bad news. Certain adjectives can be immediately
(b) I was surprised to see Tim at the meeting. followed by infinitives, as in (a) and (b). In
general, these adjectives describe a person
(or persons), not a thing. Many of these
adjectives describe a person’s feelings or
attitudes.
SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
Glad to (do it) Sorry to* Ready to Careful to Surprised to*
Happy to Sad to* Prepared to Hesitant to Amazed to
Pleased to Upset to* Anxious to Reluctant to Astonished
Delighted to Disappointed to* Eager to Afraid to to*
Content to Willing to Shocked to*
Relieved to Proud to Motivated to Likely to Stunned to*
Lucky to Ashamed to Determined to Certain to
Fortunate to

*The expressions with asterisks are usually followed by infinitive phrases with verbs such as see, learn, discover, find out, hear.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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15-3 USING INFINITIVES WITH TOO AND ENOUGH

COMPARE In the speaker’s mind, the use of too implies a

negative result.
(a) That box is too heavy for Bob to lift.
(b) That box is very heavy, but Bob can lift it. In (a): too heavy = It is impossible for Bob to lift
that box.
In (b): very heavy = It is possible but difficult for
Bob to lift that box.

(c) I am strong enough to lift that box. I can Enough follows an adjective, as in (c).
lift it.
Usually enough precedes a noun, as in (d). In
(d) I have enough strength to lift that box.
formal English, it may follow anoun, as in (e).
(e) I have strength enough to lift that box.

15-4 PASSIVE AND PAST FORMS OF INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS

FORMS
SIMPLE PAST
ACTIVE To see To have seen
seeing Having seen
PASSIVE To be seen To have been seen
Being seen Having been seen

PAST INFINITIVE: to have + past participle The event expressed by a past infinitive or
(a) The rain seems to have stopped. past gerund happened before the time of the
main verb. In (a): The rain seems now to
have stopped a few minutes ago.*
PAST GERUND: having + past participle In (b): I met the king yesterday. A appreciate
(b) I appreciate having had the opportunity to now having had the apportunity to meet the
meet the king. king yesterday.*
PASSIVE INFINITIVE: to be + past participle In (c): to be invited is passive. The
(c) I didn’t expect to be invited to his party. understood by-phrase is “by him”: I didn’t
expect to be invited by him.
PASSIVE GERUND: being + past participle In (d): being invited is passive. The
(d) I appreciated being invited to your home. understood by-phrase is “by you”: I
appreciated being invited by you.
PAST-PASSIVE INFINITIVE: to have been + past In (e): Nadia was given a scholarship last
participle month by her government. She is fortunate.
(e) Nadia is fortunate to have been given a Nadia is fotunate now to have been given a
scholarship. sholarship last month by her government.
PAST-PASSIVE GERUND: having been + past In (f): I was told the news yesterday by
participle someone. I appreciate that. I appreciate now
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(f) I appreciate having been told the news. having been told the news yesterday by
someone.
*If the main verb is past, the action of the past infinitive or gerund happened before a time in the past:The rain
seemed to have stopped. = the rain seemed at SIX P.M. to have stopped before SIX P.M.I appreciated having had the
opportunity to meet the king. = I met the king in 1995. In 1997 I appreciated having had the opportunity to meet the
king in 1995.

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15-5 USING GERUNDS OR PASSIVE INFINITIVES FOLLOWING NEED

(a) I need to borrow some money. Usually an infinitive follows need, as in (a) and
(b) John needs to be told the truth. (b).

(c) The house needs painting. In some circumtances, a gerund may follow
(d) The house needs to be painted. need. In this case, the gerund carries a passive
meaning. Usually the situations involve fixing
or improving something. (c) and (d) have the
same meaning.

15-6 USING A POSSESSIVE TO MODIFY A GERUND

We came to class late. mr. Lee complained In formal English, a possessive adjective (e.g.,
about that fact. our) is used to modify a gerund, as in (a).
(a) FORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about our In informal English, the object form of a
coming to class late.* pronoun (e.g., us) is frequently used, as in (b).
(b) INFORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about us
coming to class late.

(c) FORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about Mary’s In formal English, a possessive noun (e.g.,
coming to class late. Mary’s) is used to modify a gerund.
(d) INFORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about Mary The possessive form is often not used in
coming to class late. informal English, as in (d).

*Coming to class late occured before Mr. Lee complained, so a past gerund is also possible: Mr. Lee complained about our having
come to class late.

15-7 USING VERBS OF PERCEPTION

Certain verbs of perception are followed by either the
(a) I saw my friend run down the street.
simple form* or the –ing form** of a verb. There is
(b) I saw my friend running down the
often little difference in meaning between the two
street.
forms, except that the –ing form usually gives the idea
(c) I heard the rain fall on the roof.
of “while.” In (b): I saw my friend while she was
(d) I heard the rain falling on the roof.
running down the street.
Sometimes (not always) there is a clear difference
(e) When I walked into the apartment, I
between using the simple form or the –ing form. The
heard my roommate singing in the
use of the –ing form gives the idea that an activity is
shower.
already in progress when it is perceived, as in (e): The
(f) I heard a famous opera star sing at
singing was in progress when i first heard it. In (f): I
the concert last night.
heard the singing from beginning to end. It was not in
progress when I first heard it.
VERBS OF PERCEPTION FOLLOWED BY THE SIMPLE FORM OR THE –ING FORM
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

See Look at Hear Feel smell

Notice observe Listen to
watch
*The simple form of a verb: the infinitive form without “to.” INCORRECT: I saw my friend to run down the street.
**The –ing form refers to the present participle.

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15-8 USING THE SIMPLE FORM AFTER LET AND HELP

(a) My father lets me drive his car. Let is followed by the simple form of a verb, not
(b) I let my friend borrow my bicycle. an infinitive.
(c) Let’s go to a movie. INCORRECT: My father lets me to drive his car.

(d) My brother helped me wash my car. Help is often followed by the simple form of a
(e) My brother helped me to wash my car. verb, as in (d). An infinitive is also possible, as in
(e). Both (d) and (e) are correct.

15-9 USING CAUSATIVE VERBS: MAKE, HAVE, GET

(a) I made my brother carry my suitcase. Make, have, and gets can be used to express
(b) I had my brother carry my suitcase. the idea that “X” causes “Y” to do something.
(c) I got my brother to carry my suitcase. When they are used as causative verbs, their
meanings are similar but not identical. In (a):
FORMS My brother had no choice. I insisted that he
X makes Y do something. (simple form) carry my suitcase. In (b): My brother carried my
X has Y do something. (simple form) suitcase because I asked him to. In (c): I
X gets Y to do something. (infinitive) managed to persuade my brother to carry my
suitcase.

CAUSATIVE MAKE Causative make is followed by the simple form

of a verb, not an infinitive. (INCORRECT: She
(d) Mrs. Lee made her son clean his room.
made him to clean his room.) make gives the
(e) Sad movies make me cry.
idea that “X” forces “Y” to do something. In (d):
Mrs. Lee’s son had no choice.

CAUSATIVE HAVE Causative have is followed by the simple form

of a verb, not an infinitive. (INCORRECT: I had
(f) I had the plumber repair the leak.
him to repair the leak.) Have gives the idea that
(g) Jane had the waiter bring her some tea.
“X” requests “Y” to do something. In (f): The
plumber repaired the leak because I ask him to.

CAUSATIVE GET Causative get is followed by an infinitive. Get

gives the idea that “X” persuades “Y" to do
(h) The students got the teacher to dismiss
something. In (h): The students managed to
class early.
persuade the teacher to let them leave early.
(i) Jack got his friends to play soccer with him
after school.

PASSIVE CAUSATIVES The past participle is used after have and get to
give a passive meaning. In this case, there is
(j) I had my watch repaired (by someone).
usually little or no difference in meaning
(k) I got my watch repaired (by someone).
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

between have and get. In (j) and (k): I caused

my watch to be repaired by someone.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 15
EXERCISE 21.
Error analysis: gerunds, infinitives, causatives.

Directions: Correct the errors.

1. Stop tell me what to do! Let me to make up my own mind.

2. My english is pretty good, but sometimes I have trouble to understand lectures at school.

3. When I entered the room, I found my wife to cry over the broken vase that had belonged

to her great-grandmother.

4. Sara is going to spend next year for studying Chinese at a university in Taiwan.

5. I went to the pharmacy for having my prescription to be filled.

6. You shouldn’t let children playing with matches.

7. When I got home, Irene was lying in bed think about what a wonderful time she’d had.

8. When Shelley needed a passport photo, she had her picture taking by a professional

photographer.

9. I’ve finally assembled enough information for beginning writing my thesis.

10. Omar is at the park right now. He is sit on a park bench watch the ducks swimming in the

pond. The sad expression on his face makes me to feel sorry for him.

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 16 CORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

16-1 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a
sentence.
(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner In (a): noun + and + noun
(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her finger. In (b) verb + and + verb
(c) He is waving his arm and (is) shouting at us. In (c) verb + and + verb (the second aux
(d) These shoes are old but comfortable. may
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music be omitted)
(f) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner. In (d) adjective + or + adjective
(g) Susan raised her hand, snapped her finger, and asked a In (e) infinitive + or + infinitive ( The
question. second
(h) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, and green. to is usually omitted)
(i) INCORRECT: Steve, and Joe are coming to dinner.
Note: No commas are used if there only
two parts to a parallel structure.
16-2 PAIRED CONJUCTION:BOTH...AND; NOT ONLY...BUT ALSO; EITHER ...OR; NEITHER..NOR
(a) Both my mother and my sister are here. Two subjects connected by both....and take a
(b) Not only my mother but also my sister is here. plural verb, as in (a).
(c) Not only my sister but also my parents are here. When two subjects are connected by not
(d) Neither my mother nor my sister is here. only...but also, either...or, neither nor, the
(e) Neither my sister nor my parents are here. subject that is close to the verb determines
whether the verb singular or plural.
(f) The research project will take both time and money. Notice the parallel structure in the examples.
(g) Yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed. The same grammatical form shoul follow each
(h) I’ll take either chemistry or physics next quarter. part of the paired conjuctions.*
(i) That book is neither interesting nor accurate. In (f): both + noun + and + noun
In (g): not only + verb + but also + verb
In (h): either + noun + or + noun
In (j): neither + adjective + nor + adjective
*Paired conjuctions are also called “correlative conjunctions.”
16-3 COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
(a) It was raining hard. There was a Example (a) contains two independent clauses (i.e., two
strong wind. complete sentences). Notice the punctuation. A period,* NOT A
(b) INCORRECT PUNCTUATION: COMMA, is used to separate two independent clauses. The
It was raining hard, there was a punctuation in (b) is not correct. The punctuation in (b) is not
strong wind. correct; the error in (b) is called “a run-on sentence.”
(c) It was raining hard, and there was A conjuction may be used to connect two independent clauses.
a strong wind. PUNCTUATION:
(d) It was raining hard and there was a Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction, as in (c).
strong wind. In short sentence, the comma is sometimes omitted, as in (d).
(e) It was raining hard. And there was In Informal writing, a conjuction sometimes begins a sentence, as
a strong wind. in (e).
(f) He was tired, so he went to bed. In addition and, but, or, and nor, other conjunction are used to
(g) The child hid behind his mother’s connect two independent clauses:
skirt, for he was afraid of the dog. So (meaning ”therefore, as a result”
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(h) She did not study, yet she passed For (meaning “because”)
the exam. Yet = (meaning “but, nevertheless”)
A comma almost always precedes so, for, and yet when they are
used as coordinating conjuction.**
*In British English, a period is called “a full stop.”
**So, for, and yet have other meanings in other structures: e.g., He is not so tall as his brother. (so = as) We waited for the bus. (for =
a preposition) She hasn’t arrived yet. (yet = an adverb meaning “up to this time”)

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 16
EXERCISE 10.
Paired conjunctions.

Directions: Combine the following into sentences that contain parallel structure. Use both . . . and;

not only . . . but also; either . . . or; neither . . . nor.

1. He does not have a pen. He does not have a paper.

 He has neither a pen nor paper.

2. Ron enjoys horseback riding. Bob enjoys horseback riding.

3. You can have a tea, or you can have coffee.

4. Arthur is not in class today. Ricardo is not in class today.

5. Arthur is absent. Ricardo is absent.

6. We can fix dinner for them here, or we can take them to a restaurant.

7. She wants to buy a Chevrolet, or she wants to buy a Toyota.

8. The leopard faces extinction. The tiger faces extinction.

9. The library doesn’t have the book I need. The bookstore doesn’t have the book I need.

10. We could fly, or we could take the train.

11. The president’s assistant will not confirm the story. The president’s assistant will not deny

the story.

12. Coal is an irreplaceable natural resource. Oil is an irreplaceable natural resource.

13. Smallpox is a dangerous disease. Malaria is a dangerous disease.

14. Her roommates don’t know where she is. Her brother doesn’t know where she is.

15. According to the news report, it will snow tonight, or it will rain tonight.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 17: ADVERB CLAUSES

17-1 ADVERB CLAUSES (INTRODUCTION)

(a) When we were in New York, we saw When we were in New York is an Adverb clause.
several plays. PUNTUATION: When an adverb clause precedes an
(b) We saw several plays when we were in independent clause, as in (a), a comma is used to separate
New York. the clauses. When the adverb clause follows, as in (b), usually
no comma is used.
(c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. Like when, because introduces an adverb clause. Because he
(d) He went to bed because he was sleepy. was sleepy is an adverb.
(e) INCORRECT: When we were in New Adverb clauses are dependent clause. They cannot stand
York.we saw alone as a sentence in written English. They must be
several plays. connected to an independent clause.
(f) INCORRECT: He wenttobed. Because he
was
sleepy.
SUMMARY LIST OF WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES*

TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT CONTRAST CONDITIONS

after by the time (that) Because even though if
before once now that although unless
when as/so long as since though only if
while whenever whetheror not
as every time DIRECT CONTRAST: even if
as soon as The first time while in case
since the last time whereas in the event that
until the next time

*Words that introduce adverb clauses are called “subordinate conjuction.”

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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17-2 USING ADVERB CLAUSE TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

(a) Because he was sleepy, he went An adverb clause may preced or
to bed follow the independent clause.
BECAUSE (b) He went to bed because he was Notice the punctuation in (a) and
sleepy. (b).
(c) Now that the semester is over, Now that means “because now.” In
I’m going to rest a few days and (c): now that the semester is over
then take a trip. means “ because the semester is
NOW THAT
(d) Jack lost his job. Now that he‘s now over”. Now that is used for
unemployed, he can’t pay his present causes of present or future
bills. situation.
(e) Since Monday is a holiday, we When since is used to mean
don’t have to go to work. “because,” it express a known
(f) Since you’re good cook and I’m cause, it means “because it is a fact
SINCE
not, you should cook the dinner. that” or “given that it is true that.”
Given the fact that X is true, Y is
the result”.
(g) because the weather was cold, I Because is used to express
didn’t go swimming. expected result.
(h) Even though the weather was Even though is used to express
cold, I wents swimming. unexpected results.
EVEN THOUGH
(i) Because I wasn’t tired, I didn’t go
to bed.
(j) Even though I wasn’t tired, I
went to bed.
(a) Mary is rich, while John is poor. While and whereas are used to
(b) John is poor, while Mary is rich. show direct contrast: “this” is
(c) Mary is rich, whereas John is exactly the opposite of “that”.
poor. While and whereas may be used
(d) Whereas Mary is rich, John is with the idea of either clause with
WHILE
poor. no difference in meaning.
WHEREAS
While is also used in time clauses
COMPARE: and means “during the time that.”
(e) While I was studying, the phone
rang.

(a) If it rains, the streets get wet. If-clauses (also called”adverb

clauses of condition” present
possible condition. The main clause
express results.
In (a) POSSIBLE CONDITION: It rains
RESULTS: The streets get
IF
wet.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(b) If it rains tomorrow, I will take A present tense, not a future tense,
my umbrella. is used in an if-clause even though
the verb in the if-clause may refer
to a future event or situation, as in
(b).

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WORDS THAT INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION (IF-CLAUSES)

If in case unless
whether or not in the event that only if
even if
WHETHER OR NOT I am going to go swimming tomorrow Whether or not express the
whether or not it is cold. idea that neither this
(OR: whether it is cold or not) condition nor that condition
matters; the result will be the
same.
EVEN IF I have decided to go swimming Sentences with even if gives
tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold, the idea that particular
I’m going to go swimming. condition does not matter.
The result will not change.

IN CASE/ (a) I’ll be at my uncle’s house in case In case and in the event that
IN THE EVENT THAT you (should) need to reach me. express the idea that
(b) In the event that you (should) something propbably won’t
need to reach me, I’ll be at my happen, but it might. It means
uncle’s house. “if by chance this should
happens”
Notes: In the event that is
more formal than in case. The
use of should in the adverb
clause emphasize that the
speaker’s uncertanity that
something will happen.
UNLESS (a) I’ll go swimming unless it’s cold. Unless = if ....not
(b) I’ll go swimming tomorrow if itn’t (a) and (b) have the same
cold. meaning.
unless it’s cold means “if it
isn’t cold”
ONLY IF (a) The picnic will be cancelled only if Only if express the idea that
it rains. there is only one condition
If it’s windy, we’ll go on the picnic. that will cause a particular
If it’s cold, we’ll go on picnic. result.
If it’s damp and foggy,
If it’s unbearable hot, we’ll go...
(b) Only if it rains will the picnic be When only if begins a
cancelled. sentence, the subject and verb
of the main clause are
inverted, as in (b)*.
Other subordinating conjunction and preposition phrases fronted by only at the beginning of a sentence require subject-verb
inversion in the main clauses.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Only when the teacher dismisses us can we stand and leave the room.
Only after the phone rang did I realise that I had fallen asleep in my chair.
Only in my hometown do I feel at ease.

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CHAPTER 17
EXERCISE 10.

If-clauses.

Direction: Make sentences from the given possibilities. Use if.

1. It may be cold tomorrow.

 If it’s cold tomorrow, I’m going to stay home.

If it’s cold tomorrow, let’s go skating.

 If it’s cold tomorrow, you should wear your wool sweater.

 We can’t go on a picnic if it’s cold tomorrow.

2. Maybe it will be hot tomorrow.

3. Maybe you will have some free time tomorrow.

4. Maybe you will lock yourself out of your apartment.

5. Maybe the sun will be shining when you get up tomorrow morning.

6. You will probably be too tired to finish your work today.

7. You might not have enough money to take your trip next month.

8. We might continue to destroy our environment.

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CHAPTER 18:
REDUCTION AND ADVERB CLAUSES TO MODIFYING
ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
18-1 MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES (INTRODUCTION)

(a) ADVERB While I was walking to class, I ran Some adverb clauses may also be
CLAUSE into an old friend. changed to modifying phrases, and the
ways in which the changes are made
While walking to class, I ran into
(b) MODIFYING are the same:
an old friend.
PHRASE
1. Omit the subject of the dependent
clause and the be form of the verb,
(c) ADVERB Before I left for work, I ate as in (b). OR
CLAUSE: breakfast. 2. If there is no be form of a verb, omit
(d) MODIFYING
Before leaving for work, I ate the subject and change the verb to –
PHRASE:
breakfast. ing, as in (d)

(e) CHANGE While I was sitting in class, I fell An adverb clause can be changed to a
POSSIBLE: asleep. modifying phrase only when the subject
of the adverb clause and the subject of
While sitting in class, I fell aslepp.
the main clause are the same. A
(f) CHANGE modifying adverbial phrase that is the
POSSIBLE: While Ann was sitting in class, she reduction of an adverb clause modifies
fell asleep. (clause) the subject of the main clause.

While sitting in class, Ann fell

asleep.

(g) NO CHANGE While the teacher was lecturing No reduction (i.e., change) is possible if
POSSIBLE: to the class, i fell asleep.* the subjects of the adverb clause and
(h) NO CHANGE the main clause are different, as in (g)
While we were walking home, a
POSSIBLE: and (h).
frog hopped across the road in
front of us.

(i) INCORRECT: While walking home, a frog In (i): While walking home is called a
hopped across the road in front “dangling modifier” or a “dangling
(j) INCORRECT: of us. participle,” i.e., a modifier that is
incorrectly “hanging alone” without an
While watching TV last night, the
appropriate noun or pronoun subject to
phone rang.
modify.

*While lecturing to the class, I fell asleep means “While I was lecturing to the class, I fell asleep.”
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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18-2 CHANGING TIME CLAUSES TO MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES

(a) CLAUSE: Since Maria came to this country, she Adverb clauses beginning with after,
has made many friends. before, while, and since can be changed
(b) PHRASE: Since coming to this country, Maria to modifying adverbial phrases.
has made many friends.
(c) CLAUSE: After he (had) finished his homework, In (c): There is no difference in meaning
Peter went to bed. between After he finished and After he
(d) PHRASE: After finishing his homework, Peter had finished.
went to bed. In (d) and (e): There is no difference in
(e) PHRASE: After having finishing his homework, meaning between After finishing and
Peter went to bed. After having finished.
(f) PHRASE: Peter went to bed after finishing his A modifying adverbial phrase may
homework. follow the main clause, as in (f).
18-3 EXPRESSING THE IDEA OF “DURING THE SAME TIME” IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES
(a) While I was walking down the street, I ran into an Sometimes while is omitted but the –
old friend. ing phrase at the beginning of the
(b) While walking down the street, I ran into an old sentence gives the same meaning (i.e.,
friend. “during the same time”). (a), (b), and (c)
(c) Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. have the same meaning.
(d) Hiking through the woods yesterday, we saw a
bear.
(e) Pointing to the sentence on the board, the teacher
explained the meaning of modifying phrases.
18-4 EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES
(f) Because she needed some money to buy a book, Often an –ng phrase at the beginning of
Sue cashed a check. a sentence gives the meaning of
(g) Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a “because.” (f) and (g) have the same
check. meaning.
(h) Because he lacked the necessary qualifications, he Because is not included in a modifying
was not considered for the job. phrase.it is omitted, but the resulting
(i) Lacking the necessary qualifications, he was not phrase expresses a cause and effect
considered for the job. relationship, as in (g) and (i).
(j) Having seen that movie before, i don’t want to go Having + past participle gives the
again. meaning not only of “because” but also
(k) Having seen that movie before, i didn’t want to go of “before.”
again.
(l) Because she was unable to afford a car, she A form of be in the adverb clause may
bought a bicycle. be changed to being. The use of being
(m) Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. makes the cause and effect relationship
(n) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. clear. (l), (m), and (n) have the same
meaning.
18-5 USING UPON + -ING IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES
(a) Upon reaching the age of 21, I received my Modifying adverbial phrases beginning with
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

inheritance. upon + -ing usually have the same meaning as

(b) When I reached the age of 21, I received my adverb clauses introduced by when. (a) and
inheritance. (b) have the same meaning.
(c) On reaching the age of 21, I received my Upon can be shortened to on. (a), (b), and (c)
inheritance. all have the same meaning.

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CHAPTER 18
Error analysis: general review. (Chapter 16, 17, 18)

Directions: Correct the errors.

1. I was very tired, go to bed.

 I was very tired, so I went to bed, OR: I was very tired and went to bed.

2. Because our leader could not attend the meeting, so it was canceled.

3. I and my wife like to travel.

4. I always fasten my seat belt before to start the engine.

5. I don’t like our classroom. Because it is hot and crowded. I hope we can change to a

different room.

6. The day was very warm and humid, for that I turned on the air conditioner.

7. Upon I learned that my car couldn’t be repaired for three days, I am very distressed.

8. Having missed the final examination because, the teacher gave me a failing grade.

9. Both my sister and my brother is going to be at the family reunion.

10. I hope my son will remain in school until he finish his degree.

11. My brother has succeeded in business because of he works hard.

12. Luis stood up, turned toward me, and speaking so softly that I couldn’t hear what he said.

13. I was lost. I could not find my parents neither my brother.

14. Having studied Greek for several years, Sarah’s pronunciation was easy to understand.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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CHAPTER 19: CONNECTIVES THAT EXPRESS CAUSE AND

EFFECT, CONTRAST AND CONDITION

19-1 USING BECAUSE OF AND DUE TO

(a) Becaused the winter was cold, we stayed Because introduces an adverb clause; it is
home. followed by a subject and verb, as in (a).

(b) Because of the cold weather, we stayed Because of and due to are phrasal
home. prepositions; they are followed by a noun
(c) Due to tha cold weather, we stayed home. object, as in (b) and (c).

(d) Due to tha fact that the weather was cold, Sometimes, usually in more formal writing,
we stayed home. due to is followed by a noun clause introduced
by the fact that.

(e) We stayed home because of the cold Like adverb clauses, these phrases can also
weather. follow the main clause, as in (e).
We stayed home due to the cold weather.
We stayed home due to the fact that the
weather was cold.

19-2 USING TRANSITIONS TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT: THEREFORE AND CONSEQUENTLY

(a) Al failed the test because he didn’t study. (a), (b), and (c) have the same meaning.
(b) Al didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the test. Therefore and consequently mean “as a
(c) Al didn’t study. Consequently, he failed the result.” In grammar, they are called transitions
test. (or conjuctive adverbs). Transitions connect
the ideas between two sentences.

(d) Al didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the test. A transition occurs in the second of two
(e) Al didn’t study. He, therefore, failed the related sentences. Notice the patterns and
test. punctuation in the examples. A period (NOT a
(f) Al didn’t study. He failed the test, therefore. comma) is used at the end of the first
sentence.* The transition is separated from
POSITIONS OF A TRANSITION
the rest of the sentence by commas.
Transition + S + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + transition + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + V (+ rest of sentence) + transition

(g) Al didn’t study, do he failed the test. COMPARE: A transition (e.g., therefore) has
several possible positions within the second
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

sentense of the pair, as in (d), (e), and (f). A

conjuction (e.g., so) has only one possible
position: between the two sentences.

*A semicolon is also possible in this situation.

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19-3 SUMAMRY OF PATTERNS AND PUNCTUATION

ADVERB (a) Because it was hot, we An adverb clause may precede of follow an
CLAUSE went swimming. independent clause.
(b) We went swimming PUNCTUATION: A comma is used if the
because it was hot. adverb clause comes first.
PREPOSITION (c) Because of the hot A preposition is followed by a noun object,
weather, we went not by a subject and verb.
swimming. PUNCTUATION: A comma is usually used if
(d) We went swimming the prepositional phrase precedes the
because of the hot weather. subject and verb of the independent clause.
TRANSITION (e) It was hot. Therefore, we went A transition is used with the second sentence of a
swimming. pair. It shows the relationship of the second idea
(f) It was hot. We, therefore, to the first idea. A transition is movable within
went swimming. the second sentence.
(g) It was hot. We went PUNCTUATION: A period is used between the two
swimming, therefore. independent clauses.* A comma may NOT be
used to separate the clauses. Commas are usually
used to set the transition off from the rest of the
sentence.
CONJUNCTION (h) It was hot, so we went A conjunction comes between two
swimming. independent clauses.
PUNCTUATION: Usually a comma is used
immediately in front of a conjunction.
* A semicolon (;) may be used instead of a period between the two indepedent clauses.
It was hot; therefore, we went swimming.
It was hot; we, therefore, went wsimming.
It was hot; we went swimming, therefore.
In general, a semicolon can be used instead of a period between any two sentences that are closely related in meaning. Example:
Peanuts are not nuts; they are beans. Notice that a small leter, not a capital letter, immediately follows a semicolon.
19-4 OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT: SUCH . . THAT AND SO . ..THAT.
(a) Because the weather was nice, we went to the zoo. Examples (a), (b), and (c) have the
(b) It was such a nice weather that we went to the zoo. same meaning.
(c) The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.
(d) It was such good coffee that I had another cup. Such . . . that encloses a modified
(e) It was such a foggy day that we couldn’t see the road. noun:
Such + adjective + noun + that
(f) The coffee is so hot that I can’t drink it. So . . . that encloses an adjective or
(g) I’m so hungry that I could eat a horse. adverb:
(h) She speaks so fast that I can’t understand her. adjective
(i) He walked so quickly that I couldn’t keep up with him. So + or + that
adverb
(j) She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam. So . . . that is used with many, few,
(k) He made so few friends that he is always lonely. much, and little.
(l) She has so much money that she can buy whatever
she wants.
(m) He had so little trouble with the test that he left
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

twenty minutes early.

(n) It was such a good book (that) I couldn’t put it down. Sometimes, primarily in speaking,
(o) I was so hungry (that) I didn’t wait for dinner to eat that is omitted.
something.

19-5 EXPRESSING PURPOSE: USING SO THAT

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(a) I turned off the TV in order to In order to expresses purpose. In (a): I turned off the
enable my roommate to study in TV for a purpose. The purpose was to make it possible
peace and quiet. for my roommate to study in peace and quiet.
(b) I turned off the TV so (that) my So that also expresses purpose.* it expresses the same
roommate could study in peace meaning as in order to. The word “that” is often
and quiet. omitted, especially in speaking.
SO THAT + CAN or COULD So that is often used instead of in order to when the
(c) I’m going to cash a check so that I idea of ability is being expressed. Can is used in the
can buy my textbooks. adverb clause for a present/future meaning. In (c): so
(d) I cashed a check so that I could that I can buy = in order to be able to buy.
buy my textbooks. Could is used after so that in past sentences.**
SO THAT + WILL/SIMPLE PRESENT or In (e): so that I won’t get wet = in order to make sure
WOULD that I won’t get wet.
(e) I’ll take my umbrella so that I In (f): It is sometimes possible to use the simple
won’t get wet. present after so that in place of will; the simple
(f) I’ll take my umbrella so that I present expresses a future meaning.
don’t get wet. Would is used in past sentences; as in (g).
(g) Yesterday I took my umbrella so
that I wouldn’t get wet.
*NOTE: In order that has the same meaning as so that but is less commonly used.
Example: I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.
Both so that and in order that introduce adverb clauses. It is unusual, but possible, to put these adverb clauses at the beginning of
a sentence: So that my roommate could study in peace and quiet, I turned off the TV.
**Also possible but less common: the use of may or might in place of can or could: e.g., I cashed a check so that I might buy my
textbooks
19-6 SHOWING CONTRAST (UNEXPECTED RESULT)
All these sentences have the same meaning. The idea of cold weather is contrasted with the
idea of going swimming. Usually if the weather is cold, one does not go swimming, so going
swimming in cold weather is an “unexpected result.” It is surprising that the speaker went
swimming in cold weather.
ADVERB CLAUSES Even though (a) Even though it was cold, I went swimming.
Although (b) Although it was cold, I went swimming.
though (c) Though it was cold, I went swimming.
CONJUNCTIONS But . . . anyway (d) It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.
But . . . still (e) It was cold, but I still went swimming.
Yet . . . still (f) It was cold, yet I still went swimming
anyway.
TRANSITIONS Nevertheless (g) It was cold. Nevertheless, I went swimming.
Nonetheless (h) It was cold; nonetheless, I went swimming.
However . . . still (i) It was cold. However, I still went swimming.
PREPOSITION Despite (j) I went swimming despite the cold weather.
In spite of (k) I went swimming in spite of the cold
Despite the fact that weather.
In spite of the fact that (l) I went swimming despite the fact that the
weather was cold.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(m) I went swimming in spite of the fact that the

weather was cold.

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19-7 SHOWING DIRECT CONTRAST

All of the sentences have the same meaning.
ADVERB CLAUSES While (a) Mary is rich, while John is poor.
(b) John is poor, while Mary is rich.
whereas (c) Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.
(d) Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor.
CONJUNCTION but (e) Mary is rich, but John is poor.
(f) John is poor, but Mary is rich.
TRANSITION However (g) Mary is rich; however, John is poor.
(h) John is poor; Mary is rich, however.
On the other hand (i) Mary is rich. John,on the other hand, is
poor.
(j) John is poor. Mary, on the other hand, is
rich.
19-8 EXPRESSING CONDITIONS: USING OTHERWISE AND OR (ELSE)
ADVERB CLAUSE (a) If I don’t eat breakfast, I get hungry. If and unless state
(b) You’ll be late if you don’t hurry. conditions that produce
(c) You’ll get wet unless you take your umbrella. certain results.
TRANSITION (d) I always eat breakfast. Otherwise, I get Otherwise expresses the
hungry during class. idea “if the opposite is
(e) You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late. true, there will be a
(f) Take your umbrella. Otherwise, you’ll get certain result.”
wet. In (d): otherwise = if I
don’t eat breakfast.
CONJUNCTION (g) I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry Or else and otherwise
during the class. have the same meaning.
(h) You’d better hurry, or (else) you’ll be late.
(i) Take your umbrella, or (else) you’ll get wet.
19-9 SUMMARY OF CONNECTIVES: CAUSE AND EFFECT, CONTRAST, CONDITION
ADVERB CLAUSE TRANSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONS
WORDS
CAUSE Because Therefore So Because of
AND Since Consequently for Due to
EFFECT Now that
So (that)
CONTRAST Even though However But (......anyway) Despite
Although Nevertheless Yet (......anyway) In spite of
Though Nonetheless
Whereas On the other hand
While
CONDITION If Otherwise Or (else)
Unless
Only if
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Even if
Whether or not
In case
In the event that

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 19
EXERCISE 26.
Showing cause and effect and contrast.
Directions: Complete the sentences, using the words and phrases below. There may be more than
one possible completion. Add any necessary punctuation and capitalization.
Although Despite the fact that Nevertheless
Because Even though Now that
Because of however therefore
but
1. It was cold and wet nevertheless Bob put on his swimming suit and went to the beach.

2. I can’t ride my bicycle ______________ there isn’t any air in one of the tires.

3. I got to class on time ____________________ I had missed my bus.

4. Brian used to be an active person, but now he has to limit his activities _____________

problems with his health.

5. It should be easy for Bob to find more time to spend with his children ______________ he

no longer has to work in the evenings and weekends.

6. Jake is a very good student of languages. His brother Michael ____________ has never

been able to master another language.

7. The ancient Aztecs of Mexico had no technology for making tools from metal

____________ they had sharp knives and spears. They made them from a stone called

obsidian.

8. Garlic was believed in ancient Rome to make people courageous ____________ Roman

soldiers are large quantities of it before a battle.

9. I usually enjoy attending amateur productions in small community theaters. The play we

attended last night _________________ was so bad that I wanted to leave after the first

act.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

10. Some snakes are poisonous _____________________ others are harmless.

11. Roberta missed the meeting without a good reason ______________ she had been told

that it was critical that she be there. I wouldn’t want to be in her shoes at work tomorrow.

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CHAPTER 20: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AND WISHES

20-1 OVERVIEW OF BASIC VERB FORM USED IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
SITUATION IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE EXAMPLES
If I have enough time, I
True in the Simple present watch TV every evening.
Simple present
present/future Will + Simple form If I have enough time, I will
watch TV later on tonight.
Untrue in the If I had enough time, I would
Simple Past Would + Simple form watch TV every evening.
present/future
If I had had enough time, I
Untrue in the Would have +Past
Past Perfect would have watched TV
past Participle
every evening.
20-2 TRUE IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE
(a) If I don’t eat breakfast, I always get In conditional sentences that express true,
hungry during class. factual ideas in the present/future, the simple
(b) Water freezes OR will freeze if it the present (not the simple future) is used in the if-
temperature reaches 32oF/0oC. clause. The result clause has various possible
(c) If I don’t eat breakfast tomorrow verb form:
morning, I will get hungry during class. 1. The simple present, to express a habitual
(d) If it rains, we should stay home. activity or situation, as in (a)
If it rains, I might decide to stay home. 2. Either the simple present or the simple
If it rains, we can’t go. future, to express an established,
If it rains, we’re going to stay home. predictable fact or general truth, as in (b)
(e) If anyone calls, please take a message. 3. The simple future, to express a particular
activity or situation in the future, as in (c).
4. Modals and phrasal modal such as should,
might, can, be going to, as in (d)
5. An imperative verb, as in (e)
(f) If anyone should call, please take a Sometimes should is used in an if-clause. It
message. indicates a little more uncertainity than the
use of simple present, but basically the
meaning of example (e) and (f) is the same.
20-3 UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE
(a) If I taught this class, I In (a): In truth, I don’t teach this class.
wouldn’t give tests. In (b): In truth, he is not here right now.
(b) If he were here right now, he In (c): In truth, I am not you.
would help us. Note: Were is used for both singular and plural subjects.
(c) If I were you, I would accept Was (with I, he, she, it) is sometimes used in informal
their invitation. speech: If I was you, I’d accept their invitation.
COMPARE In (d): The speaker wants a car, but doesn’t have
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(d) If I had enough money, I enough money. Would expresses desired or predictable
would buy a car. results.
(e) If I had enough money, I In (e): The speaker is expressing one possible result.
could buy a car. Could = would be able to. Could expresses possible
options.

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20-4 UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PAST

(a) If you had told me about the problem, I would In (a): In truth, you did not tell me about it.
have helped you. In (b): In truth, they did not study. Therefore, they
(b) If they had studied, they would have passed failed the exam.
the exam. In (c): In truth, I slipped on the stairs. I broke my
(c) If I hadn’t slipped on the stairs, I wouldn’t have arm.
broken my arm. Note: The auxiliary verbs are almost always
contracted in speech. “If you’d told me, I would’ve
helped you (OR I’d’ve helped you).”*
COMPARE In (d): would expresses a desired or predictable
result.
(d) If I had had enough money, I would have
bought a car. In (e): could expresses a possible option; could
(e) If I had had enough money, I could have have bought = would have been able to buy.
bought a car.

*In casual, informal speech, some native speakers sometimes use would have in an if-clause: If you would’ve told me about the
problem, I would’ve helped you. This verb form usage is generally considered not to be grammatically correct standard English, but
it occurs fairly commonly.

20-5 USING PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Notice the use of progressive verb forms in these examples. Even in conditional sentences, progressive
verb forms are used in progressive situations.
(a) TRUE: It is raining right now, so I will not go for a walk.
(b) CONDITIONAL: If it were not raining right now, I would go for a walk.
(c) TRUE: I am not living in Chile, I am not working at a bank.
(d) CONDITIONAL: If I were living in Chile, I would be working at a bank.
(e) TRUE: It was raining yesterday afternoon, so I did not go for a walk.
(f) CONDITIONAL: If it had not been raining, I would have gone for a walk.
(g) TRUE: I was not living in Chile last year. I was not working at a bank.
(h) CONDITIONAL: If I had been living in Chile last year, I would have been working at a bank.

20-6 USING “MIXED TIME” IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Frequently the time in the if-clause and the time in the result clause are different: one clause may be in
the present and the other in the past. Notice that past and present times are mixed in these sentences.
(a) TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.
(b) CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.
(c) TRUE: He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.
(d) CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test yesterday.
(present) (past)

20-7 OMITTING IF

(a) Were I you, I wouldn’t do that. With were, had (past perfect), and should,
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

(b) Had I known, I would have told you. sometimes if is omitted and the subject and verb
(c) Should anyone call, please take a message. are inverted.
In (a): Were I you = if I were you.
In (b): Had I known = if I had known.
In (c): Should anyone call = if anyone should
call.

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EXERCISE CHAPTER 20
EXERCISE 20.
Review: Conditional sentences.
Directions: Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Some of the verbs are passive.

1. If I could speak Japanese, I (spend) __________________ next year studying in Japan.

2. Had I known Mr. Jung was in the hospital, I (send) __________________ him a note and

some flowers.

3. We will move into our new house next month if it (complete) ______________ by then.

4. It’s too bad that it’s snowing. If it (snow, not) ________________, we could go for a drive.

5. I was very tired. Otherwise, I (go) ________________ to the party with you last night.

6. I’m glad I have so much friends and such a wonderful family. Life without friends or family

(be) ______________ lonely for me.

7. My grandfather is no longer alive, but if he (be) ____________, I’m sure he (be)

_________________ proud of me.

8. If you (sleep, not) ____________________ last night when we arrived, I would have asked

you to go with us, but I didn’t want to wake you up.

9. Bill has such a bad memory that he (forget) ___________________ his head if it (be, not)

_______________ attached to his body.

10. According to one report, the average hen lays 247 eggs a year, and the average person

eats 255 eggs a year. If hens (outnumber, not) ________________ people, the average

person (eat, not) ________________ 255 eggs a year.

11. A: What would you be doing right now if you (be, not) _________________ in class?

B: I (sleep) ____________________.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

12. A: Boy, is it ever hot today!

B: You said it! If there (be) __________________ only a breeze, it (be, not)

________________ quite so unbearable.

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APPENDIX

A-1 CONNECTIVES TO GIVE EXAMPLES

(j) There are many interesting places to visit in the city. For For example and for
example, the botanical garden has numerous displays of instance have the same
plants from all over the world. meaning. They are often
(k) There are many interesting places to visit in the city. The art used as transition.
museum, for instance, has an excellent collection of modern
painting.

(l) There are many interesting places to visit in the city, e.g., the e.g. = for example
botanical garden and art museum.
(e.g. is an abbreviation of
(m) There are many interesting places to visit in the city, for
the Latin phrase exampli
example, the botanical garden and art museum
gratia)*
(c) and (d) have the same
meaning.

(n) I prefer to wear casual clothes, such as Jeans and sweatshirt. Such as = for example.
(o) Some countries, such as Brazil and China are big.
(f), (g) and (h) have
(p) Countries, such as Brazil and China are big.
essentially the same
(q) Such countries as Brazil and China are big.
meaning even though the
pattern varies.

A-2 CONNECTIVES TO CONTINUE THE SAME IDEA

(a) The city provides many cultural opportunities. It has an moreover, furthermore, and
excellent art museum. in addition mean “also”.
Moreover They are transition.
Furthermore it has a fine symphony orchestra.
In addition

(b) The city provides many cultural opportunities. In (b): In addition to and
In addition to an excelent art museum, it has besides* are used as
Besides a fine symphony orchestra. preposition. They are
followed by an object
(museum), not a clause.
COMPARE: Besides means “in addition to”
Beside means “next to”, e.g., I sat beside my friend.
GRAMMAR SUMMARY

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