Lecture Notes on

Advance Group Theory

by
Azhar Hussain
[email protected]

Department of Mathematics
University of Sargodha
Sargodha, Pakistan

1
1 Historical Back Ground
Algebraic equations occurred in our daily problems. From the beginning
almost all the great mathematician tried to find the solutions of equations
of all degrees. Al-Khowarzimi introduced some general methods for solving
equations. Omar Khayyam, Abu Kamil and Abu Wafa succeeded to intro-
duced the first known general algebraic method for finding the solutions of
linear and quadratic equations. It was not until 17th century, the solution
for the cubic and also the quartic equations were found. In 18th century
Euler and Lagrange worked on the idea that the problem for solving of the
quantic equation could be reduced to that of solving a quartic.

In 19th century Guass and Ruffini proved that the quantic could not
be solved by algebraic methods. Able made some attempts regarding this
and after that Galois discovered that an irreducible algebraic equation is
soluble by radicals iff a certain group of permutations of its roots is solu-
ble. From this time, group theory took explicit form and has since played a
fundamental role in all fields of mathematics. Galois give the complete de-
scription of the relationship between groups and algebraic equations. The
axiomatic definition of a group was given by Cayley and Kronecker.

These notes comprises some basic concepts of Group theory and then we
jump over to characteristic and fully invariant subgroups, direct products
and normal products of groups, finitely generated abelian groups, holo-
morph of a group, cyclic permutations and orbits, the alternating groups,
generators of symmetric and alternating groups, permutation groups, sim-
ple groups, simplicity of An ; n ≥ 5, the stabilizer subgroups, Zassenhaus’s
Lemma, series in groups, normal series and their refinements, composition
series, principal or chief series, double cosets and Sylow’s Theorems.

2
2 Basic Group Theory
Definition 1. A non-empty set with a binary operation defined on it is
called a group if

1. the set is closed under the operation.

2. the operation is associative

3. the set contains the identity element with respect to the operation

4. for every element in the set there is an inverse element with respect
to the operation.

Example 1. The solution of the equation x4 − 1 = 0 is in C, where C

contains the complex numbers, form the group {1, −1, i, −i} under multi-
plication.

Definition 2. A group G in which ab = ba for all a, b ∈ G, is called

abelian group. The name is due to a young mathematician N. H. Abel,
who worked on such groups in 1928.

Definition 3. One of the useful way to represent a group is called a gen-

erators and relations description or a ‘finite presentation’. It is useful in
a sense that we can derive information about a group from a presentation
of it. The method is as under.
Consider a group G = S3 = {x, x2 , y, y 2 , xy, xy 2 }. Note that every element
of S3 is an expression in x, y or their powers. Such expressions are called
a words. For example an element xyx2 y 3 x3 x5 y 5 is a word in x, y and x5
is short for xxxxx. We write 1 for the word with no symbols in it. It is
called empty word. For instance x2 = 1 means that x2 could be replaced
by 1. Thus by using x2 = 1, y 3 = 1 and (xy)2 = 1, the word xyx2 y 3 x3 x5 y 5
is reduced to the word xy. Hence we can represent S3 as

S3 =< x, y : x2 = y 3 = (xy)2 = 1 >

Since the numbers of generators and relations in the group is finite, the
presentation is called a finite presentation. We read it as S3 is the group
generated by x, y subject to the relations x2 = y 3 = (xy)2 = 1.

Definition 4. Let G be a group and a be an element of G. Then the

smallest positive integer n for which an = 1 is called the order of the
element a. If no such n exists, a is said to have infinite order. The only
element whose order is 1 is the identity element.

3
Definition 5. When a group is too large which is difficult to deal with,
then one can reduce the group into a smaller group. One of such is the use
of subgroups. This process can be reversed also, that larger groups can be
constructed from smaller one.
A subgroup of a group G is a subset of G which is also a group with
respect to the binary operation defined in G. If H is a subgroup of G, we
write H ≤ G. This notation was given by W. Wielandt’s.
Definition 6. A group G is said to be cyclic group if it is generated
by a single element. The element is called generator of G and if a is the
generator then the group G can be written as < a >. One can easily prove
that every cyclic group is abelian.
Definition 7. Let H be a subgroup of G and a ∈ G, then the set
aH = {ah : a ∈ G ∧ h ∈ H}
is called left coset of H in G. Similarly, we can define right coset.
Definition 8. A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup
of G if aH = Ha for all a in G. We denote this by H
G. To show that
a subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup we use the Normal subgroup test
namely
“A subgroup H of G is normal in G if and only if a−1 Ha ⊆ H for all a in
G.”
Definition 9. Let G be a group. The set denoted by Z(G) consisting of
all those elements which commute every element of G is called center of a
group.
Definition 10. Let a be a fixed element of a group G. The centralizer of
a in G denoted by C(a) is the set of all elements in G that commute with
a. i.e.
C(a) = {g ∈ G : ag = ga}.
Definition 11. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. The set
N (H) = {a ∈ G : a−1 Ha = H}
is called normalizer of H.
Definition 12. When the subgroup H of G is normal, then the set of left
(or right) cosets of H in G is itself a group called the factor group of G
by H (or the quotient group of G by H). Formally
Let G be a group and H a normal subgroup of G. The set
G/H = {aH : a ∈ G}
is a group under the operation (aH)(bH) = abH called the factor group of
G by H.

4
Definition 13. A homomorphism φ from a group G to a group G0 is a
mapping from G into G0 that preserves the group operation; that is,

(ab)φ = (aφ)(bφ)

for all a, b ∈ G.

Definition 14. The kernel of a homomorphism φ from a group G to

a group with identity e is the set {a ∈ G : (a)φ = e}. The kernel of φ is
denoted by Kerφ.

Definition 15. A homomorphism which is one-to-one is called monomor-

phism.

Definition 16. A homomorphism which is onto is called epimorphism.

Definition 17. A homomorphism which is one-to-one and onto is called

an isomorphism. If there is an isomorphism between the groups G and
H, then the groups G and H are called isomorphic.

Definition 18. A homomorphism from a group G onto itself is called an

automorphism.

Definition 19. An isomorphism from a group G onto itself is called an

endomorphism.

Definition 20. Let G be a group, and let a ∈ G. The mapping φa defined

by xφa = a−1 xa for all x ∈ G is called the inner automorphism of G
induced by a. A mapping which is not inner automorphism is called outer
automorphism.

Suggested Readings:

• A course on Group Theory by Qaiser Mushtaq.

• Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph A. Gallian.

5
3 Characteristic and Fully Invariant
Subgroups
Definition 21. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. H is said to
a characteristic subgroup iff H is mapped onto itself under every auto-
morphism of G. i.e. H ≤ G is characteristic in G, if for each automorphism
α of G,
(H)α = H, α ∈ Aut(G).
Definition 22. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. H is said to
a fully invariant if H is mapped onto itself under every endomorphism of
G. i.e. H ≤ G is fully invariant, if for each endomorphism φ of G,
(H)φ ⊆ H, φ ∈ End(G).
Remark 1. A subgroup H of G is fully invariant iff each generator of H
is mapped into an element of G by every endomorphism of G.
Example 2. The commutator subgroup of a group is fully invariant. For
if, let G0 = [G, G] be the commutator or derived subgroup of G then for
every endomorphism φ of G and any generator [x, y] of G0 for x, y ∈ G.
We have
[x, y]φ = [(x)φ, (y)φ] ∈ G0
i.e. if G0 ≤ G, then (G0 )φ ⊆ G0 .
Example 3. Then center of a group G is characteristic subgroup. For this,
let Z(G) be the center of G and α be any automorphism of G, we show that
for any z ∈ Z(G) ⇒ (z)α ∈ Z(G). For this, let x ∈ G, then there is a
y ∈ G such that
x = (y)α ∵ α is automorphism.
Hence
(z)α.x = x.(z)α
(z)α ∈ Z(G).
Which proves that Z(G) is characteristic subgroup of G.
Example 4. Let A be an abelian group and Ap the set of those elements
of A whose order is power of a fixed prime p. Then Ap is fully invariant
subgroup of A.
This follows from the fact that and element whose order is a power of a
prime is mapped onto a similar element or the identity under group homo-
morphism. In general, in a group G, if
H = {a ∈ G : an = 1}
is a subgroup then H is fully invariant.

6
Example 5. For a group G, let

Gn = {an : a ∈ G}

i.e. Gn is the group generated by the nth powers of all elements of G. Then
Gn is fully invariant. (Do yourself. Hint. show that (Gn )φ ⊆ Gn ).

Example 6. If a subgroup H is the only subgroup of order m of a group G,

then H is characteristic. i.e. for any automorphism α, (H)α is a subgroup
of G of order m and so coincides with H.

Example 7. Let Z be an abelian group. Zp be the set of all those elements

of Z whose orders are power of a fixed prime p. Then Zp is a fully invariant
subgroup of Z.

Remark 2. Every subgroup G has two characteristic subgroups namely the

identity subgroup and the group G itself. Any group which has no charac-
teristic subgroup other than the identity subgroup and the group G itself is
called a characteristically simple group. Such groups were studied by
P. Hall.

Theorem 1. Every fully invariant subgroup is characteristic.

Proof. Let H be a fully invariant subgroup of G and α any automorphism
of G. Since every automorphism of G is an endomorphism of G then by
definition
(H)α ⊆ H
. Also α−1 is an automorphism, then (H)α−1 ⊆ H. i.e. for each h ∈ H,

(h)α−1 = h1 ∈ H

so that
h = (h1 )α.
Hence H ⊆ (H)α. Thus, H = (H)α. Hence H is characteristic.

Theorem 2. Every characteristic subgroup is normal.

Proof. Let H be a characteristic subgroup of G. Then (H)α = H for
every automorphism α of G. In particular (H)Ig = H for every inner
automorphism Ig of G for g ∈ G. Thus

(H)Ig = gHg −1 = H

for all g ∈ G. Hence H is normal in G.

Theorem 3. Every fully invariant subgroup is normal.

7
Proof. Since every fully invariant subgroup is characteristic and by above
theorem every characteristic subgroup is normal. Thus every fully invariant
subgroup is normal.

Remark 3. The commutator subgroup of a group G is fully invariant.

Every fully invariant subgroup is normal in G. Hence, the commutator
subgroup is normal.

8
4 Direct Products and Normal Products
of Groups
In this section, we will study the method to construct larger groups from
the smaller ones. This can be done by taking product of two or more
groups.
Definition 23. Let G1 , G2 , ..., Gn be the groups with binary operations
n
Q
?1 , ?2 , ..., ?n respectively. The direct product G1 × G2 × ... × Gn = Gi is
i=1
the set of n-tuples (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) where gi ∈ Gi with operation defined by
(g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) ? (h1 , h2 , ..., hn ) = (g1 ?1 h1 , g2 ?2 h2 , ..., gn ?n hn ).
n
Q
G1 , G2 , ..., Gn are called direct factors of G1 × G2 × ... × Gn = Gi .
i=1

Remark 4. The direct product defined above is called the external direct
product.
Theorem 4. Let G1 , G2 , ..., Gn be groups. For (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) and (h1 , h2 , ..., hn )
n
Q
in Gi , define (g1 , g2 , ..., gn )(h1 , h2 , ..., hn ) to be the element (g1 h1 , g2 h2 , ..., gn hn ).
i=1
n
Q
Then Gi is a group, the direct product of the group Gi , under this binary
i=1
operation.
Proof. Check all four axioms to prove the theorem.
Definition 24. If the groups Gi ’s are abelian, then we use additive notation
n
Q n
Q
in Gi and refer to Gi as direct sum of the groups Gi . If the groups
i=1 i=1
n
are abelian under addition then we use ⊕ni=1 Gi instead of
Q
Gi .
i=1

Exercise 1. Show that the direct product of abelian groups is again abelian.
Example 8. Let Gi = R be group under addition. Then R × R × ... × R
(n-factors) is an Eculidean n-space Rn with usual vector addition as
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) + (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , ..., an + bn ).
Proposition 1. If G1 , G2 , ..., Gn are groups, their direct product is a group
of order |G1 ||G2 |...|Gn |.
n
Q
Proof. Let |Gi | = mi for i = 1, 2, ..., n. Now in Gi for an n-tuples there
i=1
are m1 choices for the first component from G1 , and for each of there there
are m2 choices for the second component from G2 and so on there are mn
Qn n
Q
choices for the nth-component from Gn . Hence | Gi |= mi .
i=1 i=1

9
Theorem 5. If G1 ' H1 and G2 ' H2 , then prove that G1 ×G2 ' H1 ×H2 .
Proof. Since G1 ' H1 and G2 ' H2 , so there exists isomorphisms

α : G1 → H1 and β : G2 → H2

We are to prove that G1 × G2 ' H1 × H2 .

For this, define a mapping

γ : G1 × G2 → H1 × H2

by
(g1 , g2 )γ = (g1 α, g2 β).
Now for any (g1 , g2 ), (g10 , g20 ) ∈ G1 × G2 , we have

[(g1 , g2 )(g10 , g20 )]γ = (g1 , g2 )γ(g10 , g20 )γ

So γ is homomorphism.
Also if (g1 , g2 )γ = (g10 , g20 )γ for some (g1 , g2 ), (g10 , g20 ) ∈ G1 × G2 . Then

(g1 , g2 ) = (g10 , g20 ).

Which shows that γ is one-one.

Moreover γ is onto because α and β are onto.
Hence γ is an isomorphism between the groups G1 × G2 and H1 × H2 .
Therefore G1 × G2 ' H1 × H2 .
Exercise 2. Prove that for any two groups H and K, H × K ' K × H.
Example 9. Show that C2 × C2 is isomorphic to Klein-four group but not
with C4 .
Solution: Since C2 is the cyclic group of order 2 and

C2 =< a : a2 = 1 >= {1, a}

C2 × C2 = {(1, 1), (1, a), (a, 1), (a, a)}

Now, |(1, 1)| = 1, |(a, 1)| = 2, |(1, a)| = 2 and |(a, a)| = 2. Also |C2 × C2 | =
4.
The Klein-Four group is

V4 =< a, b : a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = 1 >= {1, a, b, ab}.

Here, |1| = 1, |a| = 2, |b| = 2, |ab| = 2 and |V4 | = 4.

Hence the order of groups C2 × C2 and V4 are same and also the orders of
elements in C2 × C2 and V4 are same. So

C2 × C2 ' V 4 .

10
Now, the cyclic group C4 is

C4 =< a : a4 = 1 >= {1, a, a2 , a3 }

and |1| = 1, |a| = 4, |a2 | = 2, |a3 | = 4 and |C4 | = 4.

Hence the group C2 × C2 is not isomorphic to C4 because the orders of both
groups are same but the orders of their elements are not same.

Exercise 3. List all the elements of C2 × C3 . Find the order of each of its
element. Is C2 × C3 is isomorphic to S3 . If not, then give suitable reason.

Example 10. Consider the group Z2 × Z3 , which has 2.3 = 6 elements

which are (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2). To show that the group Z2 ×
Z3 is cyclic we find a generator. Let us try (1, 1) as generator of Z2 × Z3 .

(1, 1) = (1, 1)
2(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 2)
3(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0)
4(1, 1) = 3(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0) + (1, 1) = (0, 1)
5(1, 1) = 4(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2)
6(1, 1) = 5(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2) + (1, 1) = (0, 0)

Thus (1, 1) generates all elements of Z2 × Z3 . And since there is only cyclic
group Z6 which is isomorphic to Z2 × Z3 . Hence Z2 × Z3 is cyclic.

Theorem 6. Let G be a group and a ∈ G then H =< an : n ∈ Z > is a

subgroup of G and is the smallest subgroup contains a.

Theorem 7. The group Zm × Zn is cyclic and is isomorphic to Zmn iff m

and n are relatively prime, that is, the gcd of m and n is 1.
Proof. Let Zm × Zn be a cyclic group. Then by Theorem 6 we have a
subgroup H of Zm × Zn generated by (1, 1). Then by definition the order
of H is the smallest power of (1, 1) which gives the identity (0, 0). Here
taking powers of (1, 1) means adding (1, 1) to itself repeatedly. The first
component 1 ∈ Zm gives 0 only after m−summands, 2m−summands, and
so on, and the second component 1 ∈ Zn gives 0 only after n−summands,
2n−summands, and so on. And they become 0 together only when the
number of summands must be a multiple of m and n. And the smallest
number which is a multiple of both m and n will be mn iff the gcd of m
and n is 1. Then (1, 1) generates a cyclic group of order mn which is the
order of the whole group. This shows that Zm × Zn is cyclic of order mn,
and hence is isomorphic to Zmn if m and n are relatively prime.
Conversely: Suppose that Zm × Zn ' Zmn . We prove that (m, n) = 1.

11
On contrary suppose that (m, n) 6= 1 and let (m, n) = d > 1. Then by
definition d|m, d|n and d|mn. Thus, for any (a, b) ∈ Zm × Zn , we have

(a, b) + (a, b) + ... + (a, b) = (0, 0).

| {z }
mn/d summands

This shows that the order of (a, b) is either mn

d
or divisor of mn
d
. i.e. order
of (a, b) is less than mn. Which is contradiction to the fact that Zm × Zn '
Zmn . So our supposition is wrong and (m, n) = 1.

Remark 5. The above theorem can be generalized to any finite number of

groups.

Definition 25. Let r1 , r2 , ..., rn be positive integers. Their least common

multiple (LCM) is the positive generator of the cyclic group of all com-
mon multiples of ri , i.e. the cyclic group of all integers divisible by each ri
for i = 1, 2, ..., n.
n
Q
Theorem 8. Let (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) ∈ Gi . If ai is of finite order ri in Gi ,
i=1
n
Q
then the order of (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) in Gi is equal to the least common mul-
i=1
tiple of all the ri .

Example 11. Find the order of (8, 4, 10) in the group Z12 × Z60 × Z24 .
Solution: Since (8, 12) = 4, (4, 60) = 4 and (10, 24) = 2.
Then | < 8 > | = 12
4
= 3, | < 4 > | = 60
4
= 15 and | < 10 > | = 24
2
= 12.
So that,
|(8, 4, 10)| = lcm(3, 15, 12) = 60.

Exercise 4. Find the order of given element of the direct product

1. (2, 6) in Z4 × Z12 .

2. (2, 3) in Z6 × Z15 .

3. (8, 10) in Z12 × Z18 .

4. (3, 10, 9) in Z4 × Z12 × Z15 .

5. (3, 6, 12, 16) in Z4 × Z12 × Z20 × Z24 .

Example 12. Find all the subgroups of Z18 .

Solution: Since

Z18 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}

12
Now,

18 18
(2, 18) = 2 and | < 2 > | = = 9, (3, 18) = 3 and | < 3 > | = =6
2 3
18 18
(4, 18) = 2 and | < 4 > | = = 9, (5, 18) = 1 and | < 5 > | = = 18
2 1
18 18
(6, 18) = 6 and | < 6 > | = = 3, (7, 18) = 1 and | < 7 > | = = 18
6 1
18 18
(8, 18) = 2 and | < 8 > | = = 9, (9, 18) = 9 and | < 9 > | = =2
2 9
18 18
(10, 18) = 2 and | < 10 > | = = 9, (11, 18) = 1 and | < 11 > | = = 18
2 1
18 18
(12, 18) = 6 and | < 12 > | = = 3, (13, 18) = 1 and | < 13 > | = = 18
6 1
18 18
(14, 18) = 2 and | < 14 > | = = 9, (15, 18) = 3 and | < 15 > | = =6
2 3
18 18
(16, 18) = 2 and | < 16 > | = = 9, (17, 18) = 1 and | < 17 > | = = 18
2 1
Thus corresponding to order of each element we have a subgroup of Z18 .
So, there are five distinct subgroups of Z18 .
Exercise 5. Find all subgroup of Z2 × Z4 of order 4.
Exercise 6. Find all subgroup of Z2 × Z2 × Z4 which are isomorphic to
the Klein-four group.
Definition 26. A group G is called the direct product of its subgroups
G1 , G2 iff
• G is generated by G1 , G2 , i.e. G =< G1 , G2 >.
• Each Gi , i = 1, 2 is normal in G.
T
• G1 G2 = {e}.
The subgroups G1 , G2 are called the direct factors of G and we write G as
2
Y
G = G1 × G2 = Gi .
i=1

Definition 27. A group G is the direct product of its subgroups G1 and

G2 iff
1. G1 and G2 commute elementwise.
2. Every element of G is uniquely expressible in the form “g1 g2 ”, where
g1 ∈ G1 and g2 ∈ G2 .

13
Remark 6. The direct product defined in definition (26) is called internal
direct product.

Theorem 9. Prove that the above two definitions are equivalent.

Proof. Suppose that definition (26) hold, then a group G is the direct
product of its subgroups G1 , G2 such that

1. G is generated by G1 , G2 , i.e. G =< G1 , G2 >.

2. Each Gi , i = 1, 2 is normal in G.
T
3. G1 G2 = {e}.

We are to construct definition (27).

Now, let g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 and consider g1 g2 g1−1 g2−1 .

g1 g2 g1−1 g2−1 = g1 (g2 g1−1 g2−1 ) ∈ G1 ∵ by (2) G1  G ⇒ g2 g1−1 g2−1 ∈ G1 .

Also,

g1 g2 g1−1 g2−1 = (g1 g2 g1−1 )g2−1 ∈ G2 ∵ by (2) G2  G ⇒ g1 g2 g1−1 ∈ G2 .

\
⇒ g1 g2 g1−1 g2−1 ∈ G1 G2 = {e} ∵ by (3).

⇒ g1 g2 g1−1 g2−1 = e ⇒ g1 g2 = g2 g1
which proves part (1) of definition (27). Now, we prove part (2) of definition
(27).
Since G is generated by G1 and G2 , so every g ∈ G is of the form g1 g2 ,
where g1 ∈ G1 and g2 ∈ G2 . We show that this expression is unique.
For this, let g ∈ G is such that g = g1 g2 and g = g10 g20 , where g1 , g10 ∈ G1
and g2 , g20 ∈ G2 . So that
g1 g2 = g10 g20
\
⇒ g10−1 g1 = g20 g2−1 ∈ G1 G2

But G1 G2 = {e}. i.e. g10−1 g1 = g20 g2−1 = e ⇒ g10−1 g1 = e and g20 g2−1 = e.
T

⇒ g1 = g10 and g2 = g20

Hence the expression g = g1 g2 is unique for any g ∈ G, which proves part

(2) of definition (27). Hence definition (26) ⇒ definition (27).
Conversely: We show that definition (27) ⇒ definition (26). For this,
suppose that definition (27) holds, then a group G is the direct product of
its subgroups G1 and G2 such that

1. G1 and G2 commute elementwise.

14
 2. Every element of G is uniquely expressible in the form g1 g2 where
g1 ∈ G1 and g2 ∈ G2 .

Now, we see that Part (1) of definition (26) follows directly from the Part
(2) of definition (27).
Now, let g1 ∈ G1 and g ∈ G and consider gg1 g −1 as

gg1 g −1 = (g10 g20 )g1 (g10 g20 )−1

= g10 g20 g1 g20−1 g10−1
= (g10 g1 g10−1 )(g20 g20−1 )
= g10 g1 g10−1 ∈ G1

i.e. gg1 g −1 ∈ G1 , which shows that G1 is normal in G. Similarly we can

show that G2 is normal in G, which proves part T (1) of the definition (26).
Now, for part (3) of definition (26), let x ∈ G1 G2 ⇒ x ∈ G1 and x ∈ G2 .
Now, x = g1 .e, x = e.g2 where g1 ∈ G1 and g2 ∈ G2 .

g1 .e = e.g2 ⇒ g1 = e, g2 = e
T
then x = e.e = e. Hence G1 G2 = {e}, which proves part (3) of definition
(26). Therefore definition (27) ⇒ definition (26).

Definition 28. A group which is expressible as a direct product of its

proper subgroups is called decomposable (or decomposable into direct
products).
Thus a group G is decomposable into direct product if there are proper
subgroups G1 and G2 in G such that G = G1 × G2 . A group which is not
decomposable is called indecomposable.
e.g. A cyclic group whose order is a prime number is always indecompos-
able.

Example 13. Show that S3 is indecomposable.

Solution: Since order of S3 is 6, so by Lagrange’s theorem, order of any
proper subgroup of S3 is either of order 2 or of order 3. Let H and K be
subgroups of S3 of order 2 and 3 respectively such that

S3 = H × K

Then H and K are cyclic. Since (2, 3) = 1, so that their product i.e. S3
is also cyclic group of order 6, which is not possible because S3 has two
generators. Hence S3 is indecomposable.

Theorem 10. Every cyclic group whose order is a composite number is

decomposable.

15
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group of order n. i.e.

G =< a : an = 1 >

Where,
1 2 k
n = pα1 , pα2 , ..., pαk ; k≥2
Put,
2 3 k
q1 = pα2 , pα3 , ..., pαk
1 3 k
q2 = pα1 , pα3 , ..., pαk
.
.
1 2 k−1
qk = pα1 , pα2 , ..., pαk−1

Suppose that the group

5 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

Example 14. Find all abelian groups upto isomorphism of order 360.
Solution: Let G be a group of order 360. i.e. |G| = 360. We can write
360 as a product of powers of prime as

360 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 23 × 32 × 5.

So that

G ' Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z3 × Z3 × Z5
' Z2 × Z4 × Z3 × Z3 × Z5
' Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z9 × Z5
' Z2 × Z4 × Z9 × Z5
' Z8 × Z3 × Z3 × Z5
' Z8 × Z9 × Z5

Thus, there are six different abelian groups upto isomorphisms of order 360.

Exercise 7. Find all abelian groups upto isomorphism of order 8, 16, 32,
720 and 1089.

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