PARAGRAPH

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an
excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.
Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and
are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently
managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada
is a desirable place to live.

Three Parts of a Paragraph

Main Idea Supporting Details Conclusion

ELEMENTS OF A PARAGRAPH
1. Coherence
 the property of unity in a written text
 may be organised according to a
 sequence of time
 from general topic to specific details
 arranging information in order of importance.
2. Cohesion
 Cohesive devices:
 within the sentence. coordinating conjunctions: -'and', 'but', 'or', 'yet',
‘nor'.
 between a dependent clause and the rest of the sentence subordinating conjunctions:
'as', 'because', 'whereas', 'in order that', 'since', 'although'.
3. Brevity
 makes your points quickly and smartly.
 don’t waste words and, in doing so, you don’t waste a reader’s time.
I also have a habit of being very critical with the number of words I use in
each sentence. Once I write something, I go back and decide if each and
every word I just wrote deserves to be there.
 I also have a habit of being very critical with the number of words I use in
each sentence. Once I write something, I go back and decide if each and
every word I just wrote deserves to be there.
Local pharmacies such as Walgreen's and Rite-Aid have reported a sell-out of
vaccinations and many patients had to be turned down due to the lack of
available substances. They were asked to wait for the next shipment of vaccines
to arrive, which could take as long as a week.
 Pharmacies, including Walgreen's and Rite-Aid, report turning away patients due to a
shortage of vaccines. Patients have been asked to wait as long as a week for new
shipments to arrive.
4. Clarity
 it is all about the task of writing clearly and simply

5. Emphasis
 it is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important ideas are made to stand.
 Punctuation
 Position
TYPES OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

1. Narration
 Normally chronological (though sometimes uses flashbacks)
 A sequential presentation of the events that add up to a story.
2. Exposition
 explanatory writing
 can be an incidental part of a description or a narration, or it can be the heart of an
article
 serve as the justifier for the little article
3. Definition
 Meaning is found in the world, not in the dictionary.
 Bring the world into your story and use it to define your terms.
4. Description
 It is not about what you saw, but what readers need to see in order to imagine the
scene, person, object, etc.
 Use sensory language
 Look for ways to describe action.
5. Comparison
 draw up a chart and fill it in
 make certain you have all the elements necessary to write a comparison.

6. Process Analysis
 Analyze the process into a series of steps. Put the steps into sequence.
 Then isolate the steps: number then, use bullets, put them in separate paragraph.
7. Persuasion
 used widely in editorials and columns
 uses a direct, exhortatory approach: Believe Me and Do It!
 You need to supply them with the information, analysis, and context they need to form
their own opinions, make their own judgments, and take action.

What is a PARAGRAPH?
 It is a group of sentences with one topic.
AVOIDING REDUNDANCY
 Redundancy occurs when a writer unnecessarily repeats something.

LOCAL REDUNDANCY
• evil villains
•dead corpses
•added bonus
•unexpected surprise
•hopeful optimism
•free gift
•past history
•final conclusion
Make this sentence concise:

At this point in time, it now becomes necessary for us to consider alternative

possibilities for the purposes of our goals. It now becomes necessary for us to
consider alternative possibilities for the purposes of our goals.

 At this point in time, it now becomes necessary for us to consider alternative

possibilities for the purposes of our goals. We now need to consider alternatives.

GLOBAL REDUNDANCY

 Global redundancy occurs when a writer repeats him or herself throughout the
paper.
 The best way to eliminate global redundancy is to read your own writing slowly and
carefully. For each sentence you read, ask yourself these questions:
 Have I already said this somewhere earlier in my paper? If so, do I really need to say it
again?
 Do my readers really need to know this in order to understand my meaning? If you find
yourself doubting whether something is necessary, the answer is probably no.
 Could I rephrase this using fresh, new language? Is there a way to say the same thing in a
different way?
DEADWOOD PHRASES

 Deadwood phrases are found in all types of writing.

 In technical writing they are to be avoided at all costs as documentation needs to be crisp, concise
and accurate.
 The following is a list of the most wanted culprits. The "deadwood" is in bold; use the suggested
term instead .

a majority of -- most happen(s) to be -- am/is/are

a sufficient amount of -- enough has been proved to be -- is

according to our data -- we find if conditions are such that -- if

accordingly -- therefore, so in a number of -- several, many

after the conclusion of -- after in all cases -- always

along the lines of -- like in case -- if

as is the case -- as is true in close proximity to -- near

ascertain the location of -- find in excess of -- more than

at such time as -- when in large measure -- largely

at the present time -- now in many cases -- often

at this point in time -- now in most cases -- usually in no case -- never

be deficient in -- lack in order that -- so that

be in a position to -- can, be able in order to -- to

by a factor of two -- two times, double, twice in some cases -- sometimes

by means of -- by in terms of -- in

come to a conclusion -- conclude in the amount of -- for

despite the fact that -- although in the case of -- for

due to the fact that -- because in the event that -- if

during the time that -- while in the field of -- in

equally as well -- as well, equally well in the near future -- soon

fewer in number -- fewer in the neighborhood of -- near, about, nearly

for the purpose of -- to, for in the vicinity of -- near

for the reason that -- because in this case -- here

for this reason -- thus, therefore in view of the fact that -- because, since

give consideration to -- consider, examine is capable of -- can

give indication of -- show, indicate, suggest is found to be -- is

is in a position to -- can

it has been found that -- (nothing)

it has long been known that -- (nothing)

it is a fact that -- (nothing)

it is evident that -- (nothing)

it is interesting to note that -- note that

it is noted that -- (nothing) it is our opinion that --

we think

it is possible that -- perhaps

it is well known that -- (nothing)

it may be said that -- (nothing)

make inquiry regarding -- ask about, inquire

about

manner in which -- how

not with standing the fact that -- although

on the basis of -- from, because, by

on the order of -- about, approximately

present in greater abundance -- more abundant

prior to -- before

provided that -- if

put an end to -- end

reach a conclusion -- conclude

serves the function of being -- is

subsequent to -- after

the question as to -- whether

there can be little doubt that -- probably

utilize or utilization -- use

with reference to -- about

with the exception that -- except that

  Deadwood is also found in excessively wordy writing. In other words, where writers use two or three
words when one will suffice.
 What does writing clearly and concisely mean?
 Writing clearly and concisely means choosing your words deliberately, constructing your
sentences carefully, and using grammar properly. By writing clearly and concisely, you will
get straight to your point in a way your audience can easily comprehend.
 Why should I write clearly and concisely?
 In order to succeed in your communication task, you need to keep your audience’s
attention. Writing clearly and concisely is one way to capture and retain their
interest.Rambling on, conversely, may lose your audience’s attention.

1. Use simple words

 Paul Anderson, in his book Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, points to studies
that show users comprehend simple words more quickly, even when they’re familiar with a more
elaborate counterpart [1].
 This table shows some commonly-used elaborate words and their simple alternatives [1]:

2. Replace vague words with specific ones

 Vague words tend to be abstract and can conceal your meaning. Specific words, on the other hand,
precisely and shortly convey your meaning.
 For instance, suppose you are describing a new product your company is developing:
 Vague: The Acme Corporation is developing a new consumer device that allows users to
communicate vocally in real time.
 Specific: The Acme Corporation is developing a new cell phone.

3. Eliminate unnecessary words

 Unnecessary words come in many forms. Like vague words, they can conceal instead of reveal your
meaning.
 Excessive detail
Before: I received and read the email you sent yesterday about the report you’re writing for
the project. I agree it needs a thorough, close edit from someone familiar with your
audience.
After: I received your email about the project report and agree it needs an expert edit.
 Extra determiners and modifiers
Before: Basically, the first widget pretty much surpassed the second one in overall
performance.
After: The first widget performed better than the second.
 Repetitive words
Before: The engineer considered the second monitor an unneeded luxury.
 After: The engineer considered the second monitor a luxury.

 Redundant words
Before: The test revealed conduction activity that was peculiar in nature.
After: The test revealed peculiar conduction activity.
4. Replace multiple negatives with affirmatives
 Multiple negatives require your readers to interpret your meaning. Affirmatives, instead, convey
concise meaning that needs no interpretation.
Before: Your audience will not appreciate the details that lack relevance.
After: Your audience will appreciate relevant details.

5. Avoid noun strings

 Noun strings can confuse readers, as they are difficult to understand.
Before: The Acme Corporation continues to work on the cell phone case configuration revision
project.
After: The Acme Corporation is developing a redesigned cell phone case.

6. Pay attention to sentence length

 In his book, Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, Paul Anderson recommends
varying the lengths of sentences. Use short sentences to emphasize a point; use longer sentences to
connect ideas [1]:
 This report provides operational information about the electrical equipment the Acme Corporation
recently installed at their headquarters in Los Angeles (long sentence). The equipment will increase
energy efficiency by 25% (short sentence).

7. Use the appropriate voice

 In the active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. The focus of an active sentence is the
subject:
Gary (subject) threw (verb) the ball (object).
 In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. The focus of a passive sentence is the
action:
The ball (object) was thrown (verb) by Gary (subject).

 Each type of voice has its place in writing clearly and concisely. Use active voice by default; research
shows readers comprehend it more quickly than passive voice [1]. But use passive voice when
 the action is more important than the subject, such as when you’re describing research or testing
you’ve done: The results generated from the test were telling.
 the subject is unknown: Every year, hundreds of people are diagnosed with hearing problems caused
by excessive cell phone use; or
 you don’t want to identify the subject, such as instances in which identifying the subject would cause
unnecessary embarrassment: The lights in the lab were left on for three nights in a row and the bulb
burned out as a result.
 However, don’t use passive voice to conceal serious responsibility:
Mistakes were made that delayed the testing for weeks.
 Use active voice instead:
The team made mistakes that delayed the testing for weeks.
8. Avoid using forms of the verb “be”
 Forms of the verb “be” (is, am, are, were, was) indicate a state of being rather than an action. They
can weaken an active sentence and, in some instances, may indicate passive voice. Use active verbs
instead whenever possible.
Before: The report is waiting for your approval.
After: The report awaits your approval.

9. Reduce prepositional phrases

 Prepositional phrases help establish relationships between people and things in a sentence:
 Frank drove his car to work.
 The lab closes at 7:00 pm.
 Joy had to revise her presentation for the conference.
 Unnecessary use of prepositional phrases interferes with the clarity of a sentence [7]:
Before: The opinion of the manager.
After: The manager’s opinion.

Before: It is a matter of the gravest importance to the health of anyone who uses a microwave and
has a heart condition to avoid standing in front of the microwave while it is running.
After: Anyone with a heart condition should avoid standing in front of an operating microwave oven.
PUNCTUATION MARKS
 Punctuation is a commonly accepted set of symbols used in writing to convey specific directions to
the reader.

1. Period (.)
a. Use a period to end a declarative sentence, that is, at the end of a statement of fact or opinion.
A circle has 360 degrees.

b. Use a period to end an imperative sentence, that is, at the end of a

direction or a command.

Fold your ballot once and place it in a box.

c. Use a period to end an indirect question.

They asked what time the polls would open.

d. Use a period to end most abbreviations.

Mrs. Mr. Dr. Capt.

2. Question Mark (?)

a. Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence, that is, at the end of a direct question.
Are you planning to go out tonight?

b. Use a question mark to end an incomplete question in which the rest of the question is
understood.
A sloth spends its life hanging upside down. Why?

c. Use a question mark to end a statement that is intended as a question.

Four extra guests are coming for dinner?

d. Use a question mark in parenthesis (?) after a fact or statistic to show its uncertainty.
The letter arrived on December 26 (?).

3. Exclamation Mark (!)

a. Use an exclamation mark to end an exclamatory sentence, that is, at the end of a statement
showing strong emotion.
That is absolutely incredible!

b. Use an exclamation mark after an imperative sentence if the command is urgent and forceful.
Watch out for the broken glass!
 c. Use an exclamation mark after an interjection expressing strong emotion.
Hurray! We won the championship round.

** Use exclamation marks sparingly. Otherwise, they lose their effectiveness or make the writing
overemotional.

4. Comma (,)
a. Use a comma before the conjunction to separate two independent clauses in a compound
sentence.
We saw many beautiful sights on our vacation, but we spent far too many hours on the road.

** Before putting a comma before a conjunction, be sure you have complete sentences on
both sides of the conjunction.

b. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

We packed a tent, a stove, several sleeping bags, and plenty of food.

**When each of the items in a series is joined to the next item by a conjunction, no commas
are necessary.

My parents debated whether I gather firewood, set up camp or go exploring.

**Some pairs are naturally thought of as one item. Do not split pairs apart with commas,
especially when the pair is part of a series.

The boy packed shoes and sacks, a coat and tie, and a brush and comb.

c. Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank.

The twisting, scenic path leads to a secluded park.
The swaying, majestic, graceful pines surrounded our campsite.

d. Do not use commas to separate adjectives that must stay in a specific order.
Several long days of hiking brought us to the glacier’s edge.

**Do not use comma to separate the last adjective in as series from the noun it modifies.

Wrong: The twisting, scenic, path leads to a lake.

e. Use a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause. Yes, I will be happy to stay for
dinner.
Over the thickly wooded hills, the sun cast its morning rays. To prevent a
fall, she was walking very slowly.
 f. Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions.
I’ll start dinner, Dad, in a while.
We left, therefore, an hour late.
He was on time, I hope, for work.

g. Use commas to set off nonessential expressions.

Beth’s piano, now standing in the living room of Orchard House, is described in Little
Women.

h. When a geographical name is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item.
We visited Vigan, Ilocos Sur, last July.

i. Use a comma after each item in an address made up of two or more parts.
My best friend lives in Mabini Extension, Cabanatuan City.

j. Use comma to indicate the words left out of an elliptical sentence.

The young woman radiated wealth; the young man, poverty.

i. Use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.

The boy suggested, “Let’s go on a picnic.”

“By late morning,” the boy continued, “I’d like to be on our way to the lake.”
“But that’s far too early,” his friend protested.

k. Use comma to prevent a sentence from being misunderstood.

Whenever necessary, explanations are needed.

5. Semicolon (;)
a. It clearly separates two clauses but allows the writer to show that these clauses are linked in
some way.

b. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses that are not already joined by the conjunction for,
and, nor, but, or, or yet.
Incorrect: Arya is a good chess player; rain is expected.

Correct: The child rode merry-go-round; she grew dizzy going in constant circles.

May celebrated her birthday with a delicious cake; we all ate several pieces of it.

** A semicolon should not be used between unrelated sentences. The two independent
clauses must be close in meaning and structure.
 c. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a
transitional expression.

 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS: also, besides, consequently, furthermore, however, indeed, instead,

moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, thus TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS: as a result, at
this time, first, for instance, in fact, on the other hand, second, that is

The museum was quite a distance away; however, we all felt that the exhibit we saw was
worth the long trip.

d. Consider the use of a semicolon to avoid confusion when independent or clauses already
contains commas.
My garden consisted of yellow squash, which were running wild along the ground; beans,
which were growing faster than I could pick them; and strawberries, which were already
ripe enough to eat.

6. Colon (:)
a. Use colon before a list of items following an independent clause.
On the hike, we brought: apples, nuts, and raisins.
We must bring the following items: a flashlight, a thermos, and a blanket.

** One good way to remember the basic purpose of the colon is to think of it as an arrow or
a pointer. It instructs the readers to look straight ahead to find out more information about
something just read.

b. Use colon to introduce a quotation that is formal or lengthy or a quotation that does not
contain a “he said/she said” expression.

COLON: The speaker began with these words: “I have never been so honored in all my life.”

COMMA: As Ned left the room, he called, “I really must hurry. I don’t want to be late.”

c. Use colon to introduce a sentence that summarizes or explains the sentence before it.
The chef concluded her speech with one important thought regarding the choice of
ingredients: She said that using the freshest ingredients that can be found will
always lead to a more flavorful final product.

d. Use colon to introduce formal appositive.

Tonight, we present a well-known and talented chef: Julia Child.
I missed one important paragraph lesson: writing a topic sentence.
7. Quotation Marks (“ ”)
a. A direct quotation represents a person’s exact speech or thoughts and is enclosed in quotation
marks.
He announced, “We won the Press Conference today!”

b. Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation.

My mother reported, “Our Superintendent said, ‘The schools system is sometimes
unfairly maligned.’”

c. For quotations longer than a paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each
paragraph and at the end of the final paragraph.

d. Always place a comma or a period inside the final quotation mark.

“Class has started,” the teacher stated.

“Please turn to page 4.”

e. Place a question or exclamation mark inside the final quotation mark if the end mark is part
of the quotation.
The student asked, “Did you find a Math book in here last period?” The student
delightedly reported, “I got every question right on the final examination!”

f. Place a question or exclamation mark outside the final quotation mark if the end mark is not
part of the quotation.
Did Mrs. Gray say, “I will not accept any papers after today”?
I couldn’t believe that our classmate actually said, “No school on Thursday”!

g. Always place a semicolon or colon outside the final quotation mark.

One teacher said, “There is a rally today”; another indicated that it had been
postponed.
The psychologist cited three “seasons of discontent”: adolescence, middle age, and
retirement.

8. HYPHEN (-)
a. Indicates breaks within words that wrap at the end of a line.

b. Connects compounded words like “mass-produced”. (Closed compound words like

counterintuitive have no hyphen in modern English, except for uncommon combinations that
are confusing or ambiguous without a hyphen.)

c. Connects grouped numbers, like a phone number 555-860-5086 (but not used for a range of
numbers, like a date range).
9. EN DASH (–)
 The en dash is used to represent a span or range of numbers, dates, or time. There should be no
space between the en dash and the adjacent material.
 Depending on the context, the en dash is read as “to” or “through.”

a. Joins numbers in a range, such as “1993–99” or “1200–1400 B.C.” or “pages 32–37” or open-
ended ranges, like “1934–”.

b. Joins words that describe a range, like “July–October 2010”.

c. If you introduce a span or range with words such as from or between, do not use the en dash.

Correct: She served as secretary of state from 1996 to 1999. Incorrect: She served as
secretary of state from 1996–1999.

Correct: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965 and 1970.

Incorrect: The regime’s most oppressive treatment occurred between 1965–1970.

d. The en dash is used to report scores or results of contests.

The president’s nominee was confirmed by the Senate, which voted 62–38 along
party lines.
UCLA beat USC 28–14 in the final game of the regular season.

e. The en dash can also be used between words to represent conflict, connection, or direction.

The liberal–conservative debate.

The Los Angeles–London flight.
There is a north–south railway in the same area as the highway that runs east–west.

10. EM DASH (—)

 The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context, the em
dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different
effect.
 Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances per sentence.
Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result.

a. Works better than commas to set apart a unique idea from the main clause of a sentence:
“Sometimes writing for money—rather than for art or pleasure—is really quite
enjoyable.”
 b. Separates an inserted thought or clause from the main clause, such as: “I can’t believe how
pedantic Ken is about writing—doesn’t he have anything better to do?”
“Hunter strode into the room—was he mad?—and the family stopped and stared.”
“Computers make everyday punctuation—for reasons that we’ll discuss later—
more precise yet more confusing.”

c. Shows when dialogue has been interrupted:

“I reached in and pulled the spray can out of my pants—” “In front of the police?”

11. APOSTROPHE (’)

 The apostrophe ( ’ ) has three uses: contractions, plurals, and possessives.

a. For contraction – omitted letters are replaced by an apostrophe

gov't, shouldn’t, she’s, can’t

b. For plurals - The apostrophe is seldom used to form a plural noun.

Incorrect: Since the 1980’s, the Thomas’s, both of whom have multiple PhD’s, sell old book’s
and magazine’s at the fair on Saturday’s and Sunday’s.

Correct: Since the 1980s, the Thomases, both of whom have multiple PhDs, sell old books and
magazines at the fair on Saturdays and Sundays.

 The rare exception to the rule is when certain abbreviations, letters, or words are used as nouns, as
in the following examples. Unless the apostrophe is needed to avoid misreading or confusion, omit it.

He received four A’s and two B’s.

We hired three M.D.’s and two D.O.’s.
Be sure to cross your t’s and dot your i’s.
Do we have more yes’s than no’s?
For this last example, the trend is to instead write yeses and noes.

c. The general rule is that the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe
and s, whether the singular noun ends in s or not.

the lawyer’s fee the child’s toy the film’s actors

 The possessive of a plural noun is formed by adding only an apostrophe when the noun ends in s,
and by adding both an apostrophe and s when it ends in a letter other than s.

excessive lawyers’ fees children’s toys the twins’ parents

 Avoid awkward possessives
Correct but awkward: St. Patrick’s Cathedral’s Fifth Avenue entrance.
Better: The Fifth Avenue entrance for St. Patrick’s Cathedral.
 The apostrophe with other punctuation. The apostrophe should never be separated from the word to
which it attaches by adjacent punctuation.

Correct: The house on the left is the Smiths’, but the house at the end of the street is the Whites’.

Incorrect: The house on the left is the Smiths,’ but the house at the end of the street is the Whites.’

12. ELLIPSES (. . .)
 An ellipsis is a set of three periods ( . . . ) indicating an omission. Each period should have a single
space on either side, except when adjacent to a quotation mark, in which case there should be no
space.
a. In informal writing, an ellipsis can be used to represent a trailing off of thought.

If only she had . . . Oh, it doesn’t matter now.

b. An ellipsis can also indicate hesitation, though in this case the punctuation is more accurately
described as suspension points.

I wasn’t really . . . well, what I mean . . . see, the thing is . . . I didn’t mean it.
How to Avoid Plagiarism

Most Common Plagiarism

Failing to enclose borrowed language in quotation marks
Failing to put summaries and paraphrases in your own voice
Failing to cite quotes and borrowed ideas
A rule of Thumb
If in doubt, cite the source!
If the ideas or words are not your own, chances are, you have to cite them.
More specifically, cite when
You use direct quotations
You use arguable information that is not your opinion
You use information that is not common knowledge
The opinions and assertions of others
Any information you did not generate yourself
Direct Quotation
According to Joe Smith of The New York Times, “Lil’ Wayne is a no-talent hack riding the coattails of
more successful rappers” (35).
Arguable statements
Some critics even believe that Justin Beiber is not a real artist; he is merely a YouTube sensation taken
too far (Johnson, 2012).
Not common knowledge
Apple sold over 450,000 iPads in 2011 alone (“iPad Mania”).
Information you didn’t generate
According to a recent poll, only 45% of Americans believe in evolution (“Poll: Majority Reject Evolution).
Opinions and assertions of others
Bill Maher, for example, believes that Tim Tebow is completely inept as a quarterback. ◦ Note that we
have no parenthetical citation here. This is because we have a signal phrase but no page number. (The
information came from a video.)
His critics claim that Tim Tebow is completely inept as a quarterback (Maher).
No need to cite when…
It is information most readers are likely to know (Common Knowledge) Information and documents
are widely available Using well-known quotations You gathered the material yourself
Common knowledge
Osama bin Laden, the terrorist responsible for masterminding the 9/11 attacks on the United States, was
killed in 2011
Information and documents are widely available
The preamble to the Constitution begins with, “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of the
Almighty God…”
Using well-known quotations
When Neil Armstrong first stepped foot on the moon, he said, “That’s one small step for man, one giant
leap for mankind.”
Self-gathered material
Over two-thirds of the people I surveyed thought that Kim Jong Un was the president of North Korea. The
remaining third thought he was the kid from Up.
In-Text & Parenthetical Citation

Peralta (2009) found that citing is fun. It could also be said that “citing is sometimes perplexing” (Peralta,
2009, p. 23).

in-text citation
parenthetical citation

1. Author-date system
 Running Text
Example: According to Buffay (2001), …
 Within parenthesis
Example: … (Buffay, 2001)
2. Author-date-page number system
 Running Text
Example: According to Mosby, Stinson, and Erikson (2006) “Direct quotation…” (p.9).
 Within parenthesis
Example: “ … ” (Mosby, Stinson, & Erikson , 2006, p. 9).

USING Author-date system

AUTHOR’S NAME EXAMPLE OF USAGE

1. The author’s name is part of the narrative. Gassand Varonis (1984) found that the most
important element in comprehending non-
nativespeech is familiarity with the topic.

2. The author’s name is cited in parenthesis. One study found that the most important element
in comprehending non-nativespeech is familiarity
with the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).

3. Multiple works (separate each work with Research shows that listening to a particular
semicolons). accent improves comprehension of accented
speech in general (Gass& Varonis, 1984; Thomas,
2004).

4. In direct quotation, the author’s name is part Gassand Varonis (1984) found that “the listeners’
of the narrative. familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly
facilitates the interpretation of the entire
message” (p.84).

5. In direct quotation, the author’s name is cited One study found that “the listeners’ familiarity
in parenthesis. with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message” (Gass &
Varonis, 1984, p.84).
Making Definitions

Guidelines:
• Just the facts. A definition should contain the information about the word and what the words refers to.
Do not include notes in a definition. Get to the point. Clarity, brevity, and conciseness are better when
writing definitions.
•Avoid complicated terms. Avoid terms that are more complicated or more technical than the term being
defined. The purpose of definition is to clarify meaning.
• Avoid specific terms. Use conventional English terms whenever possible. Stay away from jargon. •Avoid
circularity. It is not good to define a word with the same word in the definition. Avoid defining a term
solely using etymologically or morphologically related terms.
• Make it simple. Write with simple grammatical structures rather than complex ones.

Expanding Word into a Sentence

Word + class + distinguishing characteristics
Sense of humor is the ability to laugh and make others laugh.

Expanding Word into a Paragraph

1. Expanding by Giving Example
2. Expanding by Comparing and Contrasting
3. Expanding by Describing a Process
Expanding by DESCRIBING A PROCESS
The process of speeding up in a vehicle begins with the setting of the gear level to the first gear. This moves
the vehicle from a stationary to a slow speed of about less than ten kilometers per hour. Gradually you shift
the gear to the next, pressing the accelerator pedal at the same time to attain a speed between 1030kph.
You pick up more speed by shifting gears to the next higher levels at speed beyond 30kph. To do this,
however along with the shift to the third or fourth gear, ever-increasing pressure must be exerted on the
accelerator. The only time you lift your foot from the accelerator is when you shift gears, so that you can
step on the clutch pedal simultaneously with the shifting. After releasing the clutch pedal, you immediately
step on the accelerator pedal while picking up speed. Maximum speed is attained once you shift to the
fourth, or in the case if some vehicles, the fifth gear, at which you travel at speeds of 80kph or above.
STRUCTURES OF MODIFICATION

 Head
•Modifier

Noun as Head
Adjective as Noun Modifier Adjective precedes the noun (Head) constantly except if the adjective is not a
single word but structure. E.g. Modifier Head Fried chicken A great calamity
Head A figure vague and shadow A house bigger than I thought
Noun as Noun Modifier This modifier also precedes the Head (noun) constantly. It can be a possessive form
or basic form (Noun Adjunct) E.g. Possessive Noun Kid’s play A week’s holiday The woman’s friend
Noun-Adjunct Noun Bus station That woman doctor Noun adjunct is noun that has a function like an
adjective (to modify noun). It is always in a singular form, not plural form. E.g. Book shops (not ‘Books
Shop’)

Verb as Noun Modifier It can be from Present Participle (V-Ing), Past Participle (Ved), or to-infinitive.
These verb positions may precede or follow the Head if they are parts of larger structures, though there are
many exceptions to both these generalizations but to-infinitives always follow the nounHead. E.g. Verb
Noun Noun Verb Running water Water running in the street Baked potatoes Potatoes baked slowly Money
to buy The man to see
Adverb as Noun Modifier Adverb is rarely functioned as noun modifier. The position is always directly
after noun (Head). E.g. Head Modifier The temperature inside Heavens above The conversations
afterwards The questions below
Prepositional Phrases (Functional Words) as Noun Modifier Prepositional phrases consist of preposition
and its object. The preposition can be in a simple, compound or phrasal form. e.g. Simple Prepositions
Compound After Across From As Along with Against along side of
Phrasal Prepositions Object of preposition usually is a noun. Sometimes it also cam be pronoun, or
structure of modification with noun as the Head. E.g. Above suspicion (Noun) Because of that (pronoun) In
actual practice (Structure of modification)
Verb as Head
Adverb as Verb Modifier All of the adverb kinds can modify the verb. The position may be after or before
verb; or between the verb auxiliaries. E.g. After verb Before the verb He works successfully He successfully
tried He drives rapidly He slowly drove He is moving ahead He was looking sidewise Between Auxiliary-
Verb He can swim backward He has sometimes seen He has looked everywhere He has seldom been heard
He stepped inside It may even rain Since particular adverb can also modify the noun, it is often be
ambiguous. E.g. Children have nowadays many kinds of toys In this sentence, the word ‘nowadays’ can
modify the word ‘children’, or it may modify the word ‘have’.
Noun as Verb Modifier Several particular nouns can be verb modifier. The position is after verb and this
noun has a noun determiner because noun after verb also can be an object of verb. If the noun can be
changed by it or them, the noun must be an object not modifier.
E.g. Structure of Modification Structure of Complementation (Noun as Verb Modifier) (Noun as The
Object) He walked this way He likes his own way He saw a mile He measured a mile
Adjective as Verb Modifier There are some kinds of adjective that have purpose to modify a verb and give
a special expression. E.g. The machine ran true The dog went crazy The show fell flat The same verb can
be followed by adjective if they are intransitive verb.
Verb as Verb Modifier Some structure of Modification with verb as the Head can be followed by another
verb as modifier. The verb modifier can be present participle or infinitive form.
E.g. The children came running He lives to eat In some cases, it can be found an ambiguity between verb as
modifier and verb as object. E.g. As modifier As Object He works to succeed He wants to succeed Verb as
Object can be changed by ‘it’ while verb as modifier cannot be changed by ‘it’. E.g. He loves to live He
studies to succeed
Prepositional Phrases as Verb Modifier It is frequent for the prepositional phrases to modify the verb. E.g.
(He) spoke about his work (He) came rapidly down the street on a bicycle
Adjective as Head Adjective that habitually modify noun or verb also become the Head of structure of
modification. Qualifier as Adjective Modifier The word that is mostly used as modifier of Adjective is
Qualifier such as very, rather, pretty, etc. E.g. She is very pretty The sound was loud enough Adverb as
Adjective Modifier Adverb that can modify the adjective is adverb that is ended by {-ly} E.g. The widely
famous (singer) If adjective comes after the linking verb, adverb does not modify the adjective anymore.
The function is as the modifier of the structure of complementation. E.g. The house seems clean everywhere
Noun as Adjective Modifier In some special expression, noun can modify the adjective. E.g. Stone cold
(coffee) Sea green (cloth)
Verb as Adjective Modifier Adjective can be modified by the verb in present participle form (-ing) that
usually precedes the adjective, or by to-infinitive that follows adjective E.g. freezing cold hard to say
boiling hot good to see Adjective as Adjective Modifier For special expression, adjective can modify the
other adjective E.g. Icy cold dark blue deathly pale Prepositional Phrases as Adjective Modifier The
position of the prepositional phrases as adjective modifier is after the adjective E.g. easy on the eyes good
for nothing stronger than ever
Adverb as Head There are four class words that can modify the adverb Qualifiers as Adverb Modifier E.g.
very easily rather slowly happily enough Adverbs as Adverb Modifier E.g. far away sometimes below Noun
as Adverb Modifier E.g. a meter away some way up Prepositional Phrases as Adverb Modifier E.g. away
for a week behind in his work outside in the cold
Function Word as Head Functional word can form a structure of modification by using qualifier as
modifier. E.g. very much more (easily) Head Rather too (strong) Head Not quite (well) Head Prepositions
as Head Preposition can be a Head of Structure of Modification. Modifier of preposition is qualifiers,
adverbs, or particular nouns. E.g. very like (a whale) almost beneath (notice) Adverb that follows the
prepositional phrases becomes the modifier of prepositional phrases, while adverb that precedes the
prepositional phrases becomes the modifier of the preposition only.